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We present preliminary work to characterize surface rock abundance at ExoMars Rover landing site candidates. A challenge in quantifying the \ud abundance of surface rocks is using the population of large (≳1 m) rocks that are resolved in orbital images to infer the size of the smaller, unresolved rock population. This is particularly relevant for the ExoMars Rover mission, where the Landing Module’s clearance of 35 cm makes it necessary to know the probability of encountering rocks where 0.35 < D < 1 m.\ud \ud ‘Float rocks’ are individual fragments of rock not associated with a continuous outcrop or body of rock —e.g. transported rocks or impact debris. These can be identified in Mars Reconnaissence Orbiter HiRISE \ud images, where the mid-afternoon local solar time, dictated by MROs’ orbit, causes float rocks to appear as bright sunlit features adjacent to strong shadows. However, the smallest features resolvable in HiRISE images occupy around 3-4 pixels, corresponding to ~1-m sized rocks. This inherently limits the ability to directly identify from orbit the small, but potentially hazardous rock population. ‘Outcrop’ is defined as continuous expanses of bedrock or surficial deposits exposed at the surface. Both float rocks and outcrop can contribute to slopes that may constitute a hazard for landed missions.\ud \ud We present rock counts at ExoMars Rover landing site candidates and assess approaches to constrain the morphological characteristics of Mars’ surface that are relevant to rover and lander safety.

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The first definitive evidence for continental vents on Mars is the in situ detection of amorphous silica-rich outcrops by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit. These outcrops have been tentatively interpreted as the result of either acid sulfate leaching in fumarolic environments or direct precipitation from hot springs. Such environments represent prime targets for upcoming astrobiology missions but remain difficult to identify with certainty, especially from orbit. To contribute to the identification of fumaroles and hot spring deposits on Mars, we surveyed their characteristics at the analog site of the Solfatara volcanic crater in central Italy. Several techniques of mineral identification (VNIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, XRD) were used both in the field and in the laboratory on selected samples. The faulted crater walls showed evidence of acid leaching and alteration into the advanced argillic-alunitic facies, with colorful deposits containing alunite, jarosite, and/or hematite. Sublimates containing various Al and Fe hydroxyl-sulfates were observed around the active fumarole vents at 90 °C. One vent at 160 °C was characterized by different sublimates enriched in As and Hb sulfide species. Amorphous silica and alunite assemblages that are diagnostic of silicic alteration were also observed at the Fangaia mud pots inside the crater. A wide range of minerals was identified at the 665 m diameter Solfatara crater that is diagnostic of acid-steam heated alteration of a trachytic, porous bedrock. Importantly, this mineral diversity was captured at each site investigated with at least one of the techniques used, which lends confidence for the recognition of similar environments with the next-generation Mars rovers.