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Training algorithms, broadly construed, are an essential part of every deep learning pipeline. Training algorithm improvements that speed up training across a wide variety of workloads (e.g., better update rules, tuning protocols, learning rate schedules, or data selection schemes) could save time, save computational resources, and lead to better, more accurate, models. Unfortunately, as a community, we are currently unable to reliably identify training algorithm improvements, or even determine the state-of-the-art training algorithm. In this work, using concrete experiments, we argue that real progress in speeding up training requires new benchmarks that resolve three basic challenges faced by empirical comparisons of training algorithms: (1) how to decide when training is complete and precisely measure training time, (2) how to handle the sensitivity of measurements to exact workload details, and (3) how to fairly compare algorithms that require hyperparameter tuning. In order to address these challenges, we introduce a new, competitive, time-to-result benchmark using multiple workloads running on fixed hardware, the AlgoPerf: Training Algorithms benchmark. Our benchmark includes a set of workload variants that make it possible to detect benchmark submissions that are more robust to workload changes than current widely-used methods. Finally, we evaluate baseline submissions constructed using various optimizers that represent current practice, as well as other optimizers that have recently received attention in the literature. These baseline results collectively demonstrate the feasibility of our benchmark, show that non-trivial gaps between methods exist, and set a provisional state-of-the-art for future benchmark submissions to try and surpass., Comment: 102 pages, 8 figures, 41 tables

Plant growth-promoting activity of radiation-processed chitosan has been widely investigated by several researchers. Taking a step further, different fractions of irradiated chitosan (ICH), separated by column chromatography, were assessed for their effect on growth, physiology, and yield attributes of Java citronella (Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt), conducting a pot experiment in the net-house conditions. Structural characterization of ICH was carried out using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. Among various fractions, Fraction 2 of irradiated chitosan (ICH-F2) proved the best for almost all the parameters studied including the growth biomarkers, photosynthesis-allied parameters, enzymatic activities, and yield attributes. Interestingly, the ICH-F2 fraction contained a higher amount of carbonyl group as compared to other fractions. Perhaps, this specialty made the ICH-F2 unique and a potent growth promoter. As compared to the control, ICH-F2 enhanced the chlorophyll content (38.6%), and the activities of carbonic anhydrase (27.7%), nitrate reductase (21.5%), and DXR, i.e., deoxy- d -xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (45.7%). Application of ICH-F2 also enhanced the essential oil (EO) content (35.4%) and EO yield (120.1%) of Java citronella significantly. GC-MS analysis of EO revealed a significant increase in the contents of major aroma-compounds, viz. citronellal (18.4%) and geraniol (20.5%) simultaneous with a concurrent decrease in citronellol (24.6%) and geranyl acetate (19.3%) in comparison to the control.

Additional file 1. Figure S1: Prey consumption and eggs laid responses of N. californicus, S. newsami, and N. cucumeris, and their relationship between prey density and rate of oviposition by feeding on three different life stages of P. citri over the 24 h experimental duration.

Salinity is one of the major challenges that the current agricultural system is facing. High salt concentration inhibits the uptake of water by plants and interrupts the cellular ions equilibrium resulting in osmotic stress, ion toxicity, and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). It inhibits photosynthesis, disrupts the metabolic balance, and damages cellular structures, and ultimately results in the reduction of crop yield. It constrains the activity of the photosystem II complex and induces the loss of chlorophyll pigments. The indepth knowledge of the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in plant tolerance to salinity can help to identify the candidate genes/proteins that mitigate crop losses due to high salt conditions in the soil. To minimize the salinity-induced damage plants possess some innate defense systems such as synthesis of osmolytes to maintain cell turgor, regulation of ion homeostasis to cater to ions imbalance in the cell, activation of the antioxidant system to limit excessive ROS generation, and maintain the cellular redox balance. At the molecular level, salt stress stimulates various transcriptions factors (AP2/ERF, bZIP, NAC, MYB, WRKY) and regulates the gene expression of both enzymatic (superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase, ascorbic peroxidase, etc.) and nonenzymatic components (ascorbic acid, glycine betaine, tocopherols, flavonoids) of the antioxidant machinery, ion transporters (High-affinity K+ transporters, Na+/H+ exchanger, salt overly sensitive, etc.), photosynthesis-related proteins (OEE, cytochrome b6f, CAB, RuBisCO, etc.), proteins concerned with carbohydrate and energy metabolism (ATP synthase, GAPDH, citrate synthase, malate dehydrogenase, etc.) and signaling proteins (14-3-3-like proteins, annexin, calreticulin, etc.) to reduce the adverse effects induced by salinity especially in halophytes. In this chapter, recent advances on the deleterious effect of salinity on the plant processes and the various tolerance mechanisms used by plants are discussed. Besides, the latest integrative analysis of transcriptomics and proteomics, studies of plants under salinity stress were further taken into account to strengthen the understanding of plant response to salinity.

Phytoremediation is an ecologically and economically feasible technique to remove heavy metal from soil. The aim of the study was to examine cadmium (Cd) toxicity and phytoremediation aptitude of Brassica juncea. In the present study, plants survived when exposed to different levels of Cd (0, 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg soil) and accumulated a large amount of Cd in its root and shoot. Translocation factor (TF) of Cd from root to shoot was > 1 at both 45 and 60‐day stage of growth suggesting that B. juncea is a hyperaccumulator and strong candidate for phytoextraction of Cd. Alongside, Cd impaired photolysis of water, PSII activity, nutrient uptake, photosynthesis and sugar accumulation in the plant. Cd-generated oxidative stress restricts the growth of B. juncea. The toxic effect of Cd was more pronounced at 45‐day stage of growth signifying the drifting of plant towards acquirement of exclusion strategy.

The use of nanotechnology in agriculture is increasing at a phenomenal rate. It is, therefore, necessary to appreciate and elucidate the role of nanoparticles (NPs) in plant growth and development. Silicon is regarded as a ‘quasi-essential’ element for plants and regulates a range of physiological processes including germination, vegetative growth, photosynthesis and stress tolerance. It is, therefore, of importance to assess the effects of silicon nanoparticles (SNPs) on these physiological processes, as SNPs are considered more efficient than their bulk particles due to their small size and high surface area and reactivity. The present chapter deals with the role of SNPs in plant growth, photosynthesis and stress tolerance. Additionally, potential toxic effects of NPs are presented.

A series of different substituted terpyridine-based ligands have been synthesized by Kröhnke method. Their binding behaviour was evaluated by complexing them with Co(II), Fe(II), and Zn(II) ions which resulted in interesting coordination compounds with formulas, [Zn(mttpy)2]PF6, [Co(mttpy)2](PF6)2, [Fe(mttpy)2](PF6)2 and interesting spectroscopic properties. Their absorption and emission behaviours in dilute solutions were investigated in order to explain structure–property associations and demonstrate the impact of different aryl substituents on the terpyridine scaffold as well as the role of the metal on the complexes. Photo-luminescence analysis of the complexes in acetonitrile solution revealed a transition from hypsochromic to bathochromic shift. All the compounds displayed remarkable photo-luminescent properties and various maximum emission peaks owing to the different nature of the functional groups. Furthermore, the anti-microbial potential of ligands and complexes was evaluated with docking analyses carried out to investigate the binding affinity of terpyridine-based ligands along with corresponding proteins (shikimate dehydrogenase and penicillin-binding protein) binding sites. To obtain further insight into molecular orbital distributions and spectroscopic properties, DFT calculations were performed for representative complexes. The photophysical activity and interactions between chromophore structure and properties were both investigated experimentally as well as theoretically.

BRs are polyhydroxylated sterol derivatives, classified as phytohormones. Plants of Brassica juncea var. Varuna were grown in pots and an aqueous solution (10−8 M) of two brassinosteroid isomers 28-homobrassinolide (HBL) and 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) of same concentration (10−8 M) was applied to their leaves. The treatment up-regulated the photosynthetic machinery directly by enhancing water splitting activity, photochemical quenching, non-photochemical quenching, maximum PSII efficiency, actual PSII efficiency, electron transport rate, stomatal movement, stomatal conductance, internal CO2 concentration, transpiration rate, net photosynthetic rate and carbohydrate synthesis. Moreover, the level of biochemical enzymes (carbonic anhydrase and nitrate reductase), reactive oxygen species (superoxide and hydrogen peroxide) generation, antioxidant enzyme activity and mineral status (C, N, Mg, P, S, K), which indirectly influence the rate of photosynthesis, also improved in the treated plants. Out of the two BR analogues tested, EBL excelled in its effects over HBL.

Oligomers derived through irradiation of marine polysaccharides have generated a lot of interest of plant biologists as the application of these molecules has yielded positive results regarding various plant processes. To comprehend the previously established growth-promoting activity of irradiated chitosan (ICH) and to gain insight of the structure-property relationship, gamma rays induced structural changes were analyzed using techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, Ultraviolet-visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopy, 13C-Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Moreover, to study the bioactivity of ICH samples a pot experiment was conducted on citronella grass (Cymbopogon winterianus) to access its response to foliar application of various levels (40, 60, 80 and 100 mg L−1) of ICH in terms of growth, physiological attributes and essential oil (EO) production. The application of ICH at 80 mg L−1(ICH-80) resulted in the maximum values of most of the attributes studied. Due to this treatment, the maximum improvement in the content (29.58%) and yield (90.81%) of EO in Cymbopogon winterianus were achieved. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis revealed that ICH-80 also increased the content of citronellal (14.81%) and geraniol (18.15%) of the EO as compared to the control.

Salinity is one of the most prominent environmental stress found in the cultivated crops worldwide because many of the crops are susceptible to soil salinization resulting from the accumulation of salts in the soil. Salinity alters the physiology and metabolism of plants by a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis, respiration, protein synthesis, and lipid metabolism that lead to a reduction in yield of many crops. To overcome this problem, plants grown in saline conditions are engineered with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR agriculturally important bacteria) that inhabited in the rhizosphere of the plant. Globally, about 20% of cultivable land, as well as 50% of cropland, is under salinity stress according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The beneficial effects of PGPR in alleviating salt stress involve boosting key physiological and biochemical pathways, viz., water and nutrient uptake, photosynthetic machinery, ion homeostasis, regulation of osmotic balance, regulation of redox status, capacity, regulation of endogenous phytohormone level, and availability of volatile organic compounds for plants. Therefore, it is recommended that the application of PGPR is an effective means to combat salinity stress in agricultural fields, thereby enhancing world crop productivity. The main emphasis of the chapter is to evaluate the salinity tolerance mechanisms exhibited by PGPR.

9th Australian Information Security Management Conference, Edith Cowan University, Perth Western Australia, 5th -7th December, 2011, Protecting information assets is very vital to the core survival of an organization. With the increase in cyberattacks and viruses worldwide, it has become essential for organizations to adopt innovative and rigorous procedures to keep these vital assets out of the reach of exploiters. Although complying with an international information security standard such as ISO 27001 has been on the rise worldwide, with over 7000 registered certificates, few companies in Saudi Arabia are ISO 27001 certified. In this paper, we explore the motives, obstacles, challenges, and outcomes for a Saudi organization during their implementation of ISO 27001, with the goal of shedding some light on the reason behind the low adoption of the ISO 27001 certification standard in the region of study. While customer satisfaction and good partner relationships are essential for an organization’s survival, strikingly, none of the organizations interviewed indicated that their goals included meeting consumer requirements or a partner’s mandates.

"Decentralization has the potential to improve the accountability of government and lead to a more efficient provision of public services. However, accountability requires broad groups of people to participate in local government. Thus, voter turnout at local government elections is an important component of government accountability. This study used survey data on the 2005 local government elections in Pakistan to analyze the impact of electoral mechanisms, the credibility of elections, and voters' socioeconomic characteristics on voter turnout. The rational-choice perspective is applied to develop the specifications of the empirical model. The empirical analysis is based on a series of standard and multilevel random-intercept logistic models. Our important findings reveal that (1) voter turnout is strongly associated with the personal and social gratifications people derive from voting; (2) the preference-matching ability of candidates for local government positions is marginal; and (3) the introduction of direct elections of the district nazims—a key position in local government—might improve electoral participation and thus create a precondition for better local government accountability. The findings also suggest that less educated people, farmers, and rural people are more likely to vote." Authors' Abstract

The Hanna Neumann conjecture states that if F is a free group, then for all nontrivial finitely generated subgroups H,K, 11 pages, 3 figures

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is endemic in people who inject drugs (PWID), with prevalence estimates above 60% for PWID in the United States. Previous modeling studies suggest that direct acting antiviral (DAA) treatment can lower overall prevalence in this population, but treatment is often delayed until the onset of advanced liver disease (fibrosis stage 3 or later) due to cost. Lower cost interventions featuring syringe access (SA) and medically assisted treatment (MAT) have shown mixed results in lowering HCV rates below current levels. However. little is known about the potential cumulative effects of combining DAA and MAT treatment. While simulation experiments can reveal likely long-term effects, most prior simulations have been performed on closed populations of model agents—a scenario quite different from the open, mobile populations known to most health agencies. This paper uses data from the Centers for Disease Control’s National HIV Behavioral Surveillance project, IDU round 3, collected in New York City in 2012 to parameterize simulations of open populations. To test the effect of combining DAA treatment with SA/MAT participation, multiple, scaled implementations of the two intervention strategies were simulated. Our results show that, in an open population, SA/MAT by itself has only small effects on HCV prevalence, while DAA treatment by itself can lower both HCV and HCV-related advanced liver disease prevalence. More importantly, the simulation experiments suggest that combinations of the two strategies can, when implemented together and at sufficient levels, dramatically reduce HCV incidence. We conclude that adopting SA/MAT implementations alongside DAA interventions can play a critical role in reducing the long-term consequences of ongoing HCV infection.