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Rhinoscopy became a formal field of study in the mid-nineteenth century as improvements in nasal specula were made and the potent vasoconstrictive effects of cocaine on the intranasal tissues were discovered. Since then, a multitude of advances in visualization and illumination have been made. The advent of the Storz-Hopkins endoscope in the mid-twentieth century represents a culmination of efforts spanning nearly 2 centuries, and illumination has evolved concomitantly. The future of endoscopic sinus surgery may integrate developing technologies, such as 3-dimensional endoscopy, augmented reality navigation systems, and robotic endoscope holders.

Rhinoscopy became a formal field of study in the mid-nineteenth century as improvements in nasal specula were made and the potent vasoconstrictive effects of cocaine on the intranasal tissues were discovered. Since then, a multitude of advances in visualization and illumination have been made. The advent of the Storz-Hopkins endoscope in the mid-twentieth century represents a culmination of efforts spanning nearly 2 centuries, and illumination has evolved concomitantly. The future of endoscopic sinus surgery may integrate developing technologies, such as 3-dimensional endoscopy, augmented reality navigation systems, and robotic endoscope holders.

Establish the feasibility of a predictive validity study in sinus surgery simulation training and demonstrate the effectiveness of the Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Simulator (ES3) as a training device.Prospective, multi-institutional controlled trial.Four tertiary academic centers with accredited otolaryngology-head and neck surgery residency programs.Twelve ES3-trained novice residents were compared with 13 control novice residents.Subjects were assessed on the performance of basic sinus surgery tasks. Their first in vivo procedure was video recorded and submitted to a blinded panel of independent experts after the panel established a minimum inter-rater reliability of 80 percent. The recordings were reviewed by using a standardized computer-assisted method and customized metrics. Results were analyzed with the Mann-Whitney U test. Internal rater consistency was verified with Pearson moment correlation.Completion time was significantly shorter in the experimental group (injection P = 0.003, dissection P0.001), which, according to the rater panel, also demonstrated higher confidence (P = 0.009), demonstrated skill during instrument manipulation (P = 0.011), and made fewer technical mistakes during the injection task (P = 0.048) compared with the control group. The raters' post hoc internal consistency was deemed adequate (r0.5 between serial measurements).The validity of the ES3 as an effective surgical trainer was verified in multiple instances, including those not depending on subjective rater evaluations. The ES3 is one of the few virtual reality simulators with a comprehensive validation record. Advanced simulation technologies need more rapid implementation in otolaryngology training, as they present noteworthy potential for high-quality surgical education while meeting the necessity of patient safety.

This study aims to compare the image quality and potential diagnostic accuracy of paranasal sinus CT scans generated by flat panel cone beam CT at three specific data acquisition times.Prospective, single blinded analysis.Eleven patients without previous radiologic evaluation were selected based on history and findings suspicious for chronic sinusitis. Each patient was scanned at three different acquisition times: 10, 20, and 40 seconds. A panel of neuroradiologists and otolaryngologists, blinded to the scan acquisition time, individually reviewed images and rated overall image quality and visualization of specific anatomic sites. Image noise values were also calculated. Techniques were compared with a Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks test.Compared to the 10-second acquisition time, the 40- and 20-second acquisition time techniques had significantly better image quality (P0.05) and image noise (P0.05). No difference in image quality and image noise existed between the 20- and 40-second techniques. No difference in visualization of specific anatomic structures existed between any of the time techniques.The quality of flat panel CT imaging of the sinuses directly relates to scan time and thus radiation dose.

With the availability of high-resolution computed tomography (CT), a great deal of attention has been paid to the anatomy of the paranasal sinuses. But while investigators have focused on the osteomeatal complex and its relation to chronic rhinosinusitis, there has been little discussion of the superior turbinate. Although a few anatomic studies have tried to quantify pneumatization of the superior turbinate, the prevalence of this finding on radiography is not well addressed in the literature. We prospectively studied 100 consecutively presenting patients who underwent coronal CT of the paranasal sinuses (200 sides) for the evaluation of symptoms of chronic rhinosinusitis at an academic tertiary referral center to determine the prevalence of pneumatization of the superior turbinate. We found evidence of pneumatization in 44 of the 200 sides, for a prevalence of 22%. In all, pneumatized superior turbinates were found in 27 patients (27%)—bilaterally in 17 (17%) and unilaterally in 10 (10%).

Objective/Hypothesis: The role of fungal pathogens in the etiology of nasal polyposis remains unclear. The aim of this study was to determine whether there was a correlation between the presence of Alternaria-specific immunoglobulin (Ig)E antibodies, eosinophilic inflammation, and the development of nasal polyps. Study Design: Prospective study. Methods: Serum and nasal tissue homogenates from 21 patients with manifestations of chronic sinusitis with nasal polyps were compared with specimens from 13 chronic sinusitis patients without polyps and 8 healthy controls. The Phadia ImmunoCAP and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were used to quantify levels of total IgE and Alternaria-specific (IgE, IgG, and IgA) antibodies. Eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) and tryptase levels were measured in tissue homogenates, whereas the inflammatory response was evaluated using tissue eosinophil counts in tissue samples. Results: Serum analysis revealed no difference in the levels of total IgE and Alternaria-specific IgE, IgG, and IgA antibodies between the study groups. In contrast, the levels of Alternaria-specific IgE in tissue with polyps were significantly higher than in nonpolyp tissue. Increases in total tissue IgE paralleled increased levels of Alternaria-specific IgG and IgA antibodies in chronic sinusitis with nasal polyps as compared with control groups. A positive correlation was found between Alternaria-specific IgE and ECP in tissue. Increased mean levels of ECP corresponded to increased eosinophil counts in the group of patients with polyps. Conclusions:Alternaria-specific IgE and eosinophilic inflammation in nasal tissue correlates with the incidence of nasal polyps irrespective of specific IgE antibodies in serum. Together, the correlation between the local immune responses and the eosinophilic inflammation in nasal polyps suggests a possible role of Alternaria in the pathogenesis of nasal polyposis.

Post-operative stenting of the frontal sinus outflow tract has been demonstrated to improve long-term patency rates.

Background Nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) is usually the first-line intervention for obstructive sleep apnea, but up to 50% of patients are unable to tolerate therapy because of discomfort–-usually nasal complaints. No factors have been definitively correlated with nCPAP tolerance, although nasal cross-sectional area has been correlated with the level of CPAP pressure, and nasal surgery improves nCPAP compliance. This study examined the relationship between nasal cross-sectional area and nCPAP tolerance. Methods We performed acoustic rhinometry on 34 obstructive sleep apnea patients at the time of the initial sleep study. Patients titrated to nCPAP were interviewed 18 months after starting therapy to determine CPAP tolerance. Demographic, polysomnographic, and nasal cross-sectional area data were compared between CPAP-tolerant and -intolerant patients. Results Between 13 tolerant and 12 intolerant patients, there were no significant differences in age, gender, body mass index, CPAP level, respiratory disturbance index, or subjective nasal obstruction. Cross-sectional area at the inferior turbinate differed significantly between the two groups (p = 0.03). This remained significant after multivariate analysis for possibly confounding variables. A cross-sectional area cutoff of 0.6 cm2 at the head of the inferior turbinate carried a sensitivity of 75% and specificity of 77% for CPAP intolerance in this patient group. Conclusion Nasal airway obstruction correlated with CPAP tolerance, supporting an important role for the nose in CPAP, and providing a physiological basis for improved CPAP compliance after nasal surgery. Objective nasal evaluation, but not the subjective report of nasal obstruction, may be helpful in the management of these patients.

Background Anatomic and mucosal obstruction of the frontal sinus outflow tract (FSOT) can result in frontal sinusitis often associated with frontal headache. Thorough evaluation of symptomatic patients requires axial and coronal computerized tomographic (CT) scans of the paranasal sinuses (PNS). With the advent of multichannel multidetector CT scanning, the availability of high-quality sagittal images has become increasingly widespread. However, the utility of these images in the assessment of FSOT patency has not yet been established. Methods A retrospective review of coronal and sagittal images from 25 PNS CT scans (50 sides) were randomized, blinded, and independently evaluated by two neuroradiologists. FSOT obstruction by agger nasi cells, the ethmoid bulla, and mucosal disease was assessed. A degree of confidence was rendered for each of these findings. The results were then compared against a consensus diagnosis, which was rendered based upon simultaneous reading of the coronal and sagittal images. Generalized estimating equations were used to assess the difference between sagittal and coronal images in terms of reader confidence and diagnostic concordance with the consensus. Results Review of sagittal images had a higher degree of concordance with the consensus than did coronal images, and was highest for mucosal disease. Both readers were more confident in rendering a diagnosis based upon the sagittal images. Conclusion Sagittal reformatted CT images of the PNS are helpful in the radiologic evaluation of the FSOT. Experienced neuroradiologists had a higher degree of confidence in the diagnosis of the obstruction of the FSOT using sagittal reformatted images.

Background The relationship between nasal airway function and sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) remains unclear. Although correction of nasal obstruction can significantly improve nighttime breathing in some patients, nasal obstruction may not play a role in all cases of SDB. An effective method of stratifying these patients is needed. Acoustic rhinometry (AR) is a reliable, noninvasive method of measuring the dimensions of the nasal airway. Methods In 44 patients, we performed acoustic rhinometric measurements of nasal airway cross-sectional area, followed by hospital-based polysomnography and nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) level titration. We compared anatomic nasal obstruction to perceived nasal obstruction, as well as respiratory distress index and nCPAP titration level, using the Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression analysis within body mass index groups. Results Perceived nasal obstruction correlated significantly with objective anatomic obstruction as measured by AR (r = 0.45, p < 0.01). For certain subgroup analyses inpatients with a body mass index below 25, AR measurements correlated significantly with both nCPAP titration pressure (r = 0.85, p < 0.01) and respiratory distress index (r = 0.67, p = 0.03). Conclusion Nasal airway function may be a significant component of SDB in some patients, perhaps playing a larger role in patients who are not overweight. The best responders to nasal surgery for SDB may be nonoverweight patients with nasal obstruction. AR along with nasal examination may be helpful in the evaluation and treatment of the SDB patient.

The use of an intraoperative navigation device improves surgical accuracy, helps identify anatomic landmarks, and minimizes the risk of complications during surgery of the paranasal sinuses and skull base. Despite the benefits of image guidance, its use is limited by the headset, which precludes external surgical access. We report the successful use of a cranial pin placed into the outer table of the calvarium during surgery. This pin eliminates the need for a headset and permits unencumbered external surgical access. We describe a case that used a combined endoscopic and osteoplastic flap approach to the frontal sinus with this cranial pin system. There were no complications associated with placing the pin. The patient reported only minimal postoperative discomfort related to the temporal scalp incision. The cranial pin combines the benefits of surgical navigation with external surgical access to the paranasal sinuses and skull base.

Sinusitis has been reported as a complication of sinus lift surgery with antral bone augmentation. The procedure involves the creation of a submucoperiosteal pocket in the floor of the maxillary sinus for placement of a graft consisting of autogenous, allogenic, or alloplastic material. This can result in inadvertent tearing of the mucoperiosteal flap with extrusion of graft material into the antrum. Obstruction of the sinus outflow tract by mucosal edema and particulate graft material may result in sinusitis. We will discuss the clinical presentation and management of 14 cases of chronic sinusitis following sinus lift surgery with alloplastic hydroxyapatite (HA) augmentation of the maxillary antrum.

Controversy continues to surround the topic of middle turbinate resection (MTR) during endoscopic sinus surgery. Proponents of MTR cite lower incidences of synechiae formation and lateralization of the middle turbinate, as well as improved intraoperative and postoperative access to the middle meatus. Potential complications, such as alterations of nasal function, atrophic rhinitis, hyposmia, and secondary frontal sinusitis caused by MTR, have been addressed in the recent literature. Yet, despite the proven safety of this procedure, routine MTR is not advocated by most sinus surgeons. Our approach has been to perform partial MTR in cases of a diseased, destabilized, or obstructing middle turbinate. More recently, we have employed a technique for medialization of the middle turbinate or middle turbinate remnant using an absorbable transseptal suture. The stitch is placed through both middle turbinates and the nasal septum, holding the turbinates in a medial position. We have used this procedure in 75 patients undergoing endoscopic sinus surgery at New York University Medical Center between July 1998 and July 2000. There have been no complications associated with placement of the suture and no cases of middle turbinate lateralization or significant synechiae formation. This technique represents an alternative to MTR in the management of the middle turbinate during endoscopic sinus surgery and may also be used to prevent lateralization of a middle turbinate remnant in cases of partial MTR.

The bacteriology of chronic rhinosinusitis is an area of great interest among rhinologists. Numerous studies have reported culture results implicating a variety of aerobic and anaerobic organisms in the etiology of this disease process. Sampling is generally accomplished through the nasal cavity, creating the potential for contamination with resident nasal flora. In some reports, strict anaerobic techniques have not been used, possibly accounting for the failure to recover these fastidious organisms. In an attempt to clarify the microbiology of chronic rhinosinusitis, we used a novel culture and transport system in 50 patients undergoing endoscopic sinus surgery. The Accu-CulShure (MLA Systems, Pleasantville, NY, USA) is a self-contained polyethylene culture swab and transport device, capable of collecting a representative sample from the sinus without contamination, and preserving the quality of the material during transport. Our aerobic and anaerobic culture results, as well as pertinent patient data, are presented. The Accu-CulShure device may permit standardization of culture techniques for future studies, and allow for more accurate determination of the microbiology of chronic rhinosinusitis.

Osseointegrated dental implants are a widely used method of replacing lost or missing teeth. Resorption of the alveolar ridge of the edentulous posterior maxilla may necessitate augmentation before osseointegration to provide adequate bone for implant fixation. This can be accomplished through an intraoral approach to the maxillary sinus, with elevation of the mucosa of the sinus floor creating a pocket for graft placement. Disruption of the intact sinus mucosa may result in sinusitis, graft infection, or extrusion with secondary formation of an oroantral communication. To treat these patients effectively, the otolaryngologist must be aware of the techniques of sinus augmentation and osseointegration as well as the etiology of associated complications. We will discuss the management of four patients with significant sinus complications, and evaluate the otolaryngologist's role in the preoperative and postoperative care of these patients.

Synechiae formation is a frequent occurrence after endoscopic sinus surgery and may cause symptomatic sinus outflow tract obstruction. Various means are used to reduce the incidence of synechiae formation. These include meticulous operative technique, partial middle turbinate resection, middle meatus spacers or stents, and postoperative debridement. The microdebrider is a powered rotary shaving device that precisely resects tissue, minimizing inadvertent mucosal trauma and stripping. We present 40 cases of endoscopic sinus surgery performed with the microdebrider. Patients had at least a 5-month follow-up and demonstrated rapid mucosal healing, minimal crust formation, and a low incidence of synechiae formation. These initial data suggest that the microdebrider may be advantageous in surgery for chronic sinusitis. (Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1998;118:800-3.)

A retrospective histopathologic examination of the ethmoid and maxillary sinus mucosa from 21 patients who underwent surgery for chronic sinusitis was performed, and 16 microscopic features were evaluated. Statistical analysis showed no significant difference between the two sinuses with respect to all histologic features except for gland number, which was increased in the ethmoid group. Clinical endoscopic evaluation has previously shown that the ethmoid mucosa reverts to normal after endoscopic surgery, a finding supported by postoperative ethmoid biopsies showing a near normal microscopic examination. This study demonstrates that the mucosal changes of chronic sinusitis are similar in both the maxillary and ethmoid sinuses. Our findings further support the concept of mucosal reversibility and the functional approach to sinus surgery.

Pneumatization of the agger nasi can encroach upon and narrow the nasofrontal duct (NFD) and contribute to chronic frontal sinus disease. To investigate this, we reviewed the computed tomographic (CT) scans and surgical outcomes in 26 patients with chronic frontal sinusitis. Sagittal reformatted CT images were used to define the anatomy of the NFD as well as mucosal disease in the NFD and frontal sinus. The CT findings were correlated with the outcome of frontal sinus surgery. Our findings suggest that agger nasi cell pneumatization with narrowing of the frontal sinus outflow tract is a significant etiology of persistent frontoethmoid pain and chronic frontal sinusitis. Sagittal reformatted images are capable of demonstrating agger nasi cell encroachment on the NFD, as well as NFD mucosal disease. Endoscopic frontal sinusotomy is an effective surgical treatment for chronic frontal sinusitis.

Objective To investigate whether training otorhinolaryngology residents to criterion performance levels (proficiency) on the Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Simulator produces individuals whose performance in the operating room is at least equal to those who are trained by performing a fixed number of surgical procedures. Design Prospective cohort. Setting Two academic medical centers in New York City. Participants Otorhinolaryngology junior residents composed of 8 experimental subjects and 6 control subjects and 6 attending surgeons. Intervention Experimental subjects achieved benchmark proficiency criteria on the Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Simulator; control subjects repeated the surgical procedure twice. Main Outcome Measures Residents completed validated objective tests to assess baseline abilities. All subjects were videotaped performing an initial standardized surgical procedure. Residents were videotaped performing a final surgery. Videotapes were assessed for metrics by an expert panel. Results Attendings outperformed the residents in most parameters on the initial procedure. Experimental and attending groups outperformed controls in some parameters on the final procedure. There was no difference between resident groups in initial performance, but the experimental subjects outperformed the control subjects in navigation in the final procedure. Most important, there was no difference in final performance between subgroups of the experimental group on the basis of the number of trials needed to attain proficiency. Conclusions Simulator training can improve resident technical skills so that each individual attains a proficiency level, despite the existence of an intrinsic range of abilities. This proficiency level translates to at least equal, if not superior, operative performance compared with that of current conventional training with finite repetition of live surgical procedures.

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by a variety of fungi including Aspergillus, Alternaria, and Penicillium species. The presence of mycotoxins in sinonasal tissue and secretions and any possible link to chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) or other diseases of the head and neck have not been reported. The authors performed an exploratory study to determine the presence and levels of mycotoxins in the sinonasal tissue and secretions of 18 subjects undergoing endoscopic sinus surgery for CRS. Using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits, samples were analyzed for the following mycotoxins: aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin, and fumonisin. All specimens were negative for aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and fumonisin. Four (22%) of 18 specimens were positive for ochratoxin. The clinical significance of this finding remains to be determined.

A prospective randomized study comparing the effectiveness of triamcinolone acetonide and beclomethasone dipropionate nasal sprays in the treatment of allergic or vasomotor rhinitis was conducted at New York University Medical Center. Both medications were used at their recommended dosages. Fifty patients were evaluated during a 2-month treatment period. Nasal air flow and resistance were quantified by anterior active rhinomanometry using the Rhinotest microprocessor rhinomanometer. The patients’ subjective complaints were graded on a standard questionnaire. Both steroid inhalants were highly effective in relieving local symptomatology and the subjective improvement in nasal obstruction correlated with rhinomanometric assessment of the nasal airway. Triamcinolone acetonide used once daily represents an alternative to the twice daily beclomethasone dipropionate nasal steroid spray currently available for the treatment of rhinitis.

Nasal septal deviation is a common anatomic finding that may cause a subjective complaint of nasal obstruction. Adequate visualization of the nasal septum and assessment of septal deviations can be accomplished by using anterior rhinoscopy and fiberoptic nasal endoscopy. Radiologic evaluation of the septum in clinical practice is not necessary. However, a septal deviation is often present in the context of chronic rhinosinusitis, which warrants computed tomography (CT) scanning of the paranasal sinuses. The appearance of the septum radiographically may differ from the physician's assessment on physical examination. To more specifically analyze this situation, we conducted a prospective study comparing the findings on anterior rhinoscopy and nasal endoscopy with the evaluation of the nasal septum on a standard coronal paranasal sinus CT scan.

Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) of the sinonasal tract is a relatively uncommon neoplasm that can be morphologically difficult to distinguish from nonneoplastic diseases. The lethal midline granuloma syndrome was formerly believed to encompass a broad spectrum of diseases, including Wegener's granulomatosis, polymorphic reticulosis, idiopathic midline destructive disease, and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. The lack of definitive histopathologic differentiation of this group of lesions provided little guidance in their management. However, recent advancements in immunocytochemical phenotyping and molecular genetics have led to a revision of this outdated classification. Except for Wegener's granulomatosis, a well-characterized autoimmune disease, the majority of these lesions are now known to represent lymphomas of either B- or T-cell origin. T-cell or natural killer-cell phenotype (T-NK) lymphoma constitutes a particularly aggressive form of sinonasal lesions and carries a poor prognosis.

Sinusitis in the immunocompromised person can be a fulminant or even fatal illness. Aggressive treatment with intravenous antibiotics and surgery is often warranted. We report 13 cases of sinusitis in immunocompromised patients who, having failed medical treatment, required surgical management of their sinus disease. Among the patients whose sinuses were cultured intraoperatively, 63% grew Staphylococcus aureus. Most of the patients showed improvement in their infections, and none had complications of surgery.

Objective:This study aimed to investigate the utility of three-dimensional reconstructions of paranasal sinus computed tomography data in depicting the anatomy of the frontal sinus drainage pathway.Methods:Twenty-nine patients underwent imaging of the sinuses for various clinical indications. Variations in frontal sinus recess anatomy were determined from 0.75-mm thick coronal, axial and sagittal computed tomography images. Three-dimensional, reformatted images were generated from manually segmented volumes of interest. Observations were made on the variation and usefulness of these reconstructions.Results:Three-dimensional, reformatted images of segmented volumes aided delineation of the spatial relationships of the frontal sinus, frontal sinus drainage pathway, infundibular and meatal direction of drainage, agger nasi cells, ethmoid bulla cells, supraorbital cells, and suprabullar cells.Conclusion:Three-dimensional, reformatted images of frontonasal anatomy enable improved understanding of the frontal sinus drainage pathway anatomy and of the spatial relationships between ethmoid air cells in this region. Such images may provide a useful adjunct to surgical planning and education.

The endoscopic surgical technique for the removal of antrochoanal polyps is a safe and effective method with minimal morbidity. We present our results in 14 patients treated with this approach. The follow-up time ranged from 3 months to 3 years with an average of 2 years. All patients are symptom free with normal appearing maxillary sinus mucosa on office endoscopy. Only two patients required a Caldwell-Luc procedure. There were no complications in our series. We recommended the endoscopic surgical technique for the management of the antrochoanal polyp.

With the availability of high-resolution computed tomography (CT), a great deal of attention has been paid to the anatomy of the paranasal sinuses. But while investigators have focused on the osteomeatal complex and its relation to chronic rhinosinusitis, there has been little discussion of the superior turbinate. Although a few anatomic studies have tried to quantify pneumatization of the superior turbinate, the prevalence of this finding on radiography is not well addressed in the literature. We prospectively studied 100 consecutively presenting patients who underwent coronal CT of the paranasal sinuses (200 sides) for the evaluation of symptoms of chronic rhinosinusitis at an academic tertiary referral center to determine the prevalence of pneumatization of the superior turbinate. We found evidence of pneumatization in 44 of the 200 sides, for a prevalence of 22%. In all, pneumatized superior turbinates were found in 27 patients (27%)-bilaterally in 17 (17%) and unilaterally in 10 (10%).

• Technological advances continue to enhance endoscopic sinus surgical procedures. The development and utility of these techniques and devices continues to evolve and at this time the final chapter cannot yet be written. New technologies should enhance preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative surgical treatment and care. Our ability to treat inflammatory as well as neoplastic disease will benefit from the availability of such devices.

• Long-term patency rates may be improved by postoperative stenting of the frontal sinus outflow tract.

OBJECTIVE: Obstructive sleep apnea events are more common in REM sleep. although there is no relationship between sleep phase and pharyngeal airway status. We studied the patency of the nasal airway during REM and non-REM sleep with the use of acoustic rhinometry. METHODS: Serial acoustic rhinometric assessment of nasal cross-sectional area was performed in 10 subjects, before sleep and during REM and non-REM sleep. All measurements were standardized to a deconloested baseline with mean congestion factor (MCF). RESULTS: MCF in the seated position was 10.6% (+/- 3.7) and increased with supine positioning to 16.2% (+/- 2.3). In REM sleep, MCF was highest, at 22.3% (+/- 1.7). In non-REM sleep, MCF was lowest, at 2.3% (+/- 3.1). All interstage comparisons were statistically significant on repeated measures ANOVA (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: REM sleep is characterized by significant nasal congestion: non-REM sleep, by profound decongestion. This phenomenon may be attributable to REM-dependent variation in cerebral blood flow that affects nasal congestion via the internal carotid system. REM-induced nasal congestion, an indirect effect of augmented cerebral perfusion, may contribute to the higher frequency of obstructive events in REM sleep. (C) 2008 American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Foundation. All rights reserved.

Imaging Anatomy in Revision Sinus Surgery.- Indications for Revision Endoscopic Sinus Surgery.- Predictors of Failure of Primary Surgery.- Pathophysiology of Inflammation in the Surgically Failed Sinus Cavity.- Medical Management after Primary Surgery Failure and Preoperative Medical Management.- New Technologies for Revision Sinus Surgery.- Surgical Anatomy in Revision Sinus Surgery.- Surgical Instruments in Revision Endoscopic Sinus Surgery.- Anesthetic Choices, Techniques, and Injections.- Tips and Pearls in Revision Sinus Surgery.- Septal and Turbinate Surgery in Revision Sinus Surgery.- Revision Endoscopic Surgery of the Ethmoid and Maxillary Sinus.- Revision Endoscopic Surgery of the Sphenoid Sinus.- Endoscopic and Microscopic Revision Frontal Sinus Surgery.- Revision Endoscopic Frontal Sinus Surgery.- Postoperative Medical Management.- Evaluation and Treatment of Recurrent Nasal Polyposis.- Revision Surgery for Allergic Fungal Rhinosinusitis.- Revision Endoscopic Surgery for Benign Sinonasal Tumors.- Recurrent Cerebrospinal Fluid Leaks and Meningoencephaloceles.- Delayed Complications Following Sinus Trauma.- Recurrent Mucoceles.- Allergy and the Patient Requiring Revision Sinus Surgery.- Staging of Disease after Sinus Surgery Failure.- Headache and the Patient who Failed Primary Sinus Surgery.- Complications in Revision Sinus Surgery: Presentation and Management.- Revision Dacryocystorhinostomy.- Revision Endoscopic Transsphenoidal Hypophysectomy.- Revision Image-Guided Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery.- Revision Endoscopic Sinus Surgery in Children.- Open Approaches after Failure of Primary Sinus Surgery.- "Above and Below" Techniques in Revision Sinus Surgery.- Revision Endoscopic Skull-Base Surgery.- Stenting in Revision Sinus Surgery.- Use of Intravenous Antibiotics in Sinus Surgery Failures.- Objective and Subjective Outcomes after Revision Sinus Surgery.- Bioabsorbable Materials in Revision Sinus Surgery.- Endoscopic Approach after Failure of Open Sinus Procedures.

Objectives To establish discriminant validity of the endoscopic sinus surgery simulator (ES3) (Lockheed Martin, Akron, Ohio) between various health care provider experience levels and to define benchmarking criteria for skills assessment. Design Prospective multi-institutional comparison study. Setting University-based tertiary care institution. Participants Ten expert otolaryngologists, 14 otolaryngology residents, and 10 medical students. Interventions Subjects completed the ES3's virtual reality curriculum (10 novice mode, 10 intermediate mode, and 3 advanced mode trials). Performance scores were recorded on each trial. Performance differences were analyzed using analysis of variance for repeated measures (experience level as between-subjects factor). Main Outcome Measures Simulator performance scores, accuracy, time to completion, and hazard disruption. Results The novice mode accurately distinguished the 3 groups, particularly at the onset of training (mean scores: senior otolaryngologists, 66.0; residents, 42.7; students, 18.3; for the paired comparisons between groups 1 and 2 and groups 1 and 3, P = .04 and .03, respectively). Subjects were not distinguished beyond trial 5. The intermediate mode only discriminated students from other subjects ( P = .008). The advanced mode did not show performance differences between groups. Scores on the novice mode predicted those on the intermediate mode, which predicted advanced mode scores ( r = 0.687), but no relationship was found between novice and advanced scores. All groups performed equally well and with comparable consistency at the outset of training. Expert scores were used to define benchmark criteria of optimal performance. Conclusions This study completes the construct validity assessment of the ES3 by demonstrating its discriminant capabilities. It establishes expert surgeon benchmark performance criteria and shows that the ES3 can train novice subjects to attain those. The refined analysis of trial performance scores could serve educational and skills assessment purposes. Current studies are evaluating the transfer of surgical skills acquired on the ES3 to the operating room (predictive validity).

Nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) is usually the first-line intervention for obstructive sleep apnea, but up to 50% of patients are unable to tolerate therapy because of discomfort-usually nasal complaints. No factors have been definitively correlated with nCPAP tolerance, although nasal cross-sectional area has been correlated with the level of CPAP pressure, and nasal surgery improves nCPAP compliance. This study examined the relationship between nasal cross-sectional area and nCPAP tolerance.We performed acoustic rhinometry on 34 obstructive sleep apnea patients at the time of the initial sleep study. Patients titrated to nCPAP were interviewed 18 months after starting therapy to determine CPAP tolerance. Demographic, polysomnographic, and nasal cross-sectional area data were compared between CPAP-tolerant and -intolerant patients.Between 13 tolerant and 12 intolerant patients, there were no significant differences in age, gender, body mass index, CPAP level, respiratory disturbance index, or subjective nasal obstruction. Cross-sectional area at the inferior turbinate differed significantly between the two groups (p = 0.03). This remained significant after multivariate analysis for possibly confounding variables. A cross-sectional area cutoff of 0.6 cm2 at the head of the inferior turbinate carried a sensitivity of 75% and specificity of 77% for CPAP intolerance in this patient group.Nasal airway obstruction correlated with CPAP tolerance, supporting an important role for the nose in CPAP, and providing a physiological basis for improved CPAP compliance after nasal surgery. Objective nasal evaluation, but not the subjective report of nasal obstruction, may be helpful in the management of these patients.

Anatomic and mucosal obstruction of the frontal sinus outflow tract (FSOT) can result in frontal sinusitis often associated with frontal headache. Thorough evaluation of symptomatic patients requires axial and coronal computerized tomographic (CT) scans of the paranasal sinuses (PNS). With the advent of multichannel multidetector CT scanning, the availability of high-quality sagittal images has become increasingly widespread. However, the utility of these images in the assessment of FSOT patency has not yet been established.A retrospective review of coronal and sagittal images from 25 PNS CT scans (50 sides) were randomized, blinded, and independently evaluated by two neuroradiologists. FSOT obstruction by agger nasi cells, the ethmoid bulla, and mucosal disease was assessed. A degree of confidence was rendered for each of these findings. The results were then compared against a consensus diagnosis, which was rendered based upon simultaneous reading of the coronal and sagittal images. Generalized estimating equations were used to assess the difference between sagittal and coronal images in terms of reader confidence and diagnostic concordance with the consensus.Review of sagittal images had a higher degree of concordance with the consensus than did coronal images, and was highest for mucosal disease. Both readers were more confident in rendering a diagnosis based upon the sagittal images.Sagittal reformatted CT images of the PNS are helpful in the radiologic evaluation of the FSOT. Experienced neuroradiologists had a higher degree of confidence in the diagnosis of the obstruction of the FSOT using sagittal reformatted images.

The use of image guidance in FESS has become widespread over the past several years. Numerous studies involving large numbers of patients illustrate the accuracy of these systems. In addition, case reports concerning patients who have extensive sinonasal neoplasms or distorted anatomy serve to demonstrate the usefulness of IGS. Studies by Metson et al [22] and Fried et al [23] have also investigated the surgeons' opinions of IGS. The vast majority of sinus surgeons have been pleased with the systems' ease of use and accuracy. Increased confidence in precisely localizing anatomical structures was the primary benefit. The major drawback to using image-guided systems was the increased operative time. Despite this, almost all surgeons who were questioned reported that they expect to increase their use of IGS in the future. By giving the surgeon real-time localization of surgical instruments, IGS could result in safer and more thorough surgery. This effect could have major implications for difficult surgeries in which distorted anatomy or extensive disease might otherwise result in incomplete eradication of the disease process. Studies examining these issues are necessary before a final conclusion can be drawn as to whether the accuracy achieved with current systems is truly beneficial and the cost is worth incurring.

The relationship between nasal airway function and sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) remains unclear. Although correction of nasal obstruction can significantly improve nighttime breathing in some patients, nasal obstruction may not play a role in all cases of SDB. An effective method of stratifying these patients is needed. Acoustic rhinometry (AR) is a reliable, noninvasive method of measuring the dimensions of the nasal airway.In 44 patients, we performed acoustic rhinometric measurements of nasal airway cross-sectional area, followed by hospital-based polysomnography and nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) level titration. We compared anatomic nasal obstruction to perceived nasal obstruction, as well as respiratory distress index and nCPAP titration level, using the Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression analysis within body mass index groups.Perceived nasal obstruction correlated significantly with objective anatomic obstruction as measured by AR (r = 0.45, p0.01). For certain subgroup analyses in patients with a body mass index below 25, AR measurements correlated significantly with both nCPAP titration pressure (r = 0.85, p0.01) and respiratory distress index (r = 0.67, p = 0,03).Nasal airway function may be a significant component of SDB in some patients, perhaps playing a larger role in patients who are not overweight. The best responders to nasal surgery for SDB may be nonoverweight patients with nasal obstruction. AR along with nasal examination may be helpful in the evaluation and treatment of the SDB patient.

Objectives/Hypothesis To determine the incidence and degree of asymmetry in the height and contour of the ethmoid roof. Study Design Retrospective review of direct coronal paranasal sinus computed tomography (CT) scans. Methods Retrospective review of 200 consecutive direct coronal sinus CT scans done at New York University Medical Center from July 25, 2000 to October 11, 2000. The height and contour of the fovea ethmoidalis were examined for symmetry between the right and left sides. When an asymmetry in the height of the fovea ethmoidalis existed, this difference was quantified. Results In 19 scans (9.5%), there was an asymmetry between the height of the fovea ethmoidalis on the right and left sides. Of these 19, 12 (63.2%) were lower on the right side, whereas 7 (36.8%) were lower on the left. Ninety-six patients (48.0%) demonstrated a contour asymmetry with “flattening” of the ethmoid roof on one side, 46 on the right and 50 on the left. One patient demonstrated both height and contour asymmetry. The fovea ethmoidalis on the remaining 86 scans (43.0%) was symmetric. Conclusions In a patient population with sinus and nasal symptoms, the height and contour of the right and left fovea ethmoidalis were symmetric in less than 50% of individuals. The asymmetry was most often the result of a difference in contour with flattening of the fovea on one side. This underscores the importance of careful preoperative and intraoperative review of paranasal sinus CT scans in patients undergoing endoscopic sinus surgery.