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Background Spiraea is a genus of deciduous shrubs that contains 80-120 species, is mainly distributed in the Northern Hemisphere and has diversified in East Asia. Spiraea species are cultivated as ornamental plants and some are used in traditional herbal medicine. Based on morphological characteristics and genetic markers, phylogenetic classification exhibits low discriminatory power. Results In present study, we assembled and characterized the chloroplast (cp) genomes of ten Spiraea species and comparatively analysed with five reported cp genomes of this genus. The cp genomes of the fifteen Spiraea species, ranging from 155,904 to 158,637 bp in length, were very conserved and no structural rearrangements occurred. A total of 85 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 37 tRNAs and 8 rRNAs were annotated. We also examined 1,010 simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci, most of which had A/T base preference. Comparative analysis of cp genome demonstrated that single copy and non-coding regions were more divergent than the inverted repeats (IRs) and coding regions and six mutational hotspots were detected. Selection pressure analysis showed that all PCGs were under purifying selection. Phylogenetic analysis based on the complete cp genome data showed that Spiraea formed a monophyletic group and was further divided into two major clades. Infrageneric classification in each clade was supported with a high resolution value. Moreover, the phylogenetic trees based on each individual mutational hotspot segment and their combined dataset also consisted of two major clades, but most of the phylogenetic relationships of interspecies were not well supported. Conclusions Although the cp genomes of Spiraea species exhibited high conservation in genome structure, gene content and order, a large number of polymorphism sites and several mutation hotspots were identified in whole cp genomes, which might be sufficiently used as molecular markers to distinguish Spiraea species. Phylogenetic analysis based on the complete cp genome indicated that infrageneric classification in two major clades was supported with high resolution values. Therefore, the cp genome data of the genus Spiraea will be effective in resolving the phylogeny in this genus.

The long dormancy period of

The first complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequences of an endemic and endangered species in China, Calanthe henryi, were reported in this study. The cp genome of C. henryi was 158,256 bp long, wit...

Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis is a traditional Chinese medicine and the morphophysiological dormancy in seeds severally limits the materials supply in pharmacy. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) comprise key regulatory modules in the process of seed dormancy and germination. However, little is known about the role of miRNAs during seed germination in this species. Here, P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis seeds were primed with 200 mg/L GA and incubated at constant 20 °C. This protocol caused to the initiation of seed germination in the 20th day and the achievement of 80% germination rate in the 80th day. High-throughput sequencing was employed to identify and characterize miRNAs in six libraries (20d, 40d and 60d of germinating seeds) combined with their corresponding transcriptome data. A total of 293 known miRNAs and 692 putative novel miRNAs were identified based on the assembled 122,933 unigenes with the mean length of 1040 bp. The predicted targets of these miRNAs were enriched in the cell, metabolism and genetic information processing during seed germination, in which transport, primary metabolic process and translation were the most abundant, respectively. Our results will provide a new molecular basis about seed germination in P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis.

The complete cp genome of Piuns wangii was 117,014 bp in size, containing a large single copy (LSC, 64,061 bp) region and a small single copy (SSC, 52,007 bp) region separated by two reduced inverted repeats (IRs, 473 bp). A total of 107 genes were predicted, including 73 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes, and 4 rRNA genes. Most of the 51 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were mononucleotides motifs of A/T types and were found to be located in non-coding regions. Phylogenetic analysis of Asian Pinus showed P. wangii clustered a strongly-supported clade with Pinus morrisonicola, Pinus sibirica, Pinus wallichiana, and Pinus pumila.

Additional file 3: Figure S3. The whole PPI network for the ‘saddlebrown’ module.

Additional file 7: Figure S7. ROC curve of MAPK14 expression on diagnosis of PV based on the fused GSE61629/GSE26049/GSE57793 dataset (A), GSE54644 (B), and GSE103237 (C).

Additional file 2: Figure S2. The whole PPI network for the ‘lightyellow’ module.

Additional file 4: Figure S4. The topological overlap heatmap for 400 randomly selected genes.

Additional file 2: Figure S2. The protein-protein interaction network for the ‘black’ and ‘purple’ modules. The color of node symbol is black for genes from the ‘black’ module, as well as purple symbol for genes from the ‘purple’ module. The color of node indicated the connectivity degrees (red for high degrees, blue for low degrees).

Additional file 6: Figure S6. The dotplot of GSEA results associating with MAPK14 expression. The size of dots represented the count of genes involved in the corresponding pathways. While the color of dots correlated with the -log10(adjusted p value).

Additional file 4: Figure S4. The results of module-trait relationship by WGCNA using TCGA database.

Additional file 5: Figure S5. The module eigengene adjacency heatmap (lower), which indicated the relationship between distinct co-expression modules. The results of module clustering were shown in the upper part.

Additional file 1: Figure S1. The results of sample clustering by average linkage hierarchical clustering method.

Additional file 1: Figure S1. The hierarchical cluster dendrogram of BeatAML samples. The tips of dendrogram referred to sample ID in BeatAML database. No obvious outliers were found in this figure.

Additional file 3: Figure S3. The cluster dendrogram (upper) and gene co-expressed modules (lower), in which the height of branches represented the distance of Euclidean.

Additional file 2: Figure S2. The value of scale independence (left) and mean connectivity (right) to identify the soft threshold in the following network analysis.

Uncaria rhynchophylla is a vine plant belonging to the family Rubiaceae and has been used as medicine for a long time in China. In this study, the complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence of U. rhynchophylla was first reported and characterized. The cp genome was 154,605 bp in length and contains a pair of inverted repeats (IRs, 34,165 bp each) separated by a large (84,327 bp) and small (12,966 bp) single-copy regions. A total of 113 unique genes were predicted, including 79 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes and 4 rRNA genes. The phylogenetic analysis suggested that U. rhynchophylla was closer to Neolamarckia cadamba.

Paederia scandens has been used as a traditional medicine in Asian countries to treat jaundice, dysentery, and the pain of rheumatism. The complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence of P. scandens was reported and characterized in this study. The cp genome is 153,626 bp in length, composed of a pair of 26,513 bp inverted repeat (IR) regions separated by a large single-copy (LSC) region of 83,712 bp and a small single-copy (SSC) region of 16,888 bp. There were 131 predicted genes (86 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes, and 8 rRNA genes) in the genome, and the overall GC content of the genome is 37.7%. Phylogenetic analysis based on the cp genome data showed that P. scandens was sister to the clade formed by Galium mollugo and G. aparine.

The complete chloroplast (cp) genome of Pinus squamata, a critically endangered species in China, was reported in this study. The cp genome is 118,300 bp in length and has four regions: 65,298 bp of large single copy (LSC) region and 52,098 bp of small single copy (SSC) region separated by 452 bp of highly reduced inverted repeat (IR) regions. This cp genome with GC content of 38.8% contains 107 unique genes (73 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes, and four rRNA genes). Phylogenetic analysis based on the complete cp genomes indicates that P. squamata is closer to P. gerardiana than P. bungeana.

The first complete chloroplast genome (cp) sequences of Silene jenisseensis were reported in this study. The S. jenisseensis cp genome was 150,299 bp in size, with two inverted repeat (IR) regions of 25,384 bp, the large single-copy (LSC) region of 82,153 bp, and the small single-copy (SSC) region of 17,378 bp. The cp genome of this species contained 111 genes, including 77 protein-coding genes, 4 ribosomal RNA, and 30 transfer RNA genes. The overall GC content was 36.4%. Phylogenetic analysis of the cp genomes within the Caryophyllaceae family suggests that S. jenisseensis is closer to the clade formed by S. capitata and S. aprica.

The complete chloroplast (cp) genome of Magnolia wilsonii, an endangered and endemic species in China, was first reported in this study. The M. wilsonii cp genome was 157,434 bp in length, including two inverted repeat (IR) regions of 26,868 bp, a large single copy (LSC) region of 85,387 bp, and a small single copy (SSC) region of 18,311 bp. A total of 113 unique genes, including 79 protein-coding genes, 4 ribosomal RNA genes, and 30 transfer RNA genes, were annotated. The overall GC content was 38.8%. Phylogenetic analysis of 34 representative cp genomes within the genus Magnolia suggests that M. wilsonii was sister to M. sieboldii.

The first complete chloroplast genome (cp) sequences of Gentiana rhodantha were reported in this study. The cp genome of G. rhodantha was 148,967 bp in size, with two inverted repeat (IR) regions of 25,760 bp, the large single copy (LSC) region of 79,831 bp, and the small single copy (SSC) region of 17,616 bp. The cp genome contained 112 genes, including 78 protein-coding genes, 4 ribosomal RNA, and 30 transfer RNA genes. The overall GC content was 36.4%. Phylogenetic analysis of the cp genomes within the tribe Gentianeae suggests that G. rhodantha is in a sister clade of other subtribe Gentianinae.

Humulus yunnanensis is an endemic species in Yunnan, China, which is used for beer and pharmacology industry. The phylogenetic position of this species in Humulus remains controversial. The complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence of H. yunnanensis was reported and characterized in this study. The cp genome is 153,612 bp in length and contains a pair of inverted repeats (IRs, 29,824 bp) separated by a large (87,728 bp) and small (15,390 bp) single-copy regions. A total of 112 unique genes were predicted, including 78 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes, and 4 rRNA genes. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that H. yunnanensis is more closely related to H. scandens than H. lupulus.

The first complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequences of an endemic and endangered species in China, Calanthe henryi, were reported in this study. The cp genome of C. henryi was 158,256 bp long, with two inverted repeat (IR) regions of 26,348 bp, a large single copy (LSC) region of 87,137 bp, and a small single copy (SSC) region of 18,423 bp. The cp genome of this species contained 113 genes, including 79 protein-coding genes, 4 ribosomal RNA genes, and 30 transfer RNA genes. The overall GC content was 36.7%. Phylogenetic analysis of 60 cp genomes within the subfamily of Epidendroideae suggests that C. henryi is closely related to C. bicolor.

The long dormancy period of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis seeds affects the supply of this scarce plant, which is used as an important traditional Chinese medicine. Mature seeds with a globular embryo and germinating seeds with developed embryo were used to explore the mechanisms of seed germination in this species. The protein profiles between the mature and germinating seeds were compared using the isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) approach. Of the 4,488 proteins identified, a total of 1,305 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were detected. A Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis of these DEPs indicated that metabolic pathways and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites were the two top pathways. Additionally, phytohormone quantification shows that the abscisic acid (ABA) level significantly decreased, whereas the GA3 level dramatically increased among nine endogenous gibberellins (GAs), resulting in a significant increase of the GA3/ABA ratio in germinating seeds. The biosynthesis pathways of carotenoid as a precursor for ABA production and GA were further analyzed, and showed that proteinic expressions of the candidate genes in the two pathways did not correlate with the transcriptional abundances. However, 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED), a rate limited enzyme for ABA biosynthesis, was significantly decreased in mRNA levels in germinating seeds. By contrast, gibberellin 20-oxidase (GA20ox), a key enzyme GA biosynthesis, exhibited the major increase in one copy and a slight decrease in three others at the protentional level in germinating seeds. Gibberellin 2-oxidase (GA2ox), an inactivate enzyme in bioactive GAs, has the tendency to down-regulate in mRNA or at the proteinic level in germinating seeds. Altogether, these results suggested that the analyses of ABA and GA levels, the GA3/ABA ratio, and the expressional patterns of their regulatory genes may provide a novel mechanistic understanding of how phytohormones regulate seed germination in P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis.

Gene duplication can increase functional diversity of a gene family. SQUAMOSA promoter binding protein-like (SPL) genes encode plant-specific transcription factors. The SPL genes are regulated by miR156 and miR529 microRNA families. However, little is known about how and if duplicated SPL genes (paralogs) have retained active miR156/529 binding sites. Here, we analyzed 136 SPL genes from eight representative land plants, in which 70 of them originated from several large-scale duplication events, 40 ones constituted 32 duplicated target pairs. In this study, these target pairs were divided into divergent pattern (D-type) and same pattern (S-type). The D-pattern included loss/gain of miRNA binding sites on one paralog (D-1) and the mutation on miRNA binding sequences (D-2). Further study indicated that D-type gene pairs had the higher sequence divergence and evolutionary rate than S-type ones. Meanwhile, D-type gene pairs exhibited the different expression patterns, whereas S-type gene pairs had the similar expression patterns. These results revealed that the different divergence of miR156/529 binding sites after gene duplication might contribute to increasing functional diversity of SPL genes. In addition, gene structural analysis suggested that exonization/pseudoexonization and indel were two main mechanisms to gain/loss and shift the miR156/529 binding sites after gene duplications, and the latter might easily introduce the mutation when miRNA binding sites shifted from the coding region to untranslated region. Therefore, this study provides the better understanding the functional diversity of SPL genes in land plants.

The fresh fleshy peduncles of Hovenia acerba have been used as a food supplement and traditional herbal medicine (i.e. immunostimulatory and antialcoholism) for a long time. However, little is known about the genetic factors underlying peduncle development. Here, we presented the first transcriptome-wide peduncle development research at two developmental stages using Illumina's Genome Analyzer. Our results indicated that a total of 146,206 unigenes were identified and their functional annotation and classification revealed that the unigenes involved in energy catabolism and genetic information processing were necessary to the developing of peduncle in H. acerba. The comparison of Gene Ontology (GO) annotation between two developmental stages indicated that the term of oxidation-reduction process exhibited the big difference in unigene number, in which the possible relative transcription factors were identified. However, we found that these transcription factors were partly involved in oxidation-reduction process and most of them were involved in regulation of transcription. The metabolic process was classified into the second different GO term when compared unigene number between two stages. Combined with the KEGG pathway annotation, we found that carbohydrate metabolism showed the major difference in unigene number, which might contribute to the biosynthesis of polysaccharides as immunostimulatory agent. Finally, 54 candidate genes encoding 14 enzymes were found to biosynthesize flavonoid that has the antialcoholism effect. This study is the first report on transcriptome information in H. acerba and will promote to understand the genetic mechanism of peduncle development.

The first complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequences of Pittosporum tobira were reported in this study. The cp genome of P. tobira was 153,754 bp long, which included a large single copy (LSC) regi...

Additional file 6: Figure S2. Pan-cancer correlation analysis of RBFOX2 and HOXA genes by R software (version 3.6.0). The X axis stands for -log10(p value), while the Y axis represent Pearson coefficients. The purple dots in the right upper quadrant represent cancer types, in which the correlation is significant and positive. The result in AML was red dots and annotated by text.

Additional file 5: Figure S1. The results of correlation analysis of RBFOX2 and HOXA genes by R software (version 3.6.0).

Additional file 7: Figure S3. pan-tissue correlation analysis of RBFOX2 and HOXA genes by R software (version 3.6.0). The X axis stands for -log10(p value), while the Y axis represent Pearson coefficients. The purple dots in the right upper quadrant represent normal tissue types, in which the correlation is significant and positive. The result in normal bone marrow was red dots and annotated by text.

Uncaria rhynchophylla is a vine plant belonging to the family Rubiaceae and has been used as medicine for a long time in China. In this study, the complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence ...

The first complete chloroplast genome (cp) sequences of Gentiana rhodantha were reported in this study. The cp genome of G. rhodantha was 148,967 bp in size, with two inverted repeat (IR) regions o...

The first complete chloroplast (cp) genome of Indofevillea khasiana was reported in this study. The I. khasiana cp genome was 159,238 bp in size, with two inverted repeat (IR) regions of 26,275 bp separated by a large single copy (LSC) region of 88,538 bp and a small single copy (SSC) region of 18,150 bp. The cp genome of this species contained 113 genes, including 79 protein-coding genes, 4 ribosomal RNA genes, and 30 transfer RNA genes. The overall GC content was 36.9%. Phylogenetic analysis based on the cp genome sequences suggests that I. khasiana is sister to the rest species of subfam. Cucurbitoideae.

The first complete chloroplast genome (cp) sequences of Silene jenisseensis were reported in this study. The S. jenisseensis cp genome was 150,299 bp in size, with two inverted repeat (IR) ...

The first complete chloroplast (cp) genome of Hovenia dulcis was reported in this study. The H. dulcis cp genome was 161,636 bp long with two inverted repeat (IR) regions of 26,574 bp, the large single-copy (LSC) region of 89,574 bp, and the small single-copy (SSC) region of 18,914 bp. The cp genome of this species contained 113 genes, including 79 protein-coding genes, 4 ribosomal RNA genes, and 30 transfer RNA genes. The overall GC content was 36.6%. Phylogenetic analysis based on the complete cp genomes within the Rhamnaceae family suggests that H. dulcis is closer to the genus of Ziziphus.

Acer yangbiense Y.S. Chen & Q.E. Yang is a species of Aceraceae with a very restricted distribution in Yunnan, China. In this study, the complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence of A. yangbiense was reported and characterized. The cp genome is 155,706 bp in length and contains a pair of inverted repeats (IRs, 25,858 bp) separated by a large (85,859 bp) and small (18,131 bp) single-copy regions. A total of 128 genes were predicted, including 83 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes and 8 rRNA genes. The phylogenetic analysis suggested that A. yangbiense is sister of the clade formed by A. laevigatum, A. palmatum, A. wilsonii, and A. buergerianum.

Ruta graveolens L. is a perennial plant belonging to the family Rutaceae and has been used for traditional medicines for a long time. In this study, the complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence of R. graveolens was first reported and characterized. The cp genome is 157,434 bp in length and contains a pair of inverted repeats (IRs, 26,868 bp) separated by a large (85,387 bp) and small (18,311 bp) single-copy regions. A total of 132 genes were predicted, including 87 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes and 8 rRNA genes. The phylogenetic analysis suggested that R. graveolens is more closely related to the monophyletic subfam. Aurantioideae.

Paederia scandens has been used as a traditional medicine in Asian countries to treat jaundice, dysentery, and the pain of rheumatism. The complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequence of P. scandens w...

The complete chloroplast (cp) genome of Magnolia wilsonii, an endangered and endemic species in China, was first reported in this study. The M. wilsonii cp genome was 157,434 bp in length, includin...

The complete chloroplast (cp) genome of Pinus squamata, a critically endangered species in China, was reported in this study. The cp genome is 118,300 bp in length and has four regions: 65,298 bp o...

Humulus yunnanensis is an endemic species in Yunnan, China, which is used for beer and pharmacology industry. The phylogenetic position of this species in Humulus remains controversial. The complet...

The complete chloroplast (cp) genome of Rosa berberifolia was assembled from high-throughput Illumina sequencing data. The cp genome of R. berberifolia was 156,886 bp in length with a typical quadr...

The first complete chloroplast (cp) genome of the Chinese endemic and endangered species, Magnolia omeiensis, were reported in this study. The M. omeiensis cp genome was 160,091 bp in length, with ...

The combinatorial control of one target by multiple miRNAs brings big challenges to elucidate its precise evolutionary mechanism. Squamosa promoter binding protein-like (SBP) gene family exhibits the different regulatory patterns, in which some members are only regulated by miR156 and others by miR156 and miR529. Here, we explored the different evolutionary patterns and rates between miR156 targets and miR529 ones in three species (moss, rice, and maize). Our work found that the miR529 targets were members of miR156 target dataset, indicative of cooperative control. Further phylogenetic analyses as well as gene structure features demonstrated that miR529 targets derived from a monophyletic branch of miR156 targets which evolved into two independent branches duo to the ancient gene duplication. Moreover, inspection of evolutionary rate parameters (d(N)/d(S), d(N) and d(S)) for miR156 targets and miR529 ones revealed they were under different selection strength. MiR529 targets were more constraint by strong purifying selection and evolved conservatively with a slow rate. By contrast, miR156 targets evolved more rapidly and experienced more relaxed purifying selection, which may contribute to their functional diversification. Our results will enhance the understanding of different evolutionary fates of SBP-box genes regulated by the different numbers of miRNA families before functional studies.

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A complete picture of the evolution of miRNA combinatorial regulation requires the synthesis of information on all miRNAs and their targets. MiR156 and miR529 are two combinatorial regulators of squamosa promoter binding protein-like (SBP-box) genes. Previous studies have clarified the evolutionary dynamics of their targets; however, there have been no reports on the evolutionary patterns of two miRNA regulators themselves to date. In this study, we investigated the evolutionary differences between these two miRNA families in extant land plants. Our work found that miR529 precursor, especially of its mature miRNA sequence, has a higher evolutionary rate. Such accelerating evolution of miR529 has significantly effects on its structural stability, and sequence conservation against existence of itself. By contrast, miR156 evolves more rapidly in loop region of the stable secondary structure, which may contribute to its functional diversity. Moreover, miR156 and miR529 genes have distinct rates of loss after identical duplication events. MiR529 genes have a higher average loss rate and asymmetric loss rate in duplicated gene pairs, indicating preferred miR529 gene losses become another predominant mode of inactivation, that are implicated in the contraction of this family. On the contrary, duplicated miR156 genes have a low loss rate, and could serve as another new source for functional diversity. Taken together, these results provide better insight into understanding the evolutionary divergence of miR156 and miR529 family in miRNA combinational regulation network.