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A global surge in ‘artisanal’, smallscale mining (ASM) threatens biodiverse tropical forests and exposes residents to dangerous levels of mercury. In response, governments and development agencies are investing millions (USD) on ASM formalization; registering concessions and demarcating extraction zones to promote regulatory adherence and direct mining away from ecologically sensitive areas. The environmental outcomes of these initiatives are seldom systematically assessed. We examine patterns of mining-related deforestation associated with formalization efforts in a gold-rich region of the Peruvian Amazon. We track changes from 2001 to 2014 when agencies: (a) issued 1701 provisional titles and (b) tried to restrict mining to a >5000 km2 ‘corridor’. We use fixed-effect regression models and matching methods to control for gold price, geology, and accessibility. Mining increased dramatically during this period, clearing ∼40 000 ha of forest. After the mining corridor was declared and enforcement increased, new mining sites were opened more frequently within titled areas and inside the corridor than elsewhere. However, mining also increased in protected area buffer zones and native communities, and the proportion of mining area occurring outside the corridor grew, concentrated in a few hotspots. Interviews (n = 47) revealed that the hoped-for regulatory adherence failed to materialize because miners who were issued provisional titles started operations without complying with attendant environmental rules. Overlapping land claims for agriculture and forest extraction proved a major obstacle for obtaining full legal rights to mine. Miners resented the slow, costly formalization process but many sought titles to bolster territorial claims, avoid policing, obtain credit and recruit paying ‘guest’ miners who generally ignored regulations. We find that responses to formalization varied with changing context and while formalization may curb mining in some circumstances, it may exacerbate it in others. Without adequate enforcement, interagency coordination, and attention to competing land claims, formalizing ASM may accelerate ecological destruction.

Western Uganda is home to growing populations of smallholder agriculturalists, expanding commodity plantations, and protected forests. In this setting, we document a shift in who uses forest edge land and how it is used. In developing countries, protected forest edges are traditionally sites where marginalized people can subsist, but increasing land competition has the potential to change this scenario. We used longitudinal field data spanning two decades to characterize the evolution of landownership and land use neighboring Kibale National Park. The number of households has more than doubled since 1993. Land values are rising, and people buying land near the park in recent years are significantly wealthier and have more off-farm income than those who acquired land there in earlier periods. The reverse is true of renters. More people are growing inedible perennial cash crops like eucalyptus, tea, and coffee, especially those with larger amounts of land and capital. Some long-term residents are prospering, while others are squeezed onto ever smaller pieces of land and opting for precarious rental arrangements as land competition increases. We discuss the implications of this transitioning park neighborhood, both for conservation and local livelihoods.

We used a mixed-methods approach to assess the impact of a ‘forest-friendly’ titling program on previously untitled lands surrounding the Cuyabeno Reserve in Ecuador. Such programs are part of an increasing trend in tenure formalization intended to simultaneously strengthen tenure security, reduce deforestation, and open the door for more incentive-based conservation programs. We use quasi-experimental methods to estimate and compare the impact of titling on forest outcomes for lands that are titled with certain limitations on the ownership bundle of rights, alongside lands titled but without these restrictions. This quantitative analysis is paired with results from a series of focus group interviews with landowners to understand their experiences with the titling effort, particularly tied to the restrictions. Our results point to a statistically significant impact of titling with restrictions on reducing deforestation by 34%, whereas titling without such restrictions resulted in no significant effect. When we explore impacts according to annual deforestation rates, the results suggest that titled lands are buffered from the surges in deforestation that otherwise occurred on untitled lands and more broadly across the region. While ‘forest-friendly’ restrictions had more of an effect on forest outcomes than titled lands without, the insights shared by landowners suggest important concerns about equity and unjust burdens on current households that could risk livelihood options for future generations.

Saving biodiversity requires reducing extractive pressures and engaging local communities in management

Highlights: • We analyze deforestation outcomes and equity implications of a two-year interruption in forest PES in Ecuador’s Amazon. • Quasi-exp. tests show that without payment, deforestation resumed on enrolled properties situated near high defor pressure. • Where deforestation pressures were low, enrolled properties continued to conserve more than non-enrolled properties. • Focus groups and interviews revealed enrolled landowners lacked information and their contract terms were imbalanced. • Equity, transparency, funding, and trust are essential for the long-term viability of incentive-based conservation., Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) are now a prominent policy instrument for conserving tropical forests. PES are voluntary, direct, and contractual: an ES buyer pays an ES steward for adopting conservation practices for a fixed term. A defining feature of PES is its ‘quid pro quo’ conditionality, e.g. stewards are paid only if they deliver contracted conservation outcomes. Most studies on PES effectiveness focus on the steward’s compliance with contract conditions. By contrast, the buyer’s compliance has received scant attention despite the fact that PES programs across the globe have delayed payments, suspended re-enrollment, or shut down altogether. ‘Use-restricting’ PES depend on the continued flow of funding to pay for conservation; however, institutional, political, and economic factors can disrupt or terminate PES funding. What happens when the PES money unexpectedly runs out? Do stewards continue to conserve or revert to their former practices? We use mixed methods to study equity concerns and forest outcomes of an unexpected, two-year interruption in conservation payments to 63 private landowners residing in Ecuador’s Amazon and enrolled in the Socio Bosque program, compared to similar landowners who did not enroll. Using quasi-experimental methods, we found that during the payment suspension period enrolled properties did not maintain their conservation outcomes where deforestation pressures were high (e.g. close to roads). Where deforestation pressures were low, enrolled properties continued to conserve more, on average, than similar properties not enrolled. Findings from 40 interviews and 26 focus groups conducted before, during, and after the payment suspension exposed profound landowner uncertainty regarding their contract rights. Poor official communication and imbalanced PES contract terms reinforced power inequalities between the state and rural ES stewards. Our work highlights the need to plan for financial volatility and to protect participants’ rights in PES contract design.

SUMMARYForest conservation incentives are a popular approach to combatting tropical deforestation. Here we consider a case where direct economic incentives for forest conservation were offered to newly titled smallholders in a buffer zone of a protected area in the northeastern Ecuadorian Amazon. We used quasi-experimental impact evaluation methods to estimate changes in forest cover for 63 smallholders enrolled in Ecuador's Socio Bosque program compared to similar households that did not enroll. Focus group interviews in 15 communities provided insight into why landowners enrolled in the program and how land use is changing. The conservation incentives program reduced average annual deforestation by 0.4–0.5% between 2011 and 2013 for those enrolled, representing as much as a 70% reduction in deforestation attributable to Socio Bosque. Focus group interviews suggested that some landowners chose to ‘invest’ in conservation because the agricultural capacity of their land was limited and economic incentives provided an alternative livelihood strategy. Interviews, however, indicated limits to increasing enrollment rates under current conditions, due to lack of trust and liquidity constraints. Overall, a hybrid public–private governance approach can lead to larger conservation outcomes than restrictions alone.

In the past decade, concern for forest loss has spurred ambitious restoration goals for climatic, ecological, and livelihood benefits. Restoration activities typically rely on government-led or large-scale tree planting. A narrow focus on top-down initiatives could promote the recentralization of forestry activities and overlook important contributions by smallholders, especially in Africa. Smallholder tree planting activities are harder to track than institutional efforts. Here we quantify the extent of tree planting on smallholder woodlots in southern and eastern Tanzania, in comparison to large-scale plantations. In Google Earth Pro, we digitized all woodlots in randomly selected areas, and estimated woodlots' area, distribution, and expansion rate. We found that by year 2018, woodlots in the smallest size class (

SUMMARYIn many areas, wildlife managers are turning to hunting programmes to increase public acceptance of predators. This study examines attitudes measured before and after a hunting and trapping season (wolf hunt) in Wisconsin (WI), USA, and casts some doubt on whether such programmes actually promote public acceptance. In Wisconsin, attitudes toward wolves (Canis lupus) were recorded before and after the inaugural regulated wolf hunt. Measuring longitudinal changes is particularly important in assessing management interventions. The attitudes of 736 previous respondents were resampled in 2013. Changes in individual responses to statements about emotions, behavioural intentions, beliefs, and attitudes toward wolves and wolf management between 2009 and 2013 were assessed using a nine-item scaled variable called ‘tolerance’. Although the majority (66%) of wolf range respondents approved of the decision to hold the hunt, the results indicate a negative trend in attitudes toward wolves among male respondents and hunters living in wolf range, both before and after the state's first legal hunt, suggesting that hunting was not associated with an increase in tolerance for the species after one year. Tolerance levels among female respondents remained stable throughout the study period.

Blackman et al. (1) assess the forest cover impacts of providing indigenous Peruvian communities with formal title to land they have long inhabited. We applaud the authors’ use of high-quality forest change data and rigorous causal methods; both are critical gaps in the land tenure and forest change literature (2). Their findings are encouraging, especially given Peru’s globally important biodiverse forests and the pressing need to secure the rights of indigenous people. Beyond these notable strengths, we caution against generalizing the results of this study for several reasons. First, titling did not cede full land rights. To obtain title, communities in the study were … [↵][1]1To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email: brian.e.robinson{at}mcgill.ca. [1]: #xref-corresp-1-1

Deforestation and degradation are tied to a complex array of socioeconomic and political factors. Many assume that among the most important of these are the particular bundles of rights regulating who can benefit from land (tenure form) and the overall assurance that those rights will be upheld (tenure security). This paper reviews literature that connects forest outcomes and land tenure to better understand broad interactions between tenure form, security and forest change. Papers from economic theory suggest tenure is embedded in a broader socioeconomic context, with the potential for either a positive or negative conservation impact on forested land. Empirically, we find 36 publications that link land cover change to tenure conditions while also controlling for other plausibly confounding variables. Publications often investigate more than one site and more than one form of tenure, so from these we derive 118 cases linking forest change with a specific tenure form in a particular location. From these cases, we find evidence that protected areas are associated with positive forest outcomes and that land tenure security is associated with less deforestation, regardless of the form of tenure. We conclude with a call for more robust identification of this relationship in future research, as well as set of recommendations for policymakers, particularly as forest carbon incentive programs such as REDD integrate further into national policies.

Here we present Tambopata: Who Owns Paradise?, a map-centric, multimedia website created to enrich an educational role playing exercise about biodiversity, conservation, and development in the Amazon (www.geography.wisc.edu/tambopata). The exercise assigns students a character from the Tambopata region of the Peruvian Amazon, and asks them to evaluate four proposed zoning plans from their assigned perspective. Using principles of web cartography, we designed the four proposal maps to communicate complex information and allow for increased exploration. Compared to the previously used static maps, the website increases opportunities for student engagement with the material, incorporates multimedia, and clarifies spatial relationships and land use patterns. The website is available publicly and can be integrated freely into other university and high school courses.

Summary This essay introduces five papers investigating land tenure issues related to conserving tropical forests via incentive-based strategies (e.g., PES, REDD+). After briefly reviewing key terms and concepts, we point to important contributions from the papers regarding (a) a deeper theoretical and empirical understanding of the relationship between land tenure and forest outcomes, and (b) policy lessons from early efforts to address tenure in sites targeted for forest carbon projects.

Summary This paper analyzes deforestation in areas of overlapping land tenure in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon. We use a random coefficients model to test for differences in forest cover across tenure forms over time. Tenure categories are significantly associated with changes in deforestation, even after controlling for multiple factors. Deforestation slows dramatically in the latter time period; and model results link parks with reduced deforestation. The same is true for lands where indigenous territories overlap with forest protection. Our results suggest that Ecuador’s conservation incentive program could refine its targeting by focusing on indigenous areas and communal lands outside of parks.

This paper describes how forest-dependent communities in the Peruvian Amazon responded to forest policy changes meant to improve sustainability. These new laws emphasized block-based, collectivized extraction — a strategy incompatible with local communities' logging traditions and technical capacity. Field surveys before and after the policy change revealed a drastic reduction in local logging activities for households at all income levels. Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) subsequently became more important to household cash incomes. However, only some households were able to shift to a more intensive and far-ranging pattern of NTFP harvest, particularly households with boats and motors. Others lost income from both logging and NTFP extraction because for many households, these income sources were interdependent. An increasing Gini coefficient signals potentially escalating household income inequality. Key lessons for biodiversity and forest–carbon interventions in tropical forests include 1) regulations designed to control large-scale extraction can lead to unnecessarily restricted access for small-scale extractors, and 2) potential shifts in extractive pressure should be taken into account when access to forest resources is curtailed.

Crop and livestock losses to wildlife are a concern for people neighboring many protected areas (PAs) and can generate opposition to conservation. Examining patterns of conflict and associated tolerance is important to devise policies to reduce conflict impacts on people and wildlife. We surveyed 398 households from 178 villages within 10 km of Ranthambore, Kanha, and Nagarahole parks in India. We compared different attitudes toward wildlife, and presented hypothetical response scenarios, including killing the problem animal(s). Eighty percent of households reported crop losses to wildlife and 13 % livestock losses. Higher crop loss was associated with more cropping months per year, greater crop variety, and more harvest seasons per year but did not vary with proximity to the PA, suggesting that PAs are not necessarily "sources" for crop raiders. By contrast, complaints of "depredating carnivores" were associated with people-grazing animals and collecting resources from PAs. Many households (83 %) engaged in mitigation efforts. We found that only fencing and guard animals reduce crop losses, and no efforts to lower livestock losses. Contrary to our expectations, carnivores were not viewed with more hostility than crop-raiding wildlife. Households reported greater inclination to kill herbivores destroying crops or carnivores harming people, but not carnivores preying on livestock.Our model estimated probability of [corrected] crop loss was 82 % across surveyed households (highest in Kanha),while the livestock loss experienced was 27 % (highest in Ranthambore). Our comparative study provides insights into factors associated with conflict loss and tolerance, and aids in improving ongoing conservation and compensation efforts.

Understanding individual attitudes and how these predict overt opposition to predator conservation or direct, covert action against predators will help to recover and maintain them. Studies of attitudes toward wild animals rely primarily on samples of individuals at a single time point. We examined longitudinal change in individuals' attitudes toward gray wolves (Canis lupus). In the contiguous United States, amidst persistent controversy and opposition, abundances of gray wolves are at their highest in 60 years. We used mailed surveys to sample 1892 residents of Wisconsin in 2001 or 2004 and then resampled 656 of these individuals who resided in wolf range in 2009. Our study spanned a period of policy shifts and increasing wolf abundance. Over time, the 656 respondents increased agreement with statements reflecting fear of wolves, the belief that wolves compete with hunters for deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and inclination to poach a wolf. Endorsement of lethal control of wolves by the state and public hunting of wolves also increased. Neither the time span over which respondents reported exposure to wolves locally nor self-reported losses of domestic animals to wolves correlated with changes in attitude. We predict future increases in legal and illegal killing of wolves that may reduce their abundance in Wisconsin unless interventions are implemented to improve attitudes and behavior toward wolves. To assess whether interventions change attitudes, longitudinal studies like ours are needed. Analisis Longitudinal de las Actitudes Hacia Lobos.

SUMMARYIncentives used to encourage local residents to support conservation range from integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs), which indirectly connect improved livelihoods with biodiversity protection, to direct payments for ecosystem services (PES). A unique hybrid between these two strategies, the Arabuko-Sokoke Schools and Ecotourism Scheme (ASSETS), provides secondary-school bursaries to encourage stewardship of a biodiverse highly-imperiled Kenyan forest. Household surveys and semi-structured interviews were used to assess the effectiveness of ASSETS by comparing attitudes and perceptions toward the forest among scheme beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. The most commonly identified benefit of the forest was resource extraction (for example fuelwood), followed by ecosystem services (such as source of rain). Those in favour of forest clearing tended not to be ASSETS beneficiaries, were less-educated, and were less likely to mention ecosystem services and tourism as forest benefits. ASSETS appears to shape pro-conservation attitudes among beneficiaries and foster a sense of responsibility toward the forest. Challenges for ASSETS are similar to those faced by many conservation and development projects, namely unsteady funding and the risk that the extremely poor may be overlooked. ASSETS may serve as an effective hybrid between the PES and ICDP approaches, and such educational support provides a promising conservation incentive.

With growing pressure for conservation to pay its way, the merits of compensation for wildlife damage must be understood in diverse socio-ecological settings. Here we compare compensation programs in Wisconsin, USA and Solapur, India, where wolves (Canis lupus) survive in landscapes dominated by agriculture and pasture. At both sites, rural citizens were especially negative toward wolves, even though other wild species caused more damage. Wisconsin and Solapur differ in payment rules and funding sources, which reflect distinct conservation and social goals. In Wisconsin, as wolves recolonized the state, some periodically preyed on livestock and hunting dogs. Ranchers and some hunters were more likely to oppose wolves than were other citizens. The Wisconsin compensation program aimed to restore an iconic species by using voluntary contributions from wolf advocates to pay affected individuals more for wolf losses than for other species. By contrast, wolves had been continuously present in Solapur, and damages were distributed amongst the general populace. Government-supported compensation payments were on offer to anyone suffering losses, yet claims registered were low. There were no significant differences in attitudes of any particular segment of the population, but those losing high value livestock applied for compensation. Residents at both sites did not report (Wisconsin) or expect (Solapur) a change in attitude towards wolves as a result of compensation, yet they support the existence of such programs. To assess the merits of any compensation program, one must disentangle the multiple goals of compensation, such as reducing wolf killing or more fairly sharing the costs of conserving large carnivores.

Subsistence farmers near Kibale National Park, Uganda, fear and resent many wildlife species. In this article I compare records of crop damage by wildlife and livestock with local complaints about the worst animals and the most vulnerable crops. I discuss the concordance and discrepancies in complaints versus actual damage in light of physical parameters of risk and of social factors that shape perceptions and vulnerabilities. Crop losses were greatest at the edge of the forest, where immigrants are disproportionately represented. State proprietorship of wildlife amplifies local vulnerability and constrains traditional coping strategies, such as hunting.

The costs of wildlife conservation distribute unequally across society. Compensation can potentially redress inequities and raise local tolerance for endangered wildlife that damage property. However, the rules for payments generate controversy, particularly as costs mount and species recover. In Wisconsin (USA), gray wolf damage payments grew notably over 28 years and eventually undermined budgets for conserving other endangered species. We measured attitudes to compensation among 1,364 state residents, including those who voluntarily contributed funds and those likely to receive compensation, and we interviewed elected officials about the politics of payment rules. Most respondents endorsed compensation for wolf damages to livestock—even when wolves are no longer endangered—but opposed payments for wolf damage to hunting dogs on public land. Most donors opposed killing wolves and over one-fourth unconditionally rejected a wolf hunt. We predict the latter donors would stop contributing funds for compensation if the state were to implement a proposed wolf hunt. Controversy over payment rules reveals clashing values regarding wildlife between those receiving and those paying for compensation. Moreover, the costs of compensation ratchet up as endangered species recover and claims of entitlement expand. Hence we recommend conservationists use sunset clauses and an adaptive management of compensation programs.

Crop loss to wildlife impedes local support for conservation efforts at Kibale National Park, Uganda. Systematic monitoring of crop loss to uwildlife (mammals larger than 3 kg) and livestock was con- ducted in six villages around Kibale over a 2-year period. Five wildlife species accounted for 85% of crop dam- age events: baboons, bushpigs, redtail monkeys, chimpanzees, and elephants. Marked variation in frequency and extent of damage is reported within villages, between villages, and between wildlife species. Fields lying within 500 m of the forest boundary lost 4- 7% of crops per season on average, but the distribution of damage was highly skewed such that maize and cassava fields were on occasion completely destroyed. Multivariate analysis was used to testpredictors of damage, including human population density, guarding, hunting, sight distance, and distance from the forest. Tests were performed at two levels of analysis, field and village. Dis- tance from the forest edge explained the greatest amount of variation in crop damage, although hunting also influenced the extent of crop damage. Elephants inflicted catastrophic damage to farms but their forays were rare and highly localized. Livestock caused considerable damage to crops butfarmers seldom complained be- cause they had institutionalized modes of restitution. Although most of the crop damage by wildlife is re- stricted to a narrow band offarmers living near the forest edge, risk perception among these farmers has been amplified by legalprohibitions on killing wild animals. Elevating local tolerance for wildlife will require diverse approaches, including channeling economic benefits to Kibale's neighbors and providing compensa- tion in limited cases.

The processes of habitat loss and fragmentation are probably the most important threats to biodiversity. It is critical that we understand the conservation value of fragments, because they may represent opportunities to make important conservation gains, particularly for species whose ranges are not in a protected area. However, our ability to understand the value of fragments for primates is limited by the fact that researchers have conducted many studies in protected areas, which do not represent most fragments, and studies are typically short term. Here we determine the long-term survival probability of red (Procolobus pennantii) and black-and-white colobus (Colobus guereza) inhabiting forest fragments outside of Kibale National Park, Uganda. Local communities use the fragments primarily for subsistence agriculture and fuelwood. We surveyed primate populations 3 times over 8 yr, made a total inventory of all trees 2 times, contrasted behavior of groups inhabiting 1 fragment with groups in the continuous forest, and judged the conservation value of the fragments by quantifying patterns of forest use by local people. Of the 20 fragments surveyed, 16 supported resident populations of colobus in 1995, 2 were cleared in 2000, and an additional 2 fragments were cleared by 2003. In 1995 we counted 165 black-and-white colobus, whereas in 2000 and 2003, we counted 119 and 75 individuals, respectively. Seven fragments supported red colobus in 1995, 11 in 2000, and 9 in 2003. In 2000 we counted 159 red colobus, while in 2003, we saw 145 individuals. For both species, activity patterns in continuous forest were similar to those in a fragment, with the exception that individuals in the fragment rested more. Colobus in the fragment ate more mature leaves than colobus in the continuous forest did. Fragments supported all the fuelwood needs of an average of 32 people who lived immediately adjacent to them, and partially supported families up to 3 farms away (ca. 400 m), representing 576 people. Intensive harvesting for fuelwood occurred when neighboring households engaged in beer brewing (an average of 9.6% of the households), gin distilling (8.8%), or charcoal production (14.5%). Overall, between 2000 and 2003, the average density of trees declined by 14 trees/ha (range = 0–60 trees/ha). If current rates of clearing continue, the probability that the fragments will continue to support colobus populations is low.

Woodfuels are the most heavily used energy source in sub-Saharan Africa. We analyzed the ecological impacts and modes of access of five user groups (domestic consumers, gin distillers, brick manufacturers, charcoal producers, and tea companies) drawing biomass energy from natural forests in western Uganda. While domestic consumers use the most species for fuelwood (>50), their consumption is likely sustainable because they generally harvest fast-growing species from fallows on their own land or their neighbors’. Charcoal producers prefer old-growth hardwood species and are responsible for the greatest loss of natural forests. They access forests by finding landholders who, either willingly or through coercion, allow trees on their lands to be cleared. The impact of charcoal production is exacerbated by a license system that undervalues natural forests and rewards rapid harvests across large areas. The tea industry consumes mainly eucalyptus wood (Eucalyptus spp.) from corporate plantations, but they indirectly create pressure on natural forests by hiring immigrants who subsequently settle in and clear forest remnants. If such practices continue, forest remnants will soon be exhausted, leaving Kibale National Park as the last natural forest in the region. Forest remnants are a vital source of water, medicinal plants, and energy for local citizens and to protect them from over-exploitation, policy makers should target the charcoal and tea industry for reform. Support for local land management institutions governing access to fallows and successional forests will inevitably enhance the policy interventions.

Many researchers have tested whether protected areas save tropical forest, but generally focus on parks and reserves, management units that have internationally recognized standing and clear objectives. Buffer zones have received considerably less attention because of their ambiguous rules and often informal status. Although buffer zones are frequently dismissed as ineffective, they warrant attention given the need for landscape-level approaches to conservation and their prevalence around the world-in Peru, buffer zones cover10 % of the country. This study examines the effectiveness of buffer zones in the Peruvian Amazon to (a) prevent deforestation and (b) limit the extent of mining concessions. We employ covariate matching to determine the impact of 13 buffer zones on deforestation and mining concessions from 2007 to 2012. Despite variation between sites, these 13 buffer zones have prevented ~320 km(2) of forest loss within their borders during the study period and ~1739 km(2) of mining concessions, an outcome associated with the special approval process for granting formal concessions in these areas. However, a closer look at the buffer zone around the Tambopata National Reserve reveals the difficulties of controlling illegal and informal activities. According to interviews with NGO employees, government officials, and community leaders, enforcement of conservation is limited by uncertain institutional responsibilities, inadequate budgets, and corruption, although formal and community-based efforts to block illicit mining are on the rise. Landscape-level conservation not only requires clear legal protocol for addressing large-scale, formal extractive activities, but there must also be strategies and coordination to combat illegal activities.

Data from legal records, management plans, and interviews with 63 local experts reveal the substantial expansion of 15 protected areas (PAs) of forest in Ecuador and Peru during the last two decades. Combining results for these PAs, the area under protection increased by over half, from 5,760,814 to 8,972,896 ha, with the Amazonian PAs adding the greatest expanse. Most of this expanded land was legally designated for strict protection; however, in practice, human resource use and settlement are widespread. Hunting is the most common resource use, followed by logging and livestock grazing. Mining and petroleum extraction also occur in four of the 15 PAs. Together these activities on average affect approximately 30% of the area within eight Peruvian PAs and approximately 45% of the area of seven Ecuadorian PAs, far exceeding previous deforestation estimates. By expanding these PAs, Ecuadorian and Peruvian conservationists have significantly improved the coverage of key ecosystems and endangered habitats. However, they now face the daunting task of managing larger, more complex protected areas that de facto include thousands of local people. Conservation agencies in both countries are turning toward land-use zoning within PAs to integrate resource use with biodiversity conservation.

▪ Abstract The world's system of protected areas has grown exponentially over the past 25 years, particularly in developing countries where biodiversity is greatest. Concurrently, the mission of protected areas has expanded from biodiversity conservation to improving human welfare. The result is a shift in favor of protected areas allowing local resource use. Given the multiple purposes of many protected areas, measuring effectiveness is difficult. Our review of 49 tropical protected areas shows that parks are generally effective at curtailing deforestation within their boundaries. But deforestation in surrounding areas is isolating protected areas. Many initiatives now aim to link protected areas to local socioeconomic development. Some of these initiatives have been successful, but in general expectations need to be tempered regarding the capacity of protected areas to alleviate poverty. Greater attention must also be paid to the broader policy context of biodiversity loss, poverty, and unsustainable land use in developing countries.

Understanding the determinants of animal abundance has become more vital as ecologists are increasingly asked to apply their knowledge to the construction of informed management plans. However, there are few general models are available to explain variation in abundance. Some notable exceptions are studies of folivorous primates, in which the protein-to-fiber ratio of foods has been shown to predict biomass. Here we examine the generality of Milton's [American Naturalist 114:363–378, 1979] protein/fiber model by providing a detailed analysis of diet selection in black-and-white colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza), and applying the model to populations shown to be stable; an assumption not previously examined. Based on observations of two groups of black-and-white colobus in Kibale National Park, Uganda, and one group in a forest fragment, we documented that the animals selected young leaves that had more protein, were more digestible, and had a higher protein-to-fiber ratio than mature leaves. The mature leaves did not differ from young leaves with respect to secondary compounds or mineral content (with the exceptions of copper and zinc). All of the colobus groups selected foods with a high protein-to-fiber ratios. However, one group also selected more digestible foods, and in another group, foraging efforts were positively related to zinc and negatively related to potassium. Previous studies that examined Milton's protein/fiber model did not demonstrate that the study populations were stable. If some populations were not at carrying capacity, then the correlations drawn between food availability and/or quality and folivore biomass may have been spurious. To address this issue, we censused a series of forest fragments in 1995 and again in 2000. We found that the populations in these fragments had declined from 165 in 1995 to 119 animals in 2000. However, based on evidence of population stability and lack of forest disturbance, we concluded that five of the original populations were stable. The biomass of these populations was related to the protein-to-fiber ratio of the fragment's trees. Combining our data with published data, we demonstrate that the protein-to-fiber ratios of mature leaves available to these folivorous primates accounted for 87% of the variance in their biomass. Am. J. Primatol. 62:55-69, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Many carnivore populations escaped extinction during the twentieth century as a result of legal protections, habitat restoration, and changes in public attitudes. However, encounters between carnivores, live- stock, and humans are increasing in some areas, raising concerns about the costs of carnivore conservation. We present a method to predict sites of human-carnivore conflicts regionally, using as an example the mixed forest-agriculture landscapes of Wisconsin and Minnesota (U.S.A.). We used a matched-pair analysis of 17 land- scape variables in a geographic information system to discriminate affected areas from unaffected areas at two spatial scales (townships and farms). Wolves (Canis lupus) selectively preyed on livestock in townships with high proportions of pasture and high densities of deer (Odocoileus virginianus) combined with low proportions of crop lands, coniferous forest, herbaceous wetlands, and open water. These variables plus road density and farm size also appeared to predict risk for individual farms when we considered Minnesota alone. In Wisconsin only, farm size, crop lands, and road density were associated with the risk of wolf attack on livestock. At the level of townships, we generated two state-wide maps to predict the extent and location of future predation on livestock. Our approach can be applied wherever spatial data are available on sites of conflict between wildlife and humans.

This paper analyzes the impact of national development policy on land cover change and associated carbon fluxes at a Peruvian Amazon frontier. Remote sensing and field transects reveal changes in forest carbon stocks and accumulation rates. Deforestation was most rapid along the Interoceanic Highway during 1986–91 when credit and guaranteed markets were available, resulting in emissions of 708,000 Mg C yr −1 , of which 14% was offset by secondary regrowth. Despite continued population growth, deforestation slowed during 1991–97 when fiscal austerity measures were imposed, resulting in emissions of 389,000 Mg C yr −1 , of which 41% was offset by regrowth. Strategies to conserve frontier forests are compared in terms of carbon, biodiversity and economic costs and benefits.

As wolf ( Canis lupus) populations recover in Wisconsin (U.S.A.), their depredations on livestock, pets, and hunting dogs have increased. We used a mail-back survey to assess the tolerance of 535 rural cit- izens of wolves and their preferences regarding the management of "problem" wolves. Specifically, we tested whether people who had lost domestic animals to wolves or other predators were less tolerant of wolves than neighboring residents who had not and whether compensation payments improved tolerance of wolves. We assessed tolerance via proxy measures related to an individual's preferred wolf population size for Wisconsin and the likelihood she or he would shoot a wolf. We also measured individuals' approval of lethal control and other wolf-management tactics under five conflict scenarios. Multivariate analysis revealed that the strongest predictor of tolerance was social group. Bear ( Ursus americanus) hunters were concerned about losing valu- able hounds to wolves and were more likely to approve of lethal control and reducing the wolf population than were livestock producers, who were more concerned than general residents. To a lesser degree, education level, experience of loss, and gender were also significant. Livestock producers and bear hunters who had been compensated for their losses to wolves were not more tolerant than their counterparts who alleged a loss but received no compensation. Yet all respondents approved of compensation payments as a management strategy. Our results indicate that deep-rooted social identity and occupation are more powerful predictors of tolerance of wolves than individual encounters with these large carnivores.

Finding a balance between strict protection and multiple use requires data on wildlife survival in human-managed ecosystems. We examined the habitat use and species composition of mammals � 2 kg in size inhabiting an agroforest ecosystem neighboring a park in the Peruvian Amazon. First, we recorded wild- life presence in fields, fallows, and forests within one settlement over a 9-month period. Then we monitored wildlife presence over 21 months in 42 fields across a 65-km transect, including remote and highly disturbed sites. We tested for correlations between the size and number of mammal species visiting fields and human activities measured at different scales. Hunting intensity more powerfully predicted the average biomass and species diversity observed in fields than did vegetation disturbance. The number of commercial hunters in the surrounding community had a stronger impact than did the individual field owner's hunting intensity. Large-bodied species appeared only in remote farms neighboring uninhabited areas in the reserve, indicating that undisturbed forests act as sources for wildlife dispersing into agricultural regions. Farmers in these re- mote areas experience greater crop and livestock losses to wildlife, but by hunting large game they are able to offset losses with bushmeat gains. In more disturbed areas, crop losses exceeded bushmeat gains, although both occurred at negligible levels. Our case study suggests that large herbivores, large carnivores, and most primates are unlikely to persist in multiple-use zones in Amazonian forests unless hunting is effectively re- stricted. Even highly disturbed agroforests are not empty of wildlife, however, but are inhabited by a suite of adaptable, fast-reproducing species able to withstand human activity (e.g., brown agoutis ( Dasyprocta variegata ), armadillos ( Dasypus novemcinetus ), and red brocket deer ( Mazama gauazoubira )). These "weedy" spe- cies may not be of immediate concern to conservation biologists, and they will not attract tourists. But they have both economic and ecological value and deserve to be taken into account in management decisions.

Conservationists are missing opportunities to protect species at mass tourism sites where wildlife itself is not the main tourist attraction. At such locations are ‘incidental ecotourists’, i.e. tourists with multiple interests who encounter wildlife or fragile ecosystems inadvertently. A case study from Lamanai Archaeological Reserve, Belize, reveals the motivations of incidental ecotourists and their impact on an endangered primate species, the black howler monkey, Alouatta pigra. Four hundred and seventy-one visitors were surveyed to assess their travel goals, conservation commitments, and reactions to viewing howler monkeys. Data were also collected on the behaviour of tourists and monkeys during encounters. More intense tourist interactions with howler monkeys were correlated with the number of tourists and the duration of the encounter; guided parties interacted more intensely than unguided parties. Tourists were largely unaware that these interactions may harm the howler monkeys. Qualitative observations of howler response to tourists suggest short- and long-term negative impacts. These impacts could be mitigated through more effective guide training, limiting tourist group size, and increasing entrance fees at the Reserve. Improving environmental education may reduce impacts and motivate some tourists to become advocates for conservation of endangered species.

In this article, I draw on field research in the Peruvian Amazon to evaluate the impact of individual and regional land–use practices (hunting, forest–clearing, and fallowing) on wildlife survival. More broadly, I examine the symbolic and practical significance of the garden as a metaphor for wildlife conservation. I focus on Tambopata Province, a region containing diverse wildlife and a variety of “gardens,” from swidden fields to national parks. Field data on wildlife presence in swidden gardens reveal the attributes of an anthropogenic fauna: adaptable, fast–reproducing species, including rodents, peccaries, brocket deer, and armadillos. Larger mammals, including most primates and carnivores, are greatly reduced by hunting. Multivariate analyses show that wildlife abundance and species diversity are more strongly shaped by regional land use and community–level hunting practices than by individual “gardeners.” In Tambopata, multiple interest groups stake claims on the forests and wildlife within protect...

Insecure land tenure plagues many developing and tropical regions, often where conservation concerns are highest. Conservation organizations have long focused on protected areas as tenure interventions, but are now thinking more comprehensively about whether and how to incorporate other land tenure strategies into their work, and how to more soundly ground such interventions on evidence of both conservation and human benefits. Through a review of the literature on land tenure security as it relates to conservation practice, predominantly in the tropics, we aim to help conservation practitioners consider and incorporate more appropriate land tenure security interventions into conservation strategies. We present a framework that identifies three common ways in which land tenure security can impact human and conservation outcomes, and suggest practical ways to distill tenure and tenure security issues for a given location. We conclude with steps for considering tenure security issues in the context of conservation projects and identify areas for future research.

East African forests have been largely converted to agriculture. The remaining forests hold many endangered species but are threatened by the heavy local demand for fuelwood. Here we evaluate fallow land in western Uganda as an alternate fuel source to diverse forests. We quantify the regeneration process on fallows, calculate tree bio-mass increases, and measure grass and woody herb biomass over 44 months. The biomass values we measured were typical or slightly below the average from 11 studies elsewhere in the tropics. Variation in biomass between our neighboring study sites exceeded that between sites on different continents, indicating the sensitivity of vegetation regeneration to local land use. Tree regeneration was extremely slow (0.46 g/m2/year); however, the woody herbs and grasses on a 4 year old fallow of ∼0.5 ha can provide much of a family's domestic fuel. Fallow land is generally abundant in western Uganda and can partially alleviate pressure on forests for domestic fuels. Fallows c...

Throughout much of the tropics, human-wildlife conflict impedes local support for national parks. By channelling tourism revenue to local residents, conservationists hope to offset wildlife costs and improve local attitudes toward conservation. To date tourism revenue-sharing (TRS) programmes have met mixed success. Local conditions and national policies that shape the success of TRS programmes were identified by comparing the experiences of both implementers and beneficiaries of pilot TRS programmes at three parks in western Uganda. Between 1995 and 1998, communities around these parks used a total of US $83 000 of tourism revenue to build 21 schools, four clinics, one bridge, and one road. In 1996, the Ugandan parliament passed legislation that changed both the amount of money available for TRS and the institutions responsible for sharing the money. The programme was suspended at all three parks while the implementing agency (Uganda Wildlife Authority) struggled to design a programme that complied with the new legislation. TRS funds collected before 1996 were shared through 1998, but since then no revenue has been shared. However, a revised TRS programme is expected to resume in 2001. In semi-structured interviews, both implementers and beneficiaries evaluated local TRS programmes and compared them to other benefit-sharing projects, particularly those promoting sustainable use of non-timber products within park boundaries (n = 44). Both groups of respondents listed revenue-sharing as the most important advantage of living next to a national park. Seventy-two per cent of respondents indicated that they thought TRS had improved attitudes towards the protected areas, and 53% thought TRS was more important then sustainable use of non-timber forest products. Although respondents were generally positive about TRS, in informal discussions respondents repeatedly mentioned four potential obstacles to TRS success, namely poorly defined TRS policies and unsteady implementing institutions, corruption, inadequate funds, and numerous stakeholders with differing priorities. From this survey and literature from experiences in other African countries, there are four key components of successful revenue-sharing programmes: long-term institutional support, appropriate identification of the target community and project type, transparency and accountability, and adequate funding. With firm institutional support and realistic expectations, TRS can play an important role in improving local attitudes towards conservation.

As property of the state and symbol of colonial authority, Africa's wildlife fared poorly during the 20th century. Current campaigns to devolve wildlife property rights promise to provide local communities with incentive to better protect wildlife. But defining ‘local community’ and building viable property arrangements requires an understanding of socio-ecological conditions and their historical formation. This paper examines the transition in claimants and wildlife property regimes in Toro District, western Uganda during 1923–79. Data are drawn from government archives and oral histories of 23 Toro elders. Toro wildlife ownership centered on spirit appeasement and a social hierarchy of hunting rights. Colonial wildlife ownership was also hierarchical, but emphasized parks and restrictions on hunting technology. Under both systems, Toro royals enjoyed privileged access to big game. Toro property claims ultimately cannot be disentangled from colonial wildlife property regimes. By mid-century, government ‘control’ campaigns packed wildlife into parks, where they were later decimated by war and poaching. Today recovering wildlife populations create conflict when they stray into densely settled agricultural lands. Necessary reform in property rights is constrained by historically rooted political and physical conditions, and idealized notions of ‘local community’. Neither wildlife nor the rural poor are served by simplistic prescriptions to ‘hand over’ wildlife to imagined communities isolated from government or market forces. Instead, wildlife property arrangements must reflect ecosystem-level processes and macropolitical and economic forces shaping local use of wildlife. National parks are essential, but inadequate components of the land-use and property rights mosaic in western Uganda. Considerable financial and political support is required to build comanagement systems allowing local communities and the government to negotiate and experiment with alternative ways of owning and using wildlife beyond park boundaries. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Models of Plio-Pleistocene hominid behavioral ecology often emphasize competition with large carnivores. This paper describes competition between modern humans and large carnivores in rural Uganda, including active, confrontational scavenging of carnivore kills by humans and carnivore attacks on humans. Information gathered from Ugandan Game Department archives (1923-1994) reveals that twentieth-century agropastoralists regularly tried to scavenge from leopard (Panthera pardus) and lion (Panthera leo) kills, and that these large carnivores have preyed on hundreds of humans in Uganda over the past several decades. Men were most often targets of carnivore attack, particularly while engaged in hunting-related activities. However attacks on men were less often lethal than attacks on women and children. Analyses show that lion attacks were more dangerous than leopard attacks. These data support recent contentions that hominids armed with even simple weapons can succeed in active, confrontational scavenging by chasing carnivores from kills. Hominids sharing East African habitats with large carnivores may have been regularly subject to attack.

Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) mechanisms leverage economic and social incentives to shape how people influence natural processes and achieve conservation and sustainability goals. Beneficiaries of nature's goods and services pay owners or stewards of ecosystems that produce those services, with payments contingent on service provision (1, 2). Integrating scientific knowledge and methods into PES is critical (3, 4). Yet many projects are based on weak scientific foundations, and effectiveness is rarely evaluated with the rigor necessary for scaling up and understanding the importance of these approaches as policy instruments and conservation tools (2, 5, 6). Part of the problem is the lack of simple, yet rigorous, scientific principles and guidelines to accommodate PES design and guide research and analyses that foster evaluations of effectiveness (4). As scientists and practitioners from government, nongovernment, academic, and finance institutions, we propose a set of such guidelines and principles.

This case study describes the behavior ofBahati (BA), a captive, wild-born, 4 – 6 yr old, female chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii), before and after her temporary release into Kibale National Park, Uganda. Post-release interactions with habituated, wild chimpanzees were recorded.BA was not attacked by the wild chimpanzees at the time of introduction and observations during her period of travel with conspecifics indicate that she received significantly more affiliative contact than aggressive.BA foraged further from humans, glanced less at observers and climbed ever higher in the canopy as the project proceeded.BA associated closely with two wild chimpanzees: a fully adult male and a young juvenile female. In the latter stages of the project, she spent progressively less time in proximity to conspecifics. After six weeks,BA no longer followed wild chimpanzees and repeatedly returned to human settlements. The attempt was terminated after two months andBA returned to captivity. On the basis of this case study, we suggest possible adjustments to re-introduction criteria, and discuss the outcomes of pre-release training, public involvement, and health screening under field conditions.

Lion (Panthera leo) populations are in decline throughout most of Africa. The problem is particularly acute in southern Kenya, where Maasai pastoralists have been spearing and poisoning lions at a rate that will ensure near term local extinction. We investigated 2 approaches for improving local tolerance of lions: compensation payments for livestock lost to predators and Lion Guardians, which draws on local cultural values and knowledge to mitigate livestock-carnivore conflict and monitor carnivores. To gauge the overall influence of conservation intervention, we combined both programs into a single conservation treatment variable. Using 8 years of lion killing data, we applied Manski's partial identification approach with bounded assumptions to investigate the effect of conservation treatment on lion killing in 4 contiguous areas. In 3 of the areas, conservation treatment was positively associated with a reduction in lion killing. We then applied a generalized linear model to assess the relative efficacy of the 2 interventions. The model estimated that compensation resulted in an 87-91% drop in the number of lions killed, whereas Lion Guardians (operating in combination with compensation and alone) resulted in a 99% drop in lion killing.

Wildlife conservation has been a public issue since time immemorial, and a cause of increasing concern over the course of the 20th century. Today, much of the dispute over wildlife conservation involves property and property rights. As the scope of wildlife resource governance expands to the global level, it has come into contact with conflicting property claims and has generated new claims involving maritime and landed resources, wildlife, and intellectual property. This paper focuses on wildlife conservation, and specifically on the angle of property rights, arguing that the political determination of property regimes is critical to conservation, especially in regard to wild fauna. Property rights concerning wild fauna, differ from other property rights claims, including landed property, intellectual property, and rights governing the use of wild flora. It is also argued that no single property form is adequate for wildlife conservation. Property as an institution is incomplete; the exceptional character of wild fauna and the property rights that govern it are organic.

We use field data linked to satellite image analysis to examine the relationship between biodiversity loss, deforestation, and poverty around Kibale National Park (KNP) in western Uganda, 1996–2006. Over this decade, KNP generally maintained forest cover, tree species, and primate populations, whereas neighboring communal forest patches were reduced by half and showed substantial declines in tree species and primate populations. However, a bad decade for forest outside the park proved a prosperous one for most local residents. Panel data for 252 households show substantial improvement in welfare indicators (e.g., safer water, more durable roof material), with the greatest increases found among those with highest initial assets. A combination of regression analysis and matching estimators shows that although the poor tend to be located on the park perimeter, proximity to the park has no measureable effect on growth of productive assets. The risk for land loss among the poor was inversely correlated with proximity to the park, initial farm size, and decline in adjacent communal forests. We conclude the current disproportionate presence of poor households at the edge of the park does not signal that the park is a poverty trap. Rather, Kibale appears to provide protection against desperation sales and farm loss among those most vulnerable.

Participatory zoning projects promise to balance conservation and development at a landscape scale, but such efforts face serious political and institutional challenges. Case studies from Bolivia, Philippines and Peru reveal that governance, funding commitments, ecological context, and the use of innovative mapping techniques can stall or advance zoning outcomes.