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Supervision in counseling is essential to the personal and professional growth of counselors, and ensures client welfare (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013). The purpose of this study was to examine supervisees' perceived satisfaction with supervision, the SWA, and supervisee self-efficacy, with supervision experiences they have during practicum and/or internship. Specifically, the association these perceived levels of satisfaction, the SWA, and self-efficacy had with supervisor type (i.e., full-time faculty, adjunct faculty, or doctoral student) and student type (i.e., practicum or internship) were explored. Additionally, this study investigated how multicultural variables (i.e., race/ethnicity, gender, and degree of practice related to religious/spiritual affiliation) were related to supervisees' perceived satisfaction with supervision, SWA, and supervisee self-efficacy. Participants consisted of 165 graduate students currently enrolled in a CACREP accredited counseling program. These participants also had to be in Practicum or Internship stage of the program and receiving supervision. Three survey instruments, the Supervision Satisfaction Questionnaire (SSQ), the Supervisory Working Alliance Inventory-Trainee (SWAIT-T), and the Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory (COSE), were compiled and sent electronically to the participants. This study did not find significance possibly due to limited sample size and low power, but the study did find the participants reported high supervision satisfaction, moderate SWA, and moderate counselor self-efficacy. Also, participants in the internship stage reported higher satisfaction than students in the practicum stage. There was no main effect found for race/ethnicity and religion/spirituality in regards to supervision satisfaction, SWA, and self-efficacy. However, there was a main effect found for gender and counselor self-efficacy.

Nitrogen oxide radicals (NOx) produced by lightning are natural precursors for the production of the dominant tropospheric oxidants, OH and ozone. Observations of the interannual variability (IAV) of tropical ozone and of global mean OH (from the methyl chloroform proxy) offer a window for understanding the sensitivity of ozone and OH to environmental factors. We present the results of simulations for 1998–2006 using the GEOS-Chem chemical transport model (CTM) with IAV in tropical lightning constrained by satellite observations from the Lightning Imaging Sensor. We find that this imposed IAV in lightning NOx improves the ability of the model to reproduce observed IAV in tropical ozone and OH. Lightning is far more important than biomass burning in driving the IAV of tropical ozone, even though the IAV of NOx emissions from fires is greater than that from lightning. Our results indicate that the IAV in tropospheric OH is highly sensitive to lightning relative to other emissions and suggest that lightning contributes an important fraction of the observed IAV in OH inferred from the methyl chloroform proxy. Lightning affects OH through the HO2+ NO reaction, an effect compounded by positive feedback from the resulting increase in ozone production and in CO loss. We can account in the model for the observed increase in OH in 1998–2004 and for its IAV, but the model fails to explain the OH decrease in 2004–2006. We find that stratospheric ozone plays little role in driving IAV in OH during 1998–2006, in contrast to previous studies that examined earlier periods.

We interpret the distribution of tropical tropospheric ozone columns (TTOCs) from the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) by using a global three-dimensional model of tropospheric chemistry (GEOS-CHEM) and additional information from in situ observations. The GEOS-CHEM TTOCs capture 44% of the variance of monthly mean TOMS TTOCs from the convective cloud differential method (CCD) with no global bias. Major discrepancies are found over northern Africa and south Asia where the TOMS TTOCs do not capture the seasonal enhancements from biomass burning found in the model and in aircraft observations. A characteristic feature of these northern tropical enhancements, in contrast to southern tropical enhancements, is that they are driven by the lower troposphere where the sensitivity of TOMS is poor due to Rayleigh scattering. We develop an efficiency correction to the TOMS retrieval algorithm that accounts for the variability of ozone in the lower troposphere. This efficiency correction increases TTOCs over biomass burning regions by 3–5 Dobson units (DU) and decreases them by 2–5 DU over oceanic regions, improving the agreement between CCD TTOCs and in situ observations. Applying the correction to CCD TTOCs reduces by ∼5 DU the magnitude of the “tropical Atlantic paradox” [Thompson et al., 2000], i.e. the presence of a TTOC enhancement over the southern tropical Atlantic during the northern African biomass burning season in December–February. We reproduce the remainder of the paradox in the model and explain it by the combination of upper tropospheric ozone production from lightning NOx, persistent subsidence over the southern tropical Atlantic as part of the Walker circulation, and cross-equatorial transport of upper tropospheric ozone from northern midlatitudes in the African “westerly duct.” These processes in the model can also account for the observed 13–17 DU persistent wave-1 pattern in TTOCs with a maximum over the tropical Atlantic and a minimum over the tropical Pacific during all seasons. The photochemical effects of mineral dust have only a minor role on the modeled distribution of TTOCs, including over northern Africa, due to multiple competing effects. The photochemical effects of mineral dust globally decrease annual mean OH concentrations by 9%. A global lightning NOx source of 6 Tg N yr−1 in the model produces a simulation that is most consistent with TOMS and in situ observations.