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The roles of fusion gene in the virulence of Newcastle disease virus are well established, but the extent of its variation among the XIV, XVII, and XVIII genotypes reported in Central Africa and West Africa has until recently been understudied. In this study, virulent Newcastle disease virus (vNDV) was isolated from dead chickens among vaccinated flocks between March and April 2020. Fusion (F) gene was sequenced and analysed for characterization and information about genetic changes. Many substitutions were observed along the region and some of their functions are yet to be determined. Results showed that all study isolates have virulent cleavage site sequence 112-RRRKR-116/F117 and clustered within genotype XIVb. Sequence analysis showed K78R mutation in the A2 antigenic epitope in all isolates and more along the F-gene which varied in some instances within the isolates. Mutation in this A2 antigenic epitope has been reported to induce escape mutation to monoclonal antibodies generated using the NDV LaSota strain. The range of percentage nucleotide and amino acid homology between the study isolates and commercially available vaccine strains is 81.14%–84.39% and 0.175–0.211, respectively. This report provides evidence of vNDV among vaccinated chicken flock and molecular information about circulating vNDV strains in Kano State, Nigeria, which is useful for the development of virus matched vaccines. Newcastle disease (ND) surveillance and molecular analysis of circulating strains in this region should be encouraged and reported. Furthermore, ND outbreaks or cases among vaccinated poultry presented to veterinary clinics should be reported to the state epidemiologist. Nucleotide sequences were assigned accession numbers OK491971–OK491977.

In 2021, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic and global food insecurity, the Nigerian poultry sector was yet exposed to highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus and its economic challenges. Between 2021 and 2022, HPAI caused 467 outbreaks reported in 31 of the 37 administrative regions in Nigeria. In this study, we characterized the genome of 97 influenza A viruses of the subtypes H5N1, H5N2 and H5N8 identified in different agro-ecological zones and farms during the 2021-2022 epidemic. The phylogenetic analysis of the HA genes showed widespread distribution of the H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4b and similarity with the HPAI H5Nx viruses detected in Europe since late 2020. Topology of the phylogenetic trees indicates the occurrence of several independent introductions of the virus into the country followed by a regional evolution of the virus most probably linked to its persistent circulation in West African territories. An additional evidence of the evolutionary potential of HPAI viruses circulating in this region is the identification in this study of a putative H5N1/H9N2 reassortant virus in a mixed-species commercial poultry farm. Our data confirm Nigeria as a crucial hotspot for HPAI virus introduction from the Eurasian territories and reveal a dynamic pattern of avian influenza virus evolution within the Nigerian poultry population.

Background: Orf virus (ORFV) is an important zoonotic parapox virus, with 100% morbidity. It affects mainly domesticated ruminants such as sheep and goats. This study determined the molecular epidemiology of ORFV local as well as imported sheep and goats in Nigeria and evolution of ORFV in Africa. Methods: A total of 30 small ruminants with orf were sampled in a livestock market Abuja Nigeria.Skin scabs from pathological tissues were collected and processed for viral genomic DNA. PCR and Sanger sequencing of B2L gene of ORFV. Phylogenetic analysis, phylogeography, and Bayesian skygird reconstruction (BSK), including mutational changes were performed on B2L gene sequences. Results: An ORFV positivity rate of 67% was determined from samples. Animals Conclusion: We report molecular evolution of ORFV in Africa and identified gap in molecular data; we recommend regional molecular surveillance of ORFV and other zoonotic trans-boundary diseases in global health prevention and control effort.

Covid-19 pandemic has hit many countries and put the majority of the public health system to test globally. Mandatory use of facemask was among policies set by the government to contain the spread of the novel disease. But citizens’ attitudes and compliance with these policies are important in controlling the pandemic. We assessed gender-based compliance to Covid-19 protocol (use of face mask) in Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria.

Crimean - Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is a tick-borne viral haemorrhagic febrile disease that is highly pathogenic in humans with enzootic cycle between tick vectors and animal hosts. Human infection with CCHFV takes the clinical form of viral haemorrhagic disease, a major health condition but with limited testing in Nigeria. In this study, blood samples were collected from 333 pastoralists’ cattle in North Central Nigeria and 1,470 ticks were picked from the animals. For serology, Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA) was performed using a double antigen multi species ELISA kit with sensitivity and specificity of 98.9% and 95% respectively at 95% confidence interval to detect IgG antibody to CCHFV in plasma. RT-qPCR virological technique was used to identify viral antigen in ticks that were pooled based on location and genus. Four species of ticks were morphologically identified to parasitize cattle in the sampled location namely; Rhipicephalus ( Boophilus) decoloratus (34.6%), Hyalomma truncatum (32.9%), Amblyomma variegatum (24.6%) and Rhipicephalus sanguineus (8%). The seroprevalence of CCHFV was found to be 67%. In Kaduna state, 85 of 108 plasma samples tested positive (78.7%) while in Plateau state 138 of 225 plasma samples tested positive (61.3%). Of the 41 pools of tick tested for CCHF, one (1) pool of 35 Rhipicephalus ( Boophilus) ticks (2.4%) was positive for CCHF virus with qPCR cycle threshold of 31.88. Although Hyalommaspp. is documented to be the main vector of CCHFV, in the present investigation, Rhipicephalus ( Boophilus) species was identified to play a role as reservoir of CCHF. The high seroprevalence of CCHF in livestock underscores the public health risk associated with CCHFV at the human-animal interface in Nigeria.

The roles of Fusion gene in the virulence of Newcastle disease virus has been well established but the extent of its variation among the newly identified XIV, XVII and XVIII genotypes which are predominantly found in Central and West Africa have until recently been understudied and LaSota vaccine strain protection against mortality and morbidity against XIV genotype is the least reported. In this study, F gene of vNDV isolated from samples collected in Nigeria from chicken cadaver from vaccinated chicken flocks showing high mortality, clinical signs and post-mortem lesions attributable to ND during March and April, 2020 were sequenced and analysed for information about genetic changes. Results showed that all isolates from our study have virulent cleavage site sequence 112-RRRKR-116/F117 and clustered within genotype XIVb. Sequence analysis show K78R mutation in the A2 antigenic epitope in all isolates, and more along the F gene which vary in some instances within the isolates. Mutation in this A2 antigenic epitope has been reported to induce escape mutation to monoclonal antibodies generated using NDV LaSota strain. Averages of antigenic variability and percentage homology between the isolates and commonly used vaccines is 0.24; 81.40% and 0.22; 81.90% for LaSota and Komorov vaccines respectively. Nucleotide sequences was assigned accession numbers OK491971-OK491977. Many substitutions were observed in the isolates and some of their functions are yet to be determined.

Background: Late December 2019, an unknown incidence of Pneumonia was observed among some residents of Wuhan city, China. The disease named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and declared as a pandemic by the WHO on the March 11th, 2020 by the World Health Organization (WHO) has resulted to the death of million people across the globe. Prior to the current COVID-19 pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), two other outbreaks of coronaviruses namely severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) have been experienced within the last few decades. This review looks at the unique characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 to the other coronaviruses (SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV) and its significance(s) in the control strategies including diagnostics. Materials and Methods: Using the keywords “coronavirus mutation”, “nucleotide substitution”, “coronavirus evolution”, “SARS-CoV-2”, “COVID-19” published literatures on coronaviruses and SARS-CoV-2 were retrieved from MEDLINE and reviewed for gaps and current knowledge as it relates to evolution of SARS-CoV-2. Results: In comparison with seasonal flu, investigations revealed that SARS-CoV-2 mutates less rapidly which provides an edge in the possible development of a long-lasting vaccine to combat the spread of the virus. Though, several mutations in the genome of the virus with dire consequences on the diagnostics have been identified. Conclusions: The unique importance of mutation as a mechanism of survival for viruses cannot be overemphasized. Several mutations have been observed in SARS-CoV-2 genome whose implications as regards diagnostics and control measures have been highlighted herein.

Avian influenza has been reported in domestic birds in Nigeria since 2006 and subtype H5 of the Gs/Gg lineage has continued to be detected up till date. It has been suggested that waterfowls and local birds sold in live-bird markets may be natural reservoir and source of reinfection of different subtype of avian influenza in poultry farms. This study aims at serodetection of avian influenza virus in waterfowls and local birds at live-bird markets in Plateau State, Nigeria. A total of three hundred and nine (309) blood samples were collected over a period of three months and two hundred and ninety-two (292) sera were analysed by c-ELISA for influenza A nucleoprotein using standard protocols. Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI) specific for subtypes H5, H9, and H7 was also carried out using standard protocols on ELISA positive samples. The results showed seroprevalence of 5.14% (n=15) for influenza A. Serotype H7 was thereafter detected by HI in 5 of the 15 influenza A positive samples. The H7 positive sera also reacted with H7N3, H7N4, H7N1 and H7N7 virus strains with HI titre ranging between 1:32 to 1:512. This investigation for the first time showed serological evidence of influenza A subtype H7 in local birds and waterfowls sold at the live bird market in Nigeria. Further virological surveillance to isolate the virus is important in order to better understand influenza virus epidemiology in Nigeria and the potential risk that other subtypesof influenza poses to poultry production and public health. Keywords: Influenza A, subtype H7, serological detection, live bird market, Nigeria.

Symptoms of Coronavirus Disease-2019 include pulmonary hyper-inflammation; managing local and systemic inflammatory responses may be key in treatment. This study evaluated the anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic effects of a mixture (Cov-Pla 2) containing five medicinal plants in laboratory animals. The antinociceptive activity of Cov-Pla 2 was evaluated using acetic acid-induced writhing, Brewer’s Yeast Pyrexia test in rats and hot plate tests in mice. The egg albumin-induced rat paw oedema test was employed to evaluate the extract’s anti-inflammatory activity. The extract produced a dose-dependent (125-500 mg/kg, p.o.) inhibition of pain response elicited by acetic acid, compared to normal saline and increased reaction latency in the hot plate test. The antiinflammatory test showed a significant (P

Transmission of COVID-19 is facilitated by uptake of droplets containing coronavirus from the breath, sneeze or cough of infected persons. This represents the commonest mode of coronavirus infection and spread to mucous membranes of the respiratory system. The virus rapidly replicates in alveolar cells, triggering a strong immune response, resulting in cytokine storm syndromes and pulmonary tissue damage. These pathologic processes contribute to a compromised pulmonary function. Thus, evaluation of pulmonary function would give insights into modulatory effect of agents that may be beneficial in ameliorating this pathology. The study evaluated effects of Cov-Pla1 and Cov-Pla3 (polyherbal products of the research team, positioned for treatment of Covid-19) on pulmonary function in bleomycin-induced lung injury in rabbits. Rabbits of both sexes were divided into six groups and treated with the extracts alone or the extract following pre-treatment with bleomycin. Targeted respiratory function parameters were monitored at baseline and on day three. Vital capacity, tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume and inspiratory capacity in the groups treated with Cov-Pla1 and Cov-Pla3 at 125 and 500 mg/kg respectively were compared with the bleomycin only group. In bleomycin pre-treated groups, the two preparations at 125 mg/kg showed increased vital capacity compared to the bleomyicn only group. This pattern was repeated with the other parameters that were evaluated. These results imply that Cov-Pla1 and Cov-Pla3 at the 125 mg/kg dose have ameliorative effects on bleomycin induced lung injury and could be beneficial in situations such as COVID-19 where there are active insults to the respiratory system. Keywords: COVID-19, Cov-Pla, Herbal Preparation, Respiratory function

Globally, infectious bronchitis (IB) is an important respiratory viral disease responsible for enormous economic losses to poultry farmers. In Nigeria, limited reports on the prevalence and serotypes of the IB virus are available. Here, we investigated the prevalence and serotypes of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) in chicken in Plateau State. A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out involving 440 apparently healthy free-range local chickens sampled from eleven villages in four Local Government Areas (LGA) of Plateau State. Sera collected from the birds were screened for the presence of four IBV serotypes namely; Massachusetts (Mass), Arkansas (Ark), Connecticut (Con) and Delaware (De-072) using haemagglutinationinhibition (HI) test. In all, a prevalence of 82.95% (n = 365) was recorded. At LGAlevel, prevalence of 79.50%, 47.37%, 95.45% and 100% were recorded in Kanam, Mangu, Qua’an pan and Bassa LGAs, respectively. Based on serotype prevalence, Mass had 89.30% (n = 326); Ark 79.70% (n = 291); Con 88.20% (n = 322) while De-072 was 42.70% (n = 156). There were statistically significant associations between dominant serotype and the LGAs (p≤0.001). This study shows high prevalence of IBwith at least four strains of IBV present in free-range chicken flocks in Plateau State requiring attention for control measures. Keywords: Free-range chicken; Infectious bronchitis virus; Plateau state, Serosurvey, Serotype

The coronavirus disease COVID-19 pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV-2) has presented unprecedented challenges to the healthcare systems in the world. There are no definite effective therapeutic agents or vaccines against the virus currently. However clinical management of the infection includes prevention, control measures, supportive care and repurposed drug therapy based on pathophysiology of the virus and manifestation of the disease condition thereby using antiviral agents such as remdesivir, lopinavir and favipiravir. Herbal preparations are being promoted for the management of Covid-19. Some selected Nigerian medicinal plants are hereby investigated by In-silico studies of the plant constituents. When compared with the listed therapeutic agents, the phytochemical constituents of the selected plants have better binding affinity to several Covid-19 viral target proteins. Also they were found to be safe for human use with LD50 of >2000 mg/Kg for the plant extracts. Some of the plants also contained phytochemicals that can be employed for the symptoms of covid-19.

Background and Aims: The current pandemic known as Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) is a significant public health menace. Currently, there is no specific treatment for this disease, although some medicinal agents are under investigation. Some published articles have reported Severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS CoV-2) involvement in other organs, including the liver and kidneys, which can impair the metabolism and excretion of the medications taken to treat the disease. This study evaluated the effects of 3 herbal mixtures on some biochemical parameters of the liver and kidney of laboratory animals. Methods: Liver enzymes such as serum aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, albumin and total serum protein were quantified. Urea, creatinine and bilirubin (total and direct) were also evaluated. These parameters were determined for all three polyherbal combinations (CoV Pla-1, CoV Pla-2, CoV Pla-3). Results: The extracts did not produce any mortality up to 5000 mg/kg per oral. Results showed that the polyherbal extracts (CoV Pla-1, CoV Pla-2 CoV Pla-3) did not cause any significant changes in ALT, AST, ALP, compared to control. The mean values of urea showed an insignificant (P>0.05) decrease across all test doses in the three extracts, compared to the control. In the current study, the mean creatinine concentration showed slight decrease across all three extracts. Total protein was observed to be lower in CoV Pla-1 and CoV Pla-2, and increased in CoV Pla-3, though these changes were not statistically significant. Serum albumin decreased at the low and intermediate doses for the three polyherbal extracts in an insignificant manner compared to control. Conclusion: The results obtained in this study indicate that the extracts did not cause significant changes in biochemical parameters evaluated and support their use in the treatment of Covid-19.

The outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic has had a dramatic effect on human existence and still shows no sign of abating. Scientists worldwide are therefore working assiduously to get new drug treatments to help mitigate the crisis. Some of those efforts involve research to obtain Covid-19 treatments from natural sources. The present study is aimed at evaluating the elemental, nutritional and antioxidant properties of Cov-Pla1, Cov-Pla2, Cov-Pla3 and PlaBoost herbal preparations. Elemental analysis was carried out using AAS after acid digestion of the samples. Proximate analysis of the formulations was done using the official AOAC methods while the antioxidant assay was carried out using the DPPH free radical scavenging method. The results of the study showed that the concentration of the heavy metals in all the samples were within acceptable regulatory limits. Proximate analysis revealed that the suspensions had protein content between 1.52-1.68 % and carbohydrate content of 0.79 – 1.08 % with low content of fat, crude fibre and ash. The formulations were found to be free of microbial contamination and stable for thirty days. Antioxidant evaluation revealed that Cov-Pla3 had the strongest free radical scavenging capacity with IC50 of 27.29 µg/mL while PlaBoost had the least (IC50: 251 µg/mL). The result of the study indicates that the formulations are free of metallic and microbial contaminants. In addition, proximate analysis has established some diagnostic parameters which will aid future authentication and purity assessment of the formulations. The formulations were all found to possess considerable antioxidant activity which will provide collateral benefit in relieving oxidative stress associated with Covid-19 infection. Key words: Covid-19, heavy metals, trace elements, proximate analysis, antioxidant.

Avian influenza viruses of the H9 subtype cause significant losses to poultry production in endemic regions of Asia, Africa and the Middle East and pose a risk to human health. The availability of reliable and updated diagnostic tools for H9 surveillance is thus paramount to ensure the prompt identification of this subtype. The genetic variability of H9 represents a challenge for molecular-based diagnostic methods and was the cause for suboptimal detection and false negatives during routine diagnostic monitoring. Starting from a dataset of sequences related to viruses of different origins and clades (Y439, Y280, G1), a bioinformatics workflow was optimized to extract relevant sequence data preparatory for oligonucleotides design. Analytical and diagnostic performances were assessed according to the OIE standards. To facilitate assay deployment, amplification conditions were optimized with different nucleic extraction systems and amplification kits. Performance of the new real-time RT-PCR was also evaluated in comparison to existing H9-detection methods, highlighting a significant improvement of sensitivity and inclusivity, in particular for G1 viruses. Data obtained suggest that the new assay has the potential to be employed under different settings and geographic areas for a sensitive detection of H9 viruses.

Newcastle disease (ND) is an infectious viral poultry disease with great economic consequences. In developing countries, outbreaks of ND caused by virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) have been identified as a limiting factor to the growth of the poultry industry. Limited reports exist on the pathology of natural field infection caused by NDV genotype XVII in chickens. Here, we present clinical, pathological and molecular investigation of confirmed ND in a 24-week-old layer-type, semi-intensive poultry flock with recorded mortality of over 50%. During PM examination, tissues were harvested for virus isolation, histopathology and immunohistochemistry. Virus isolation was performed in 10-day-old embryonated chicken eggs, and a haemagglutinating agent thereof identified by one-step reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). For the genotyping of the isolate, the full fusion gene was sequenced. Clinical signs observed included general body lethargy, inappetence and greenish diarrhoeic faeces from the cloaca before death with daily mortality exceeding 100 chickens. The pathology was characteristic of a viral haemorrhagic infection, with serosal haemorrhages, mucosal surface erosion and ulceration. In most of the carcasses, the main lesions seen included airsacculitis, meningeal congestion, haemorrhagic oophoritis, pancreatic necrosis, enteritis and faecal matting of the vent. Virus isolation and RT-PCR made a confirmatory diagnosis of ND. Based on the cleavage site motif sequence (112RRQKR/F117), the isolate was identified as a virulent strain with phylogenetic analysis showing clustering in genotype XVII viruses. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first report describing the pathological findings of a natural outbreak caused by NDV involving viruses of genotype XVII. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS First report of a natural outbreak of Newcastle disease in White Yarkon Leghorns. The outbreak was caused by virulent NDV belonging to genotype XVII. Pathology differed slightly from those in experimental studies using SPF and other unvaccinated chickens.

Newcastle disease (ND) is a highly contagious viral disease constituting a continuous threat to the poultry industry worldwide. This study evaluated the genetic characteristics of Newcastle disease viruses (NDVs) obtained from backyard commercial poultry farms and live bird markets during active and passive surveillance in different regions of Plateau and Nasarawa States of Nigeria between 2009 and 2017. The partial fusion (F) gene coding sequence and cleavage site of five NDV isolates was determined. This was aligned and compared with sequences of representative NDV from the GenBank. Deduced amino acid sequence of the protein revealed that four isolates had virulent motifs (112RRQKRF117) while one had an avirulent motif (112GRQGRL117). One virulent strain was recovered from an apparently healthy duck. Phylogenetic analysis based on comparison with different classes of NDVs revealed that two isolates clustered with genotype XIVb NDVs, another two isolates clustered with genotype XVIIa while one isolate clustered with genotype II. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the velogenic isolates clustered with published class II genotype XIVb and XVIIa closely related to isolates from Benin and Niger republic. This highlights the need for ND control programmes to place more stringent measures on cross-border trade of live bird and poultry products to prevent the introduction of new strains of NDV that would be more difficult to control. Key words: Chickens, duck, live bird market, Newcastle disease virus, genotypes, Nigeria.

Avian metaavulavirus 2 (AMAV-2) previously known as the avian paramyxovirus-2 causes mild to severe respiratory disease, reduced hatchability and infertility of eggs, including increase in white-shelled eggs in chickens and Turkey breeders. When exacerbated by secondary pathogens and environmental stresses, infection is more severe leading to significant economic losses. This study was conducted to determine, if any, the presence of antibodies to

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has become the most far-reaching public health crisis of modern times. Several efforts are underway to unravel its root cause as well as to proffer adequate preventive or inhibitive measures. Zoonotic spillover of the causative virus from an animal reservoir to the human population is being studied as the most likely event leading to the pandemic. Consequently, it is important to consider viral evolution and the process of spread within zoonotic anthropogenic transmission cycles as a global public health impact. The diverse routes of interspecies transmission of SARS-CoV-2 offer great potential for a future reservoir of pandemic viruses evolving from the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic circulation. To mitigate possible future infectious disease outbreaks in Africa and elsewhere, there is an urgent need for adequate global surveillance, prevention, and control measures that must include a focus on known and novel emerging zoonotic pathogens through a one health approach. Human immunization efforts should be approached equally through the transfer of cutting-edge technology for vaccine manufacturing throughout the world to ensure global public health and one health.

Infectious diseases are responsible for illness, deaths and economic losses in human and animals. The situation is worse in developing countries with limited resources, poor infrastructures and technology necessary for disease prevention and control. Consequently, causative agents of diseases may emerge from animal reservoirs and are transmitted from animals to human as zoonoses or sustained human-to-human transmission may occur. About 60% of infectious diseases are zoonotic and over 75% of emerging and re-emerging diseases in human are acquired from animal hosts. Globally and in Nigeria, zoonotic diseases previously controlled such as yellow fever, Orthopoxvirus (monkey pox virus), Lassa fever, anthrax etc. are re-emerging and new ones like Avian influenza, Ebola, and respiratory coronaviruses (SARS, MERS and 2019-nCoV) are emerging. In addition, the transboundary nature and inter-continental introductions of many of these pathogens threaten the national economy and public health. Other zoonotic diseases like rabies, brucellosis and bovine tuberculosis are intractable due in part to negligence. Hence, the burden of zoonotic diseases in Nigeria is high and unabated despite available preventive vaccination for a disease like rabies. Some of these important zoonoses are discussed in detail in this paper with emphasis on effective control through the application of modern technology for surveillance, early and accurate diagnosis, biosecurity and preventive vaccination. These tools are however insufficiently deployed in Nigeria. It is therefore imperative to prioritise public health policies with focus on research, development and innovations for better impact on human and animal health with sequelae on national transformation.

The increasing outbreak of zoonotic diseases presents challenging times for nations and calls for a renewed effort to disrupt the chain of events that precede it. Nigeria’s response to the 2006 bird flu provided a platform for outbreak response, yet it was not its first experience with Influenza. This study describes the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on Influenza surveillance and, conversely, while the 1918 Influenza pandemic remains the most devastating (500,000 deaths in 18 million population) in Nigeria, the emergence of SARS CoV-2 presented renewed opportunities for the development of vaccines with novel technology, co-infection studies outcome, and challenges globally. Although the public health Intervention and strategies left some positive outcomes for other viruses, Nigeria and Africa’s preparation against the next pandemic may involve prioritizing a combination of technology, socioeconomic growth, and active surveillance in the spirit of One Health.

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) has a wide avian host range and a high degree of genetic variability, and virulent strains cause Newcastle disease (ND), a worldwide concern for poultry health. Although NDV has been studied in Nigeria, genetic information about the viruses involved in the endemicity of the disease and the transmission that likely occurs at the poultry-wildlife interface is still largely incomplete. Next-generation and Sanger sequencing was performed to provide complete (n = 73) and partial genomic sequence data (n = 38) for NDV isolates collected from domestic and wild birds in Nigeria during 2002-2015, including the first complete genome sequences of genotype IV and subgenotype VIh from the African continent. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that viruses of seven different genotypes circulated in that period, demonstrating high genetic diversity of NDV for a single country. In addition, a high degree of similarity between NDV isolates from domestic and wild birds was observed, suggesting that spillovers had occurred, including to three species that had not previously been shown to be susceptible to NDV infection. Furthermore, the first spillover of a mesogenic Komarov vaccine virus is documented, suggesting a previous spillover and evolution of this virus. The similarities between viruses from poultry and multiple bird species and the lack of evidence for host adaptation in codon usage suggest that transmission of NDV between poultry and non-poultry birds occurred recently. This is especially significant when considering that some viruses were isolated from species of conservation concern. The high diversity of NDV observed in both domestic and wild birds in Nigeria emphasizes the need for active surveillance and epidemiology of NDV in all bird species.

This study presents liquid–liquid equilibrium solubility data of the mutual solubility of cyclohexane and water in aqueous solutions of diethanolamine (DEA). Measurements were taken using a series of jacketed cells connected to a thermostat to maintain the desired solubility temperature. Different concentrations of DEA (15, 25, 35, 45, and 50 wt %) were prepared and mixed with cyclohexane in the measuring cells at temperatures ranging from 298 to 318 K and atmospheric pressure. Once thermodynamic equilibrium had reached, samples from the aqueous phase were analyzed for cyclohexane content using a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer, while samples from the hydrocarbon-rich phase were analyzed using a water content apparatus. Results showed that the solubility of cyclohexane increased with an increase in DEA concentration and varied directly with the temperature. Similarly, the solubility of water in the organic phase exhibited an increasing trend with an increase in temperature and concentration of DEA. Th...

In this work, an environmentally friendly and economically effective surfactant modified porous graphitic carbon (S-PGC) obtained from alginate biomass was successfully fabricated by functionalizing with anionic surfactants (sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS)) and used as an adsorbent for the removal of methylene blue cationic dye from aqueous solutions. The structural order and textural properties were examined using XRD, Raman spectroscopy and SEM-EDX. Batch adsorption experiments were conducted, where the influence of operating parameters such as solution pH, contact time, adsorbent dosage, initial MB concentration, and temperature on the sorption capacity were investigated. Compared with pristine PGC, the surfactant modified PGC (S-PGC) exhibited a much higher sorption capacity for MB due to the enhanced electrostatic interaction between the cationic dye and negatively charged S-PGC adsorbent. The adsorption isotherm and kinetics of adsorption were well fitted by the Freundlich isotherm and pseudo-second order model, respectively. The maximum adsorption capacity calculated from Langmuir isotherm was 714 and 769 mg/g for two adsorbents SDBS-PGC-3000 and SDS-PGC-3000, respectively at 25 °C, suggesting SDS-PGC has a comparatively higher sorption capacity. Further investigation confirmed that the adsorption of MB over S-PGC was spontaneous and endothermic in nature. Successful regeneration of the spent adsorbents with methanol along with its high dye adsorption performance strongly confirms the ability of utilizing S-PGC as a promising and reliable adsorbent for cationic dye removal.

Outbreaks of infectious bursal disease (IBD), a highly contagious immunosuppressive disease of young chickens, are still reported globally despite vaccination efforts. This study investigated the genetic characteristics of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) from 26 reported outbreaks in 2019 in Nigeria. Nucleotide sequences of VP2 hypervariable (hvVP2) region (n=26) and VP1 (n=23) of Nigerian IBDVs were determined. Our results revealed the detection of reassortant strains with segment A related to very virulent IBDV (vvIBDV) having virulence marker (222A, 242I, 256I, 294I and 299S), whereas their segment B were closely related to previously detected IBDV strains having QEG substitution at positions 145-147. Phylogenetic analysis of the hvVP2 region revealed that all the Nigerian IBDV clustered with vvIBDV (genogroup 3) and were independent of the Asian/European lineage. Interestingly, in the hvVP2, all the viruses had a G-S substitution at residue 254. Additionally, one isolate had an A321T substitution at the PHI loop, which has been suggested to play a key role in antigenicity. Four of the viruses (Bauchi=3 and Plateau=1) had a unique A-T substitution at residue 144 on the VP1 region. We also observed a T174S substitution in nine of the Nigerian viruses from Bauchi and Plateau state that were not found in any outbreak viruses from Oyo and Akwa Ibom. This report demonstrates the circulation of reassortant strains in commercial and backyard poultry farms in Nigeria despite sustained vaccination efforts. Our data suggest that the Nigerian outbreak viruses have mutations that may affect antigenicity and contribute to antigenic drift.

Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is used worldwide to test and trace the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). "Extraction-less" or "direct" real time-reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is a transparent and accessible qualitative method for SARS-CoV-2 detection from nasopharyngeal or oral pharyngeal samples with the potential to generate actionable data more quickly, at a lower cost, and with fewer experimental resources than full RT-qPCR. This study engaged 10 global testing sites, including laboratories currently experiencing testing limitations due to reagent or equipment shortages, in an international interlaboratory ring trial. Participating laboratories were provided a common protocol, common reagents, aliquots of identical pooled clinical samples, and purified nucleic acids and used their existing in-house equipment. We observed 100% concordance across laboratories in the correct identification of all positive and negative samples, with highly similar cycle threshold values. The test also performed well when applied to locally collected patient nasopharyngeal samples, provided the viral transport media did not contain charcoal or guanidine, both of which appeared to potently inhibit the RT-PCR reaction. Our results suggest that direct RT-PCR assay methods can be clearly translated across sites utilizing readily available equipment and expertise and are thus a feasible option for more efficient COVID-19 coronavirus disease testing as demanded by the continuing pandemic.

Among recurrent sanitary emergencies able to spread rapidly worldwide, avian influenza is one of the main constraints for animal health and food security. In West Africa, Nigeria has been experiencing repeated outbreaks of different strains of avian influenza virus (AIV) since 2006 and is also recognized as a hot spot in the region for the introduction of emerging strains by migratory wild birds. Here, we generated complete genomes of 20 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N8 viruses collected during active surveillance in Nigerian live bird markets (LBM) and from outbreaks reported in the country between 2016 and 2019. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that the Nigerian viruses cluster into four separate genetic groups within HPAI H5 clade 2.3.4.4b. The first group includes 2016-2017 Nigerian viruses with high genetic similarity to H5N8 viruses detected in Central African countries, while the second includes Nigerian viruses collected both in LBM and poultry farms (2018-2019), as well as in Cameroon, Egypt and Siberia. A natural reassortant strain identified in 2019 represents the third group: H5N8 viruses with the same gene constellation were identified in 2018 in South Africa. Finally, the fourth introduction represents the first detection in the African continent of the H5N6 subtype, which is related to European viruses. Bayesian phylogeographic analyses confirmed that the four introductions originated from different sources and provide evidence of the virus spread within Nigeria, as well as diffusion beyond its borders. The multiple epidemiological links between Nigeria, Central and Southern African countries highlight the need for harmonized and coordinated surveillance system to control AIV impact. Improved surveillance at the Wetlands, LBMs and early warning of outbreaks are crucial for prevention and control of AIV, which can be potentially zoonotic and be a threat to human health.

Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) has today become a major public health threat. Despite several ongoing clinical trials, there is as yet no specific treatment for this disease. This study evaluated the effects of 3 polyherbal mixtures (CoV-1, CoV Pla-2 and CoV Pla-3) on some electrolyte and haematological parameters in laboratory animals. The parameters evaluated were PCV, HGB, MCV, MCH, MCHC, RBC, WBC, neutrophils and lymphocytes counts, including Na+, Cl-, HCO3-, K+. Treatment was per oral with doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg for the 3 polyherbal mixtures. Control group had 0.1 mL of distilled water per oral. The extract was safe up to 5000 mg/kg. An insignificant (P>0.05) decrease in RBC was observed at all doses except for 200 mg/kg for CoV Pla-3 which was significant (P0.05) in serum levels of Na+, K+, Cl- and HCO3- were observed in all test animals, compared to control. The results obtained in this study indicate that the extracts did not cause significant changes in haematological parameters evaluated, which implies it is non-toxic.

Since November 2018, several countries in West and Central Africa have reported mortalities in donkeys and horses. Specifically, more than 66,000 horses and donkeys have succumbed to disease in Burkina Faso, Chad, Cameroon, The Gambia, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal. Strangles caused by Streptococcus equi subsp equi, African Horse Sickness (AHS) virus, and Equine influenza virus (EIV) were all suspected as potential causative agents. This study reports the identification of EIV in field samples collected in Niger and Senegal. Phylogenetic analysis of the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes revealed that the identified viruses belonged to clade 1 of the Florida sublineage and were very similar to viruses identified in Nigeria in 2019. Interestingly, they were also more similar to EIVs from recent outbreaks in South America than to those in Europe and the USA. This is one of the first reports providing detailed description and characterization of EIVs in West and Central Africa region.

We report detection of a highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N8) clade 2.3.4.4b virus in Europe. This virus was generated by reassortment between H5N8 subtype virus from sub-Saharan Africa and low pathogenicity avian influenza viruses from Eurasia.

Newcastle disease (ND), caused by virulent strains of Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is a devastating disease of poultry worldwide. The pathogenesis of ND in quail is poorly documented. To characterize the ability of virulent NDV strains to replicate and cause disease in quail, groups of 14 two-week-old Japanese quail ( Coturnix japonica) were experimentally inoculated with 108 EID50 (embryo infectious dose 50%) units of 1 of 4 virulent NDV strains: 2 isolated from quail ( N2, N23) and 2 from chickens ( Israel, Pakistan). At day 2 postinfection, noninfected quail (contact group) were added to each infection group to assess the efficacy of virus transmission. Tested NDV strains showed moderate pathogenicity, with highest mortality being 28% for the N2 strain and below 10% for the others. Two N2-inoculated birds showed neurological signs, such as head tremor and ataxia. Microscopic lesions were present in N2-, Israel-, and Pakistan-inoculated birds and consisted of nonsuppurative encephalitis. Contact birds showed no clinical signs or lesions. In both inoculated and contact birds, virus replication was moderate to minimal, respectively, as observed by immunohistochemistry in tissues and virus isolation from oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs. Strains originally isolated from quail resulted in higher numbers of birds shedding in the inoculation group; however, transmission appeared slightly more efficient with chicken-derived isolates. This study shows that virulent NDV strains have limited replicative potential and mild to moderate disease-inducing ability in Japanese quail.

In this study, highly abundant coffee waste was taken as a matrix to synthesize a novel magnetic coffee waste (MCW) by dispersing Fe3O4 nanoparticles on its surface via a single pot precipitation method. The potential of MCW to remove Pb (II) from aqueous solution (Pb II) was assessed. The synthesized adsorbent was characterized using XRD, FTIR and SEM-EDX for envisaging the role of surface structures and functional groups in the sorption process. Various operating conditions including effect of Fe3O4-loading, solution pH, contact time, adsorbent dosage, initial Pb (II) concentration and temperature on the sorption of Pb (II) from aqueous solution were studied. The sorption data were fitted using Freundlich, Langmuir, Temkin and Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) adsorption models. Langmuir isotherm best fitted the experimental data with R2 > 0.99 and maximum Pb (II) adsorption capacity of 41.15 mg/g at 25 °C indicating monolayer adsorption. Analysis of kinetic data using pseudo first-order, pseudo second-order and intra-particle diffusion models, revealed that sorption of Pb (II) onto MCW followed pseudo-second order kinetics; demonstrating the chemisorption nature of sorption. Intra-particle diffusion model, clearly depicts that diffusion is not the only rate limiting step in the sorption. Thermodynamic analysis revealed that sorption is endothermic and spontaneous in nature. MCW’s showed remarkable potential to be used as an adsorbent for the removal of Pb (II) from aqueous solutions with the advantage of easy separation using magnetic forces.

This study investigated whether prior cyclophosphamide (CY) treatment influenced the susceptibility of young broiler chickens to velogenic Newcastle disease (vND) virus (vNDV) challenge. Broiler chickens treated with CY at 4 weeks of age showed a loss of weight, severe atrophy of the bursa and thymus and severe lymphocytic depletion in the bursa, spleen and thymus and lymphopaenia. On challenge at 6 weeks of age with vNDV, there were significant (p

Aim To characterize field isolates of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) from outbreaks in nine states in Nigeria through reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and sequence analysis of portions of the VP2 and VP1 genes and to determine the presence or absence of reassortant viruses. Materials and methods A total of 377 bursa samples were collected from 201 suspected IBD outbreaks during 2009 to 2014 from nine states in Nigeria. Samples were subjected to RT-PCR using VP2 and VP1 gene specific primers, and the resulting PCR products were sequenced. Results A total of 143 samples were positive for IBDV by RT-PCR. These assays amplified a 743 bp fragment from nt 701 to 1444 in the IBDV VP2 hypervariable region (hvVP2) of segment A and a 722 bp fragment from nt 168 to 889 in the VP1 gene of segment B. RT-PCR products were sequenced, aligned and compared with reference IBDV sequences obtained from GenBank. All but one hvVP2 sequence showed similarity to very virulent IBDV (vvIBDV) reference strains, yet only 3 of the VP1 67 VP1 sequences showed similarity to the VP1 gene of vvIBDV. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a new lineage of Nigerian reassortant IBDV strains. Conclusion Phylogenetic analysis of partial sequences of genome segment A and B of IBDV in Nigeria confirmed the existence of vvIBDV in Nigeria. In addition, we noted the existence of reassortant IBDV strains with novel triplet amino acid motifs at positions 145, 146 and 147 in the reassorted Nigerian IBDV.

Genetic analysis of the complete haemagglutinin (HA) gene of fourteen Nigerian avian influenza isolates showed multiple basic amino acids at the cleavage site (321PQRERRRK del R*GLF333), characteristic of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). Substitution of Gln to Lys at position 322 (H5-specific numbering) was identified in one isolate. In some isolates, amino acid substitutions were observed across the HA gene, however the receptor binding, antigenic and glycosylation sites were conserved in all. Phylogenetic analysis revealed two clusters of the HPAI H5N1 clade 2.3.2.1c. Cluster I has close genetic relatedness (97.8–99.8%) with viruses circulating in some West Africa countries. Cluster II shared close identity (98.9–100.0%) with isolates from Europe, Cote d’Ivoire and Niger and viruses from this cluster were detected in five of the eleven states investigated in Nigeria. In view of the continuous HPAI outbreaks being recorded in Nigerian poultry and the zoonotic potential of the virus, extensive and continued characterization of HPAI isolates is advocated.

The role of Africa in the dynamics of the global spread of a zoonotic and economically-important virus, such as the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5Nx of the Gs/GD lineage, remains unexplored. Here we characterise the spatiotemporal patterns of virus diffusion during three HPAI H5Nx intercontinental epidemic waves and demonstrate that Africa mainly acted as an ecological sink of the HPAI H5Nx viruses. A joint analysis of host dynamics and continuous spatial diffusion indicates that poultry trade as well as wild bird migrations have contributed to the virus spreading into Africa, with West Africa acting as a crucial hotspot for virus introduction and dissemination into the continent. We demonstrate varying paths of avian influenza incursions into Africa as well as virus spread within Africa over time, which reveal that virus expansion is a complex phenomenon, shaped by an intricate interplay between avian host ecology, virus characteristics and environmental variables., The role of Africa in the global spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is not well understood. Here, using evolutionary analyses, the authors show that Africa mainly acts as ecological sink for HPAI H5, and reveal varying paths of HPAI incursions either through domestic or wild birds.

Over the years, Newcastle disease (ND) has defied all available control measures. The disease has remained at the forefront of infectious diseases afflicting poultry production after avian influenza. Despite the continuous global use of million doses of ND vaccine annually, the causative pathogen, avian paramyxovirus type 1 also known as Newcastle disease virus (NDV) has continued to evolve causing, even more, a threat not only to the unvaccinated but the vaccinated flocks inclusive. The disease has been well studied in the developed countries where the virus is found in circulation. However, limited information exists on the epizootiology and circulating genotypes of the virus in developing countries where the majority of the flocks are raised on the extensive management system. Identification of virulent NDV in apparently healthy free-range ducks in this system calls for concern and pragmatic approach to investigate factor(s) that favour the virus inhabiting the ducks without clinical manifestation of the disease. Recently, novel genotypes (XIV, XVII, and XVIII) with peculiarity to West and Central African countries have been discovered and due to lack or poor surveillance system possibility of hitherto unreported genotypes are likely. This review elucidates and discusses available literature on the diversity of the circulating NDV genotypes across the West Africa countries and the epizootiology (molecular) of the disease in Nigeria with the view of identifying gaps in knowledge that can assist in the development of effective vaccines and control strategies to combat the peril of the disease.

Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is a highly contagious acute respiratory disease of chickens with outbreaks resulting in high economic losses due to increased mortality and drop in egg production. This study reports a survey of ILT virus antibody conducted in nine local government areas (LGAs) of Plateau State involving 67 randomly selected commercial poultry flocks. In all, 938 sera were tested using the Agar Gel Immuno-diffusion (AGID) technique. Overall prevalence of 1.2% (N = 11) was recorded. ILT virus antibody was found in 2.5% (n = 9) and 7.1% (n = 2) of the tested sera from Jos South and Langtang North LGAs, respectively. No detectable ILT virus antibody was found from the other seven LGAs. This is the first report of ILT infection in poultry from the North central part of Nigeria. It is therefore recommended that the economic implication of ILT infection in Nigerian poultry population be conducted in order to know if vaccination should be adopted for control.

Traditionally, substrates for production of viral poultry vaccines have been embryonated eggs or adherent primary cell cultures. The difficulties and cost involved in scaling up these substrates in cases of increased demand have been a limitation for vaccine production. Here, we assess the ability of a newly developed chicken-induced pluripotent cell line, BA3, to support replication and growth of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) LaSota vaccine strain. The characteristics and growth profile of the cells were also investigated. BA3 cells could grow in suspension in different media to a high density of up to 7.0 × 10(6) cells/mL and showed rapid proliferation with doubling time of 21 h. Upon infection, a high virus titer of 1.02 × 10(8) EID50/mL was obtained at 24 h post infection using a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 5. In addition, the cell line was shown to be free of endogenous and exogenous Avian Leukosis viruses, Reticuloendotheliosis virus, Fowl Adenovirus, Marek's disease virus, and several Mycoplasma species. In conclusion, BA3 cell line is potentially an excellent candidate for vaccine production due to its highly desirable industrially friendly characteristics of growing to high cell density and capability of growth in serum free medium.

Diglycolamine (DGA), one of the alkanolamine solvent used in natural gas sweetening unit, produces total organic acid (TOA) anions as degraded products that has detrimental effects over the operational units. In this study, calcium alginate carbon (CAC) adsorbents were used to remove TOA anions from industrial lean DGA solvent. The adsorbents were characterized by TGA, DSC, Raman, FTIR, and SEM analysis. Effects of different parameters such as the adsorption time, adsorbent dosage, and solution temperature were examined in the batch adsorption experiments. The kinetic data were best fitted to the pseudo-second-order model, highlighting chemisorption as the rate-limiting step. This was also validated using molecular modeling by predicting the intermolecular hydrogen bond formation between the organic acid anions and the calcium alginate molecules. The TOA uptake increased with the increase in the solution temperature from 49.9 mg/g at 25 °C to 72.5 mg/g at 55 °C. The CAC beads were regenerated effectively for six adsorption–desorption cycles in a fixed-bed column. The environmentally friendly CAC adsorbent exhibited significant application potential for the removal of TOA anions from lean DGA solvents.

In December 2018, suspected outbreaks of equine influenza (EI) were observed in donkeys in Sokoto State, in the extreme northwest of Nigeria bordering the Republic of the Niger. Equine influenza virus (EIV) subtype H3N8 was the etiologic agent identified in the outbreaks using real-time RT-qPCR and sequencing of both the partial haemagglutinin (HA) gene and the complete genome. Since then the H3N8 virus spread to 7 of the 19 northern states of Nigeria, where it affected both donkeys and horses. Phylogenetic analysis of the partial and complete HA gene revealed the closest nucleotide similarity (99.7%) with EIVs belonging to the Florida clade 1 (Fc-1) of the American lineage isolated in 2018 from Argentina and Chile. In total, 80 amino acid substitutions were observed in the viral proteins when compared to the OIE-recommended Fc-1 vaccine strains. The HA and neuraminidase proteins respectively had 13 and 16 amino acid substitutions. This study represents the first reported outbreak of EI caused by an Fc-1 virus in Nigeria and in the West Africa sub-region. Based on this report, extensive disease surveillance in equids is required to establish the circulating lineages and design an effective control strategy to protect the considerable population of horses and donkeys in the country.

Amine foaming is a well-known incident in the natural gas sweetening unit. In this study, anionic surfactant sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS) and cationic surfactant hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (HTAB) were used as model foam creators in industrial lean methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) solution. The surfactant concentrations of 300, 500, 1000, and 3000 mg/L were prepared in lean MDEA solution and stirred to create foam. The final foam volume was found to increase with the increase in both the surfactant concentration and the stirring speed. However, SDBS showed higher foam volume (35 and 55 mL) than HTAB (20 and 25 mL) at low surfactant concentrations (300 and 500 mg/L). Ultrasonic waves were effective in defoaming all tested solutions. The rate of defoaming increased with temperature rise. At a fixed temperature and stirring, foam formation and defoaming obeyed the exponential function. The differences in physical properties, including density, dynamic viscosity, and surface tension before and after sonication, were insignificant. Interestingly, the content of organic acids, known as primary degraded products, remained almost constant. This work demonstrated the promising potential of ultrasonic waves for defoaming amine solutions in the natural gas industry.

Globally, vaccines are used to prevent and control the menace of infectious diseases in livestock with some reported to be inadvertently contaminated with extraneous agents (EAs). With the aim of screening and characterizing for some selected EAs, 44 live viral poultry vaccines were randomly selected based on availability. The vaccines comprised 14 manufacturers in 10 different countries including Nigeria were screened by Polymerase Chain Reaction. In 9% (4/44) of the vaccines, contamination with only avian leukosis virus (ALV) subgroup J (ALV-J) was recorded. Other exogenous ALV subgroups, chicken infectious anemia and infectious laryngotracheitis viruses were absent. The EAs was found in infectious bursal disease (n = 1), Fowlpox (n = 2) and Mareks disease (n = 1) vaccines. Phylogenetic analysis of the ALV-J env gene showed clustering with contemporary group I and II. The result underscores the importance of screening vaccines to avoid the introduction and spread of EAs that could pose a threat to poultry production.