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Closed ecological systems are desirable for a number of purposes. In space life support systems, material closure allows precious life-supporting resources to be kept inside and recycled. Closure in small biospheric systems facilitates detailed measurement of global ecological processes and biogeochemical cycles. Closed testbeds facilitate research topics which require isolation from the outside (e.g. genetically modified organisms; radioisotopes) so their ecological interactions and fluxes can be studied separate from interactions with the outside environment. But to achieve and maintain closure entails solving complex ecological challenges. These challenges include being able to handle faster cycling rates and accentuated daily and seasonal fluxes of critical life elements such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, water, macro- and mico-nutrients. The problems of achieving sustainability in closed systems for life support include how to handle atmospheric dynamics including trace gases, producing a complete human diet, recycling nutrients and maintaining soil fertility, the maintenance of healthy air and water and preventing the loss of critical elements from active circulation. In biospheric facilities, the challenge is also to produce analogues to natural biomes and ecosystems, studying processes of self-organization and adaptation in systems that allow specification or determination of state variables and cycles which may be followed through all interactions from atmosphere to soils. Other challenges include the dynamics and genetics of small populations, the psychological challenges for small isolated human groups and backup technologies and strategic options which may be necessary to ensure long-term operation of closed ecological systems.

The accurate assessment of drinking by patients with alcoholic liver disease is important both before and after liver transplantation. Unfortunately, self-reports by these individuals often underestimate their actual alcohol consumption. Several recently developed biochemical measures can provide additional information on a patient's use of alcohol. This article describes ethyl glucuronide, ethyl sulfate, phosphatidyl ethanol, and carbohydrate-deficient transferrin as biomarkers of drinking and summarizes research dealing with their application in patients with alcohol use disorders who are candidates for or recipients of liver transplantation. The article also offers suggestions for enhancing the reliability of self-report measures of drinking status.

Chaplains can play a unique and valuable role in the treatment of alcohol dependence, a condition that has physical, psychological, and spiritual dimensions. To best fulfill this role, chaplains need to have a broad understanding of the nature of alcohol problems and current strategies for effectively interacting with individuals who have these problems, especially those with severe problems, and with their families. This article is designed to expand the chaplain’s knowledge about alcohol use disorders as well as evidence-based treatments and to offer recommendations on how chaplains can promote recovery of individuals with alcohol-related problems.

To achieve sustainable, healthy closed ecological systems requires solutions to challenges of closing the water cycle – recycling wastewater/irrigation water/soil medium leachate and evaporated water and supplying water of required quality as needed for different needs within the facility. Engineering Biosphere 2, the first multi-biome closed ecological system within a total airtight footprint of 12,700 m 2 with a combined volume of 200,000 m 3 with a total water capacity of some 6 10 6 L of water was especially challenging because it included human inhabitants, their agricultural and technical systems, as well as five analogue ecosystems ranging from rainforest to desert, freshwater ecologies to saltwater systems like mangrove and mini-ocean coral reef ecosystems. By contrast, the Laboratory Biosphere – a small (40 m 3 volume) soil-based plant growth facility with a footprint of 15 m 2 – is a very simplified system, but with similar challenges re salinity management and provision of water quality suitable for plant growth. In Biosphere 2, water needs included supplying potable water for people and domestic animals, irrigation water for a wide variety of food crops, and recycling and recovering soil nutrients from wastewater. In the wilderness biomes, providing adequately low salinity freshwater terrestrial ecosystems and maintaining appropriate salinity and pH in aquatic/marine ecosystems were challenges. The largest reservoirs in Biosphere 2 were the ocean/marsh with some 4 10 6 L, soil with 1 to 2 10 6 l, primary storage tank with 0 to 8 10 5 L and storage tanks for condensate and soil leachate collection and mixing tanks with a capacity of 1.6 10 5 L to supply irrigation for farm and wilderness ecosystems. Other reservoirs were far smaller – humidity in the atmosphere (2 10 3 L), streams in the rainforest and savannah, and seasonal pools in the desert were orders of magnitude smaller (8 10 4 L). Key technologies included condensation from humidity in the air handlers and from the glass space frame to produce high quality freshwater, wastewater treatment with constructed wetlands and desalination through reverse osmosis and flash evaporation were key to recycling water with appropriate quality throughout the Biosphere 2 facility. Wastewater from all human uses and the domestic animals in Biosphere 2 was treated and recycled through a series of constructed wetlands, which had hydraulic loading of 0.9–1.1 m 3 day 1 (240–290 gal d 1 ). Plant production in the wetland treatment system produced 1210 kg dry weight of emergent and floating aquatic plant wetland which was used as fodder for the domestic animals while remaining nutrients/water was reused as part of the agricultural irrigation supply. There were pools of water with recycling times of days to weeks and others with far longer cycling times within Biosphere 2. By contrast, the Laboratory Biosphere with a total water reservoir of less than 500 L has far quicker cycling rapidity: for example, atmospheric residence time for water vapor was 5–20 min in the Laboratory Biosphere vs. 1–4 h in Biosphere 2, as compared with 9 days in the Earth’s biosphere. Just as in Biosphere 2, humidity in the Laboratory Biosphere amounts to a very small reservoir of water. The amount of water passing through the air in the course of a 12-h operational day is two orders of magnitude greater than the amount stored in the air. Thus, evaporation and condensation collection are vital parts of the recycle system just as in Biosphere 2. The water cycle and sustainable water recycling in closed ecological systems presents problems requiring further research – such as how to control buildup of salinity in materially closed ecosystems and effective ways to retain nutrients in optimal quantity and useable form for plant growth. These issues are common to all closed ecological systems of whatever size, including planet Earth’s biosphere and are relevant to a global environment facing increasing water shortages while maintaining water quality for human

Once it was established that the spaceflight environment was not a drastic impediment to plant growth, a remaining space biology question was whether long-term spaceflight exposure could cause changes in subsequent generations, even if they were returned to a normal Earth environment. In this study, we used a genomic approach to address this question. We tested whether changes in gene expression patterns occur in wheat plants that are several generations removed from growth in space, compared to wheat plants with no spaceflight exposure in their lineage. Wheat flown on Mir for 167 days in 1991 formed viable seeds back on Earth. These seeds were grown on the ground for three additional generations. Gene expression of fourth-generation Mir flight leaves was compared to that of the control leaves by using custom-made wheat microarrays. The data were evaluated using analysis of variance, and transcript abundance of each gene was contrasted among samples with t-tests. After corrections were made for multiple tests, none of the wheat genes represented on the microarrays showed a statistically significant difference in expression between wheat that has spaceflight exposure in their lineage and plants with no spaceflight exposure. This suggests that exposure to the spaceflight environment in low Earth orbit space stations does not cause significant, heritable changes in gene expression patterns in plants.

A mixed crop consisting of cowpeas, pinto beans and Apogee ultra-dwarf wheat was grown in the Laboratory Biosphere, a 40 m 3 closed life system equipped with 12,000 W of high pressure sodium lamps over planting beds with 5.37 m 2 of soil. Similar to earlier reported experiments, the concentration of carbon dioxide initially increased to 7860 ppm at 10 days after planting due to soil respiration plus CO 2 contributed from researchers breathing while in the chamber for brief periods before plant growth became substantial. Carbon dioxide concentrations then fell rapidly as plant growth increased up to 29 days after planting and subsequently was maintained mostly in the range of about 200–3000 ppm (with a few excursions) by CO 2 injections to feed plant growth. Numerous analyses of rate of change of CO 2 concentration at many different concentrations and at many different days after planting reveal a strong dependence of fixation rates on CO 2 concentration. In the middle period of growth (days 31–61), fixation rates doubled for CO 2 at 450 ppm compared to 270 ppm, doubled again at 1000 ppm and increased a further 50% at 2000 ppm. High productivity from these crops and the increase of fixation rates with elevated CO 2 concentration supports the concept that enhanced CO 2 can be a useful strategy for remote life support systems. The data suggests avenues of investigation to understand the response of plant communities to increasing CO 2 concentrations in the Earth’s atmosphere. Carbon balance accounting and evapotranspiration rates are included.

This paper explores alternative infra(structure)-free (IF) scenarios at a community level to promote machi-zukuri (community/neighborhood planning), a bottom-up decentralization approach improving citizen′ and municipality involvement in city planning in Japan. Demographic analysis in Japan shows that the population is becoming more urbanized, with an increasingly centralized infrastructure, but that per capita waste generation is increasing because the number of people in each household is decreasing; therefore, integration of the energy, water and waste (EWW) cycles becomes more important. For residents who are unconnected to centralized sewage treatment in Japan, mainly concentrated in municipalities whose population is less than 100,000, there is a lack of alternatives for wastewater treatment, except the current technically-demanding ′joukasou′ on-site treatment system. The authors evaluated the 30-year life-cycle cost performance of three current systems with alternative (integrated-technology) IF scenarios focusing on wastewater treatment for a small community (20 households). These systems are; wastewater gardens with biogas production, an anaerobic digester gas system integrated with fuel cell technology and a heat and power unit (CHP) combined with a biogas-producing reed bed system, all of which treat wastewater and result in useful end products-, closing the life cycle with low maintenance, a lower environmental load-, and two to four times smaller development cost than centralized options in both rural and urban communities.

An experiment utilizing cowpeas ( Vigna unguiculata L.), pinto beans ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and Apogee ultra-dwarf wheat ( Triticum sativa L.) was conducted in the soil-based closed ecological facility, Laboratory Biosphere, from February to May 2005. The lighting regime was 13 h light/11 h dark at a light intensity of 960 μmol m −2 s −1 , 45 mol m −2 day −1 supplied by high-pressure sodium lamps. The pinto beans and cowpeas were grown at two different planting densities. Pinto bean production was 341.5 g dry seed m −2 (5.42 g m −2 day −1 ) and 579.5 dry seed m −2 (9.20 g m −2 day −1 ) at planted densities of 32.5 plants m −2 and 37.5 plants m −2 , respectively. Cowpea yielded 187.9 g dry seed m −2 (2.21 g m −2 day −1 ) and 348.8 dry seed m −2 (4.10 g m −2 day −1 ) at planted densities of 20.8 plants m −2 and 27.7 plants m −2 , respectively. The crop was grown at elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, with levels ranging from 300–3000 ppm daily during the majority of the crop cycle. During early stages (first 10 days) of the crop, CO 2 was allowed to rise to 7860 ppm while soil respiration dominated, and then was brought down by plant photosynthesis. CO 2 was injected 27 times during days 29–71 to replenish CO 2 used by the crop during photosynthesis. Temperature regime was 24–28 °C day/deg 20–24 °C night. Pinto bean matured and was harvested 20 days earlier than is typical for this variety, while the cowpea, which had trouble establishing, took 25 days more for harvest than typical for this variety. Productivity and atmospheric dynamic results of these studies contribute toward the design of an envisioned ground-based test bed prototype Mars base.

This paper will review the potential of a relatively new type of testbed platform for environmental education and research because of the unique advantages resulting from their material closure and separation from the outside environment. These facilities which we term “modular biospheres”, have emerged from research centered on space life support research but offer a wider range of application. Examples of this type of facility include the Bios-3 facility in Russia, the Japanese CEEF (Closed Ecological Experiment Facility), the NASA Kennedy Space Center Breadboard facility, the Biosphere 2 Test Module and the Laboratory Biosphere. Modular biosphere facilities offer unique research and public real-time science education opportunities. Ecosystem behavior can be studied since initial state conditions can be precisely specified and tracked over different ranges of time. With material closure (apart from very small air exchange rate which can be determined), biogeochemical cycles between soil and soil microorganisms, water, plants, and atmosphere can be studied in detail. Such studies offer a major advance from studies conducted with phytotrons which because of their small size, limit the number of organisms to a very small number, and which crucially do not have a high degree of atmospheric, water and overall material closure. Modular biospheres take advantage of the unique properties of closure, as representing a distinct system “metabolism” and therefore are essentially a “mini-world”. Though relatively large in comparison with most phytotrons and ecological microcosms, which are now standard research and educational tools, modular biospheres are small enough that they can be economically reconfigured to reflect a changing research agenda. Some design elements include lighting via electric lights and/or sunlight, hydroponic or soil substrate for plants, opaque or glazed structures, and variable volume chambers or other methods to handle atmospheric pressure differences between the facility and the outside environment.

Development of reliable and robust strategies for long-term life support for planetary exploration must be built from real-time experimentation to verify and improve system components. Also critical is incorporating a range of viable options to handle potential short-term life system imbalances. This paper revisits some of the conceptual framework for a Mars base prototype which has been developed by the authors along with others previously advanced (“Mars on Earth ® ”) in the light of three years of experimentation in the Laboratory Biosphere, further investigation of system alternatives and the advent of other innovative engineering and agri-ecosystem approaches. Several experiments with candidate space agriculture crops have demonstrated the higher productivity possible with elevated light levels and improved environmental controls. For example, crops of sweet potatoes exceeded original Mars base prototype projections by an average of 46% (53% for best crop) ultradwarf (Apogee) wheat by 9% (23% for best crop), pinto bean by 13% (31% for best crop). These production levels, although they may be increased with further optimization of lighting regimes, environmental parameters, crop density etc. offer evidence that a soil-based system can be as productive as the hydroponic systems which have dominated space life support scenarios and research. But soil also offers distinct advantages: the capability to be created on the Moon or Mars using in situ space resources, reduces long-term reliance on consumables and imported resources, and more readily recycling and incorporating crew and crop waste products. In addition, a living soil contains a complex microbial ecosystem which helps prevent the buildup of trace gases or compounds, and thus assist with air and water purification. The atmospheric dynamics of these crops were studied in the Laboratory Biosphere adding to the database necessary for managing the mixed stands of crops essential for supplying a nutritionally adequate diet in space. This paper explores some of the challenges of small bioregenerative life support: air-sealing and facility architecture/design, balance of short-term variations of carbon dioxide and oxygen through staggered plantings, options for additional atmospheric buffers and sinks, lighting/energy efficiency engineering, crop and waste product recycling approaches, and human factor considerations in the design and operation of a Mars base. An “Earth to Mars” project, forging the ability to live sustainably in space (as on Earth) requires continued research and testing of these components and integrated subsystems; and developing a step-by-step learning process.

Background: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) has been extensively researched to determine its capability to accurately and practically screen for alcohol problems. Methods: During the 5 years since our previous review of the literature, a large number of additional studies have been published on the AUDIT, abbreviated versions of it, its psychometric properties, and the applicability of the AUDIT for a diverse array of populations. The current article summarizes new findings and integrates them with results of previous research. It also suggests some issues that we believe are particularly in need of further study. Results: A growing body of research evidence supports the criterion validity of English version of the AUDIT as a screen for alcohol dependence as well as for less severe alcohol problems. Nevertheless, the cut-points for effective detection of hazardous drinking as well as identification of alcohol dependence or harmful use in women need to be lowered from the originally recommended value of 8 points. The AUDIT-C, the most popular short version of the AUDIT consisting solely of its 3 consumption items, is approximately equal in accuracy to the full AUDIT. Psychometric properties of the AUDIT, such as test–retest reliability and internal consistency, are quite favorable. Continued research is urged to establish the psychometric properties of non-English versions of the AUDIT, use of the AUDIT with adolescents and with older adults, and selective inclusion of alcohol biomarkers with the AUDIT in some instances. Conclusions: Research continues to support use of the AUDIT as a means of screening for the spectrum of alcohol use disorders in various settings and with diverse populations.

Successfully managing group dynamics of small, physically isolated groups is vital for long duration space exploration/habitation and for terrestrial CELSS (Controlled Environmental Life Support System) facilities with human participants. Biosphere 2 had important differences and shares some key commonalities with both Antarctic and space environments. There were a multitude of stress factors during the first two year closure experiment as well as mitigating factors. A helpful tool used at Biosphere 2 was the work of W.R. Bion who identified two competing modalities of behavior in small groups. Task-oriented groups are governed by conscious acceptance of goals, reality-thinking in relation to time and resources, and intelligent management of challenges. The opposing unconscious mode, the "basic-assumption" ("group animal") group, manifests through Dependency/Kill the Leader, Fight/Flight and Pairing. These unconscious dynamics undermine and can defeat the task group's goal. The biospherians experienced some dynamics seen in other isolated teams: factions developing reflecting personal chemistry and disagreements on overall mission procedures. These conflicts were exacerbated by external power struggles which enlisted support of those inside. Nevertheless, the crew evolved a coherent, creative life style to deal with some of the deprivations of isolation. The experience of the first two year closure of Biosphere 2 vividly illustrates both vicissitudes and management of group dynamics. The crew overrode inevitable frictions to creatively manage both operational and research demands and opportunities of the facility, thus staying 'on task' in Bion's group dynamics terminology. The understanding that Biosphere 2 was their life support system may also have helped the mission to succeed. Insights from the Biosphere 2 experience can help space and remote missions cope successfully with the inherent challenges of small, isolated crews.

Background Ethyl sulphate (EtS), a direct ethanol metabolite, appears to offer potential as a biomarker for recent alcohol consumption. Although its window of assessment is similar to that of ethyl glucuronide (EtG), there are differences between the two markers in their pathways for formation and degradation. Aims (a) To assess the excretion of EtS compared to EtG and ethanol in drinking experiments with healthy volunteers, and (b) to elucidate the possibility of using the two metabolites for monitoring abstinence in substance use disorder patients during rehabilitation treatment. Design, setting, participants (a) Nine drinking experiments were performed by six healthy volunteers (two females, four males), with a mean age of 34.1 years (20–62), average oral intake of 0.2 g/kg ethanol (0.1–0.61), and having 74 spot urine samples. (b) Thirty-six substance abuse patients (mean age 41.9 years, 20–59; 22 males, 14 females) in a rehabilitation programme after withdrawal, producing 98 urine samples. Ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulphate were measured using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) using d5-EtG and d5-EtS, respectively, as an internal standard. Findings (a) Volunteers: EtG and EtS were detectable for up to 36 hours and reached the limits of determination in urine at 20.6 hours and 21.2 hours (median), respectively, after ethanol intake. EtG-100 (standardized to a creatinine of 100 mg/dl) reached its maximum level at 2.8 hours and EtS-100 at 2.1 hours (median) after the beginning of the experiment. Of the ethanol ingested, 0.022% was excreted as EtS in one volunteer. Eight samples were positive for EtS only and six for EtG only. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients of 0.84 (P

As, for ethical reasons, it is difficult to investigate by an experiment the effect of acute intoxication on leptin levels in alcoholics, we tested the hypothesis of lowered levels as an effect of acute ethanol intake inhealthy volunteers. The subjects comprised (1) 17 healthy male participants, recruited via newspaper advertisements [age 29 + 3.75 years, body mass index (BMI) 24.3 + 3.5, leptin at baseline 3.3 + 3.1 ng/ml]; (2) for comparison, leptin levels of 16 male alcoholic patients at day I of withdrawal were used. They were characterized as follows: (mean, median, standard deviation and range) age in years (41.1, 40.5, 10.2, 24, 57), BMI (23.3, 21.7, 5.4, 16.6, 37.5), 1032g of ethanol (median) consumed within the last 7 days, leptin levels 2.3mglml. A placebo-controlled double-blind trial teas performed. Leptin levels of blood samples were taken at baseline (t 1 ), before ethanol intake (t 2 ), when blood alcohol had reached its maximum (t 3 ) and the morning after (t 4 ). The oral dose of ethanol administered was 0.6 g/kg ethanol. (1) Volunteers: (a) the ethanol and placebo group exhibited leptin levels corresponding closely with levels measured at baseline (t 1 ) (rs = 0.85, p < 0.0001) and follow-up (t 4 ) (r s = 0.768, p < 0.0001). (b) Leptin levels for the placebo and the alcohol-consuming (verum) group did not differ significantly at baseline, after ethanol intake or on the morning after [Mann - Whitney U-test (p = 0.669, p = 1.0 and p = 0.887, respectively)]. (2) Leptin levels in relation to BMI did not significantly differ at any measurement time in either group. (3) Leptin levels/BMI of the healthy volunteers at t 1 and t 4 were not significantly different from those of 16 alcoholics. The data do not support the hypothesis of a significant effect of acute moderate alcohol intake on leptin levels in healthy volunteers.

Mars On Earth® (MOE) is a demonstration/research project that will develop systems for maintaining 4 people in a sustainable (bioregenerative) life support system on Mars. The overall design will address not only the functional requirements for maintaining long term human habitation in a sustainable artificial environment, but the aesthetic need for beauty and nutritional/psychological importance of a diversity of foods which has been noticeably lacking in most space settlement designs. Key features selected for the Mars On Earth® life support system build on the experience of operating Biosphere 2 as a closed ecological system facility from 1991-1994, its smaller 400 cubic meter test module and Laboratory Biosphere, a cylindrical steel chamber with horizontal axis 3.68 meters long and 3.65 meters in diameter. Future Mars On Earth® agriculture/atmospheric research will include: determining optimal light levels for growth of a variety of crops, energy trade-offs for agriculture (e.g. light intensity vs. required area), optimal design of soil-based agriculture/horticulture systems, strategies for safe re-use of human waste products, and maintaining atmospheric balance between people, plants and soils.

Closure is a key concept in the physical sciences that has infrequently been used in ecology. The paper reviews closure to the flow of matter and energy (adiabatic walls) and closure to the flow of matter (diathermal walls). A system with rigid adiabatic walls will degrade eventually to chemical equilibrium, a state of maximum entropy. A third type of closure involves semi-permeable walls permitting the flow of one or more types of chemicals. These closure concepts were important to the development of classical thermodynamics and statistical mechanics in the 19th and 20th centuries. ‘‘Equilibrium’’ is often used to describe a time independent steady state. This usage leads to confusion, because equilibrium has such a precise meaning in thermal physics. All living systems are farfrom-equilibrium and life cannot persist without the flow of energy. The Earth is an almost materially closed system. Only a small amount of cosmic matter is captured by the Earths gravitational field and only a small fraction of lighter elements escape that field. The Earth receives photon flux from the sun and generates thermal energy from the planetary decay of radioisotopes. A hypothesis can be advanced that the planetary biosphere exists in part because of material closure due to gravitation. In the science of ecology partial material closure has been introduced in limnology and island ecology. This has advanced biogeographical theory and systems ecology. The development in the past half century of first balanced aquaria and terrariums, and then partially materially closed microcosms and mesocosms has also greatly aided the development of ecology as an experimental rather than merely descriptive science. All the above systems are open atmospherically, and often have some water and nutrient inputs. The development of truly materially closed man-made systems offers further scope for the development of experimental ecology. The paper reviews and defines the various types of closed ecological systems: Class 1: natural planetary biospheres (like the Earths); and Class 2: man-made systems which range from laboratory microbial ecospheres to ones capable of human life support: Controlled Environmental Life Support Systems (CELSS such as are being developed by NASA and the European Space Agency), Closed Ecological Systems (such as Bios-3 at the Institute of Biophysics in Krasnoyarsk, Russia and the Biosphere 2 Test Module) to mini-biospheric systems with a complexity of internal ecosystems (e.g., Biosphere 2 and the Closed Ecology Experimental Facility, CEEF, in Japan). 2005 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

During the years 2002 and 2003, three closed system experiments were carried out in the "Laboratory Biosphere" facility located in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The program involved experimentation of "Hoyt" Soy Beans, (experiment #1) USU Apogee Wheat (experiment #2) and TU-82-155 sweet potato (experiment #3) using a 5.37 m2 soil planting bed which was 30 cm deep. The soil texture, 40% clay, 31% sand and 28% silt (a clay loam), was collected from an organic farm in New Mexico to avoid chemical residues. Soil management practices involved minimal tillage, mulching, returning crop residues to the soil after each experiment and increasing soil biota by introducing worms, soil bacteria and mycorrhizae fungi. High soil pH of the original soil appeared to be a factor affecting the first two experiments. Hence, between experiments #2 and #3, the top 15 cm of the soil was amended using a mix of peat moss, green sand, humates and pumice to improve soil texture, lower soil pH and increase nutrient availability. This resulted in lowering the initial pH of 8.0-6.7 at the start of experiment #3. At the end of the experiment, the pH was 7.6. Soil nitrogen and phosphorus has been adequate, but some chlorosis was evident in the first two experiments. Aphid infestation was the only crop pest problem during the three experiments and was handled using an introduction of Hyppodamia convergens. Experimentation showed there were environmental differences even in this 1200 cubic foot ecological system facility, such as temperature and humidity gradients because of ventilation and airflow patterns which resulted in consequent variations in plant growth and yield. Additional humidifiers were added to counteract low humidity and helped optimize conditions for the sweet potato experiment. The experience and information gained from these experiments are being applied to the future design of the Mars On Earth(R) facility (Silverstone et al., Development and research program for a soil-based bioregenerative agriculture system to feed a four person crew at a Mars base, Advances in Space Research 31(1) (2003) 69-75; Allen and Alling, The design approach for Mars On Earth(R), a biospheric closed system testing facility for long-term space habitation, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc., IAC-02-IAA.8.2.02, 2002).

Laboratory Biosphere is a 40 m3 closed life system that commenced operation in May 2002. Light is from 12,000 W of high pressure sodium lamps over planting beds with 5.37 m2 of soil. Water is 100% recycled by collecting condensate from the temperature and humidity control system and mixing with leachate collected from under the planting beds. Atmospheric leakage was estimated during the first closure experiment to be 0.5-1% per day in general plus about 1% for each usage of the airlock door. The first trial run of 94 days was with a soybean crop grown from seeds (May 17, 2002) to harvest (August 14, 2002) plus 5 days of post-harvest closure. The focus of this initial trial was system testing to confirm functionality and identify any necessary modifications or improvements. This paper describes the organizational and physical features of the Laboratory Biosphere.

Background: Biochemical markers of heavy drinking are playing increasingly prominent roles in alcohol treatment efficacy studies, especially in those designed to evaluate medications. Among these roles are serving as inclusion or exclusion criteria for research participants, corroboration of self-report of drinking status, assessment of the safety of the agent being evaluated, and determination of treatment outcome. Methods: Recent alcohol medication development trials that included biomarker information were reviewed and critiqued from the perspectives of how biomarker measures were used and how findings on them were reported. Results: Although generally the application of biomarkers as inclusion criteria is not recommended, they may aid in exclusion of potential subjects (e.g., elevated liver function measures in trials of agents that could result in liver damage). Biomarkers are most commonly used as indicators of outcome, usually serving as secondary outcome variables. The relationship of outcome findings on biomarker and self-report measures is positive, but only moderate. As used to date, biomarkers of drinking tend to be less sensitive than well-standardized and properly administered self-report measures. Nevertheless, they do provide a useful, unique source of information on drinking status. Conclusions: The contribution of biomarkers to alcoholism clinical research would be enhanced if certain design strategies were incorporated into their application and if critical information were included in the research publication. This article offers a series of recommendations to improve on their use in a research context.

Several biochemical tests are available to screen for heavy drinking in patients. Most of these (e.g., liver function tests and macrocytic volume) rise due to adverse effects of alcohol on organs or the organ's functions. Carbohydrate-deficient transferrin, however, seems to elevate because of the direct action of alcohol or one of its metabolites. A second valuable contribution of biomarkers is identification of relapse events in recovering alcoholics that either would not be voluntarily reported or reported only much later. Finally, providing feedback to patients in treatment based on their biomarker values and changes in them during the course of treatment can enhance motivation, a key component in recovery from alcohol problems. The current article offers a clinical rationale for routine use of biomarkers of heavy drinking in health care practice and proposes recommendations on how they might be best used.

With the invention of cultures human populations escaped dependence on a single ecosystem. Human cultures today have become an ecological and geological force equal in scale to the five previous kingdoms of life. Cultural structural forms arise from the recurrent fulfilment of economic and reproductive needs. Gaps not closed by the economic institutions in this fulfilment are universally handled by three metaphysical institutions: (1) magic to instill confidence, (2) science to provide explanations and (3) mysticism to deal with disasters. Linking institutions, such as arts, authority and techne, connect people with these master institutions. The interplay of these three lev- els led to the evolution of the 'Ten Thousand Cultures'. About six millennia ago the linking institution of techne invented the megamachine (the armed state) and a mode of economic expansion by con- quest, ideology and trade control. By l900 the technosphere and its pampered offspring War had dev- astated whole biomes and their cultures. When the Berlin Wall fell the technosphere unleashed ever more chaotic and unsustainable expansionism. However, a rising ethnosphere now self-organizes the remaining battered cultures. A union of specific cultural roots with universally accessible scientific spin-offs from techne, such as biospherics and geospherics, give their cultures the means to re- organize locally and communicate biospherically. The ethnosphere needs to create a cybersphere that gives immediate feedback on new impacts from the technosphere. A noosphere can then emerge in which intelligence will end the war on the biosphere and allow cultures to flourish once again, this time armed with hard-earned wisdom and biospheric understanding.

The unprecedented challenges of creating Biosphere 2, the world's first laboratory for biospherics, the study of global ecology and long-term closed ecological system dynamics, led to breakthrough developments in many fields, and a deeper understanding of the opportunities and difficulties of material closure. This paper will review accomplishments and challenges, citing some of the key research findings and publications that have resulted from the experiments in Biosphere 2. Engineering accomplishments included development of a technique for variable volume to deal with pressure differences between the facility and outside environment, developing methods of atmospheric leak detection and sealing, while achieving new standards of closure, with an annual atmospheric leakrate of less than 10%, or less than 300 ppm per day. This degree of closure permitted detailed tracking of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and trice gases such as nitrous oxide and ethylene over the seasonal variability of two years. Full closure also necessitated developing new approaches and technologies for complete air, water, and wastewater recycle and reuse within the facility. The development of a soil-based highly productive agricultural system was a first in closed ecological systems, and much was learned about managing a wide variety of crops using non-chemical means of pest and disease control. Closed ecological systems have different temporal biogeochemical cycling and ranges of atmospheric components because of their smaller reservoirs of air, water and soil, and higher concentration of biomass, and Biosphere 2 provided detailed examination and modeling of these accelerated cycles over a period of closure which measured in years. Medical research inside Biosphere 2 included the effects on humans of lowered oxygen: the discovery that human productivity can be maintained with good health with lowered atmospheric oxygen levels could lead to major economies on the design of space stations and planetary/lunar settlements. The improved health resulting from the calorie-restricted but nutrient dense Biosphere 2 diet was the first such scientifically controlled experiment with humans. The success of Biosphere 2 in creating a diversity of terrestrial and marine environments, from rainforest to coral reef, allowed detailed studies with comprehensive measurements such that the dynamics of these complex biomic systems are now better understood. The coral reef ecosystem, the largest artificial reef ever built, catalyzed methods of study now being applied to planetary coral reef systems. Restoration ecology advanced through the creation and study of the dynamics of adaptation and self-organization of the biomes in Biosphere 2. The international interest that Biosphere 2 generated has given new impetus to the public recognition of the sciences of biospheres (biospherics), biomes and closed ecological life systems. The facility, although no longer a materially-closed ecological system, is being used as an educational facility by Columbia University as an introduction to the study of the biosphere and complex system ecology and for carbon dioxide impacts utilizing the complex ecosystems created in Biosphere '.The many lessons learned from Biosphere 2 are being used by its key team of creators in their design and operation of a laboratory-sized closed ecological system, the Laboratory Biosphere, in operation as of March 2002, and for the design of a Mars on Earth ™ prototype life support system for manned missions to Mars and Mars surface habitats. Biosphere 2 is an important foundation for future advances in biospherics and closed ecological system research.

Research and design of subsurface flow wetland wastewater treatment systems for a ground-based experimental prototype Mars Base facility has been carried out, using a subsurface flow approach. These systems have distinct advantages in planetary exploration scenarios: they are odorless, relatively low-labor and low-energy, assist in purification of water and recycling of atmospheric CO2, and will support some food crops. An area of 6-8 m2 may be sufficient for integration of wetland wastewater treatment with a prototype Mars Base supporting 4-5 people. Discharge water from the wetland system will be used as irrigation water for the agricultural crop area, thus ensuring complete recycling and utilization of nutrients. Since the primary requirements for wetland treatment systems are warm temperatures and lighting, such bioregenerative systems may be integrated into early Mars base habitats, since waste heat from the lights may be used for temperature maintenance in the human living environment. "Wastewater gardens (TM)" can be modified for space habitats to lower space and mass requirements. Many of its construction requirements can eventually be met with use of in-situ materials, such as gravel from the Mars surface. Because the technology requires little machinery and no chemicals, and relies more on natural ecological mechanisms (microbial and plant metabolism), maintenance requirements are minimized, and systems can be expected to have long operating lifetimes. Research needs include suitability of Martian soil and gravel for wetland systems, system sealing and liner options in a Mars Base, and wetland water quality efficiency under varying temperature and light regimes.

The parallels between the challenges facing bioregenerative life support in artificial closed ecological systems and those in our global biosphere are striking. At the scale of the current global technosphere and expanding human population, it is increasingly obvious that the biosphere can no longer safely buffer and absorb technogenic and anthropogenic pollutants. The loss of biodiversity, reliance on non-renewable natural resources, and conversion of once wild ecosystems for human use with attendant desertification/soil erosion, has led to a shift of consciousness and the widespread call for sustainability of human activities. For researchers working on bioregenerative life support in closed systems, the small volumes and faster cycling times than in the Earth's biosphere make it starkly clear that systems must be designed to ensure renewal of water and atmosphere, nutrient recycling, production of healthy food, and safe environmental methods of maintaining technical systems. The development of technical systems that can be fully integrated and supportive of living systems is a harbinger of new perspectives as well as technologies in the global environment. In addition, closed system bioregenerative life support offers opportunities for public education and consciousness changing of how to live with our global biosphere.

This article represents the proceedings of a symposium held at the 2001 RSA meeting in Montreal, Canada. The organizer and chair was Barbara A. Flannery and the discussant was Raye Z. Litten. The presentations were (1) The use of biomarkers in alcohol-dependence treatment trials, by John P. Allen; (2) Strategies for enhancing patient compliance in clinical treatment trials, by Helen M. Pettinati; (3) The predictive utility of an alcohol-craving measure, by Barbara A. Flannery; (4) What should be the primary outcome measures in a clinical trial, by Damaris J. Rohsenow; (5) Innovative strategies for assessing functional outcomes in alcoholism treatment clinical trials, by Ron A. Cisler.

Background: Efficient, inexpensive screening for early stage alcohol problems is important in health care settings. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) has been studied extensively to establish its value in this regard. Methods: A literature search that used EtOH as a database was conducted to identify studies published on the AUDIT through September 2001. Keywords used for the search were “Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test” and “AUDIT.” All studies reporting psychometric properties of the measure were reviewed with particular attention being given to the period 1996 and later. A small number of additional references were located by noting their citation in other studies reviewed. Results: Although more research is needed on non-English versions to establish their psychometric properties, at least in its English edition, the AUDIT demonstrates sensitivities and specificities comparable, and typically superior, to those of other self-report screening measures. Test-retest reliability and internal consistency are also quite favorable. For males, the AUDIT-C, a shortened version of the AUDIT, appears approximately equal in validity to the full scale. Conclusions: Recent research continues to support use of the AUDIT as a means of screening for alcohol use disorders in health care settings in the United States.

This nationally acclaimed partnership, built around an apprentice program and based on a foundation of trust and cooperation, illustrates how a trade union and a community college can find a way to use a mutual interest to benefit students and workers.

Background: Increasingly, biomarkers are being incorporated into the research design of clinical trials on medications to reduce drinking in alcoholics. To date, however, there has been little analysis of the unique roles that biomarkers can play in such investigations or of the practical and conceptual considerations that surround their best use in this context. Methods: Clinical trials of alcoholism medications published between 1985 and the present were abstracted to determine how biomarkers were used and how changes in them related to self-report measures of drinking. Results: Six uses of biomarkers were identified: determination of subjects to be included or excluded in the trial; description of baseline sample characteristics; primary and secondary outcome assessment; corroboration of self-reports of drinking status; specification of patients likely to respond to the medication; and evaluation of drug safety. Conclusion: Use of biomarkers in such studies appears warranted, particularly as an objective source of information on treatment efficacy that can be considered with patient self-report measures of drinking status. Biomarkers related to liver functioning also can assist in determination of drug safety for medications metabolized by the liver.

Naltrexone has been demonstrated in western studies to be a useful pharmacological adjunct within treatment programmes for alcoholic patients. We report the first study of its efficacy and usefulness in an Asian region. This project was designed to allow naltrexone's performance to be assessed under routine clinical conditions but with patients selected on the basis of their being likely to comply. Following in-patient detoxification, 53 male alcohol-dependent patients admitted to the Alcohol Treatment Centre at Woodbridge Hospital, Singapore, were enrolled in a 12-week, placebo-controlled trial of naltrexone hydrochloride (50 mg/day). Subjects were randomized on a 2:1 basis, with 35 receiving naltrexone and 18 receiving placebo. Analyses identified that a higher percentage of naltrexone patients completed the study (40% vs. 22%). In the study non-completers, the dropout rate due to drinking relapse was also lower in the naltrexone group (9% vs. 43%). Of the 39 patients for whom drinking status over the trial could be ascertained, fewer naltrexone-treated patients drank (33% vs. 53%). Alcohol craving scores also showed a selective and distinct reduction in the naltrexone-treated group. Results suggest that naltrexone may be an effective and safe aid to treatment of alcohol dependent patients in Asian patients, for whom the aims are to reduce alcohol craving and drinking reinstatement, but where compliance is likely to be low.

Background: Transferrin is a globular protein synthesized in the liver that is responsible for iron transport in plasma. The structure of the molecule consists of two carbohydrate residues to which six sialic acid moieties can be attached. After periods of chronic, heavy alcohol consumption, carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (CDT) isoforms often increase, which makes CDT a useful marker in screening for alcohol abuse and monitoring progress of alcoholics in treatment. However, the precise mechanism behind CDT increase remains unknown. Methods: A review of the most relevant literature on CDT was conducted with a computer-assisted literature search. Results: During the past several years, a number of studies have explored possible mechanisms that may account for the alcohol-induced increase of CDT. An inhibition of protein synthesis and a general effect of alcohol on protein glycosylation have been reported. Although the exact mechanisms that underlie production of CDT are not yet fully understood, possible bases for the phenomenon are presented in this article. Conclusions: Experimental findings indicate that the ethanol-induced effect on glycoprotein metabolism is a multistep process in which protein transport and changes of enzyme activity may play an important role.

Although the primary use of biochemical markers of heavy drinking is to assist in screening for alcohol problems, laboratory tests may also aid in early identification of relapse. This report reviews research findings on a new marker, carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT), in alcoholics receiving treatment or in follow-up. It also offers recommendations on how CDT may be employed by clinicians monitoring drinking status.

This study focused on the problem-solving or coping aspect of religiousness as well as spiritual support, spiritual openness, and religious faith practice as the key predictors of long-term sobriety in Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). Purpose in life and AA involvement were also included as important indicators for sustained abstinence from drinking. The 78 participants were members of AA clubs located in Maryland, New York, Kansas, Missouri, South Carolina, and California. Results confirmed the findings of previous studies that indicated AA involvement to be the single most, important predictor of abstinence and sobriety in AA.

Background: Early identification of alcohol problems in women is important. Differences in patterns of drinking and in biological function between genders, however, may present unique difficulties in biochemical screening. Methods: Published alcohol-screening studies with female samples and use as biomarkers of carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (CDT), y-glutamyltransferase (GGT), and macrocytic volume were reviewed. Results: A wide range of sensitivities and specificities of GGT and CDT have been reported, although, in general, the two markers seem approximately equal in accuracy. As in the case of males, use of them in combination substantially enhances sensitivity and little reduces specificity. Use of macrocytic volume improves the sensitivity of both GGT and CDT as alcohol-screening markers. Conclusions: GGT and CDT have moderate sensitivity in screening for alcohol problems in women. Use of them in concert offers further advantage.

Alcoholism treatment research has traditionally focused on direct questions of efficacy, such as is a particular intervention better than no treatment or is one treatment more effective than another. Recent projects, however, have also attempted to identify variables explaining why treatments vary in their effects. Many of these variables relate to the process of treatment itself or changes that may occur within the patients. Clinicians also need to continuously monitor progress of patients in engaging in behaviors supportive of long-term sobriety and how well the values and behaviors fostered by the particular treatment regimen are being incorporated into daily life. Measurement of process variables may assist in both regards. In the last decade several psychometric instruments have been developed to elucidate the processes involved in Alcoholic Anonymous (AA), a key adjunct of most formal alcoholism programs in the United States. These instruments measure dimensions such as involvement in AA, completion of steps, and adoption of values encouraged by AA. Six such measures are summarized here and several fruitful topics for future research on the measures are suggested.

This paper outlines concepts, construction and operation of Biosphere 2, the large glass closed life facility in the mountains of southern Arizona, USA. Plans used concepts of systems ecology and biospherics from the early writings of V.I. Vernadsky, work of the Russian space program on closed ecological life support systems and other leading proponents of a total systems approach to ecology. Mission one was the first experimental closure of Biosphere 2 with eight crew members for 2 years, 1991–1993.

The agricultural area (intensive agriculture biome) of Biosphere 2 was started with a meter of alkaline soil with high organic content in 1990 and used to support eight persons during closure 1991–1993. Wastes were recycled to maintain fertility. Soils sampled at the end were analyzed for major and minor inorganic constituents and organic matter. C/N ratio was high (13:1 to 17:1). Organic matter decreased 0.2 to 1.4% per year. With exception of high salinity developing in one plot and denitrification in the rice paddy, the soils at the end were functional in supporting crop production.

Physiologic, behavioral, and social factors contribute to dependence on alcohol, nicotine, and other drugs. During the past decade substantial research has focused on identification/development of medications to assist in reducing urge to use these substances. This article describes these agents and reviews recent research findings on them.

Eight previous investigations have suggested that conjoint consideration of findings on tests for gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) and carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT) substantially enhances sensitivity of screening for alcohol problems while minimally diminishing specificity. Using results from a large clinical trial, the current study evaluated the two tests singly and in combination as measures of three clinically important treatment outcome criteria: any drinking, at least one day of heavy drinking, and at least three consecutive days of heavy drinking during the past month. When scored by quartile, CDT is slightly better at screening for alcohol problems in males than GGT. However, CDT seems less accurate in females than GGT. Use of the two tests in consort moderately improves the individual test accuracy in predicting drinking status for both genders.

Approximately 14 million Americans suffer from alcohol abuse and dependen~e,’~ and drinking remains the most common cause of liver-related mortality in the United States. Forty-four percent of the 26,000 annual deaths from liver cirrhosis are attributed to alcohol use. Even this is likely to be an underestimate because certifying physicians may not be familiar with the decedent’s drinking history or may desire to protect the family from the stigma of a family member being an alcoholic.10 Alcoholic liver disease is also an important cause of morbidity. It has been estimated that between 15% and 30% of heavy drinkers develop advanced liver disease.I9 In 1990, cirrhosis was listed as a diagnosis on approximately 1% of discharges from nonfederal short-stay hospitals for those 15 years and older and was the principal diagnosis for 0.2% of the discharges. Underestimation of alcoholic liver disease on hospital discharge records may exceed that for death certificate^.^^ Because of the adverse effects of alcohol on the liver, alcoholdependent and alcohol-abusing patients commonly are seen in many hepatologists’ practices. Although findings on the physical examination and laboratory tests may provide clues, the diagnosis of alcoholism depends on the history provided by patients and their relatives. The two most commonly employed sets of criteria are the American Psychiatric Association‘s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 4 (DSM-IV)’ and in the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Diseases, 10th rev (ICD-10).36 Both are based on symptoms of alcohol dependence and abuse rather than specific thresholds of drinking frequency, quantity, or patterns. The term alcoholism has been dropped in favor of two distinct categoriesalcokol abuse and alcohol dependence. Alcoholic liver

This article suggests two new techniques for identifying alcohol problems in a military setting. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test is a well validated self-report procedure and requires approximately 2 minutes for administration. Measurement of carbohydrate-deficient transferrin provides a useful biochemical index of recent heavy alcohol consumption. Employment of these tests could improve selection of individuals seeking entry to the military, aid recognition of current personnel in need of treatment, and assist in evaluating progress of patients in treatment.

Research on the core version of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) is reviewed. Sensitivities and specificities of the AUDIT or criteria of current hazardous use and, to a slightly lesser extent, lifetime alcohol dependence are high. In general, AUDIT scores are at least moderately related to other self-report alcohol screening tests. Several studies also show them as correlated with biochemical measures of drinking. Results of the AUDIT have also been associated with more distal indicators of problematic drinking. Indices of internal consistency, including Cronbach's alpha and item-total correlations, are generally in the 0.80's. Future directions for research on the AUDIT are suggested.

Biochemical markers can serve as valuable tools in screening for problematic drinking, determining whether a health problem is likely alcohol related, and monitoring alcoholics for relapse during and after treatment. Furthermore, biochemical markers can assist in forensic investigations; in identification of public health, safety, and transportation workers who may drink excessively and who, as a result, may put others at risk; in evaluation of efficacy of treatments for alcohol abuse; and in recognition of early phase alcohol-related tissue damage. Within all of these contexts, a biochemical marker or set of markers may corroborate verbal reports or may provide valuable independent information on alcohol use when an individual is unable or unwilling to offer valid data about alcohol consumption.

This study was designed to determine if subjects participating more actively in Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) were higher on surrender and lower on pathological narcissism than those less involved in AA or participating in Rational Recovery. Male subject groups scored as predicted on surrender. As hypothesized, surrender also correlated negatively with pathological narcissism and was not associated with nonpathological narcissism. Results failed to support the predicted relationship between levels of participation in AA and pathological narcissism. A sex difference was found both on pathological narcissism and on surrender. Females scored lower on narcissism and higher on surrender than males.

The Relapse Replication and Extension Project (RREP) was a multisite study to replicate and extend Marlatt's taxonomy of relapse precipitants. In addition to replicating Marlatt's original taxonomic system, three independent research teams utilized prospective designs to identify additional predictors of relapse and developed and evaluated two alternative systems for assessing high risk relapse situations. This overview describes the replication methodology, summarizes seven RREP studies completed by the three research groups, and discusses five cross-cutting conclusions emerging from the studies. These conclusions are: (1) reliability of Marlatt's taxonomic system was variable both within and across the three research sites; (2) Marlatt's taxonomic system showed little predictive validity in analyses that used pretreatment relapse data to predict post-treatment relapse, but there are important unresolved issues; (3) an alternative taxonomy provided little more predictive validity than the original taxonomy even though it measured more dimensions of relapse situations and provided greater analytic flexibility; (4) the Reasons for Drinking Questionnaire appeared to be a successful psychometric transformation of Marlatt's taxonomy, one which did demonstrate predictive validity; and (5) Marlatt's taxonomy was based on a time-intensive model of relapse prediction whereas RREP prospective analyses represented time-extensive models of relapse prediction. Coping responses are noted to be effective predictors of relapse under both models.

The current investigation determined that military personnel who drink heavily differ from those who drink moderately in the practice of nine behaviors often associated with unhealthy lifestyle. In particular, excessive drinkers were found to smoke more, drive dangerously more frequently, and consume saturated fats more often. The project further found that the relationship of excessive drinking to these activities is mediated by age, marital status, and race, although not by gender or rank. Implications of the findings for prevention and treatment are suggested.

Objective Surveys assessing alcohol use among physicians have most commonly employed the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) or the AUDIT-C, the most common short version of the AUDIT. As with other screeners, prevalence estimation is dependent on the accuracy of the test as well as choice of the cutoff value. The aim of the current study is to derive more precise prevalence estimates of alcohol problems in physicians by correcting for false-positive and false-negative results. Method In the context of a survey, the AUDIT was sent out via email or standard postal service to all 2484 physicians in Salzburg, Austria. A total of 456 physicians participated. A published correction formula was used to estimate the real prevalence of alcohol use problems. Results Applying a cutoff of 5 points for the AUDIT-C, 15.7% of female and 37.7% of male physicians screened positive. Use of a correction based on general population data and the sensitivity and specificity of the AUDIT-C resulted in much lower prevalence rates: 4.0% for female and 9.5% for male physicians. Using the full AUDIT, 19.6% of the female physicians and 48% of the male physicians were screened positive. Using the correction, the estimated prevalence rates for females and males were 6.3% and 15.5%, respectively. Conclusions Our findings demonstrate that uncorrected screening results may markedly overestimate the prevalence of physicians drinking problems.