Search

The Spanish verbs amenazar ‘to threaten’ andprometer ‘to promise’ do not only have a lexical reading but can also yield a subjective one, whereby the likelihood of the event expressed in the infinitive receives a negative, resp. a positive, evaluation. Three hypotheses are being tested: 1) as an outcome of the illocutionary force and the subject commitment attached to lexical prometer, the subjective readings of the latter may be expected to score high on the probability scale, whereas the event introduced by subjective amenazar will score low, in line with the lack of illocutionary force and weak subject commitment in lexical reading of this verb. 2) The viewpoint substantiated by the two verbs also differs: Whereas amenazar renders an event-oriented evidential reading from an internal point of view, prometer projects an external viewpoint leading to a more speaker-oriented subjective reading. 3) As a result of (1) and (2), prometer should easily combine with negatively oriented complements, whereas amenazar should resist taking positively oriented ones. The corpus research fully corroborates the first two hypotheses. The data, however, fail to unequivocally sustain the third one, especially because amenazar displays more flexibility than expected.

The aim of the present study is to examine the way of syntax of the consecutive clauses with infinitive and participle in Greek non-literary papyri of the Imperial and the early Arabic Period. The article presents the frequency with which the two verb forms appear in the papyrus documents from 31 B.C. up to the 8th c. A.D. and highlights the frequent use of the infinitive structure as opposed to the use of the participle structure, which occurs much more rarely. At the same time, stereotypical expressions are presented, which are expressed with consecutive clauses and appear mainly in legal documents. The examples were taken from a body of approximately 55,000 non-literary papyrus texts and 15,000 ostraca from the Duke Databank of Documentary Papyri (DDdDP) online database, checked against their printed publications to avoid possible mistakes. Résumé : le but de cette étude est l’examen de la syntaxe des propositions subordonnées consécutives dans l’utilisation de l’infinitif et du participe dans les papyrus grecs non littéraires de l’époque impériale et du début de la période arabe. L’article présente la fréquence avec laquelle les deux formes verbales apparaissent dans les documents papyrologiques à partir de 31 av. J.-C. jusqu’au viiie siècle apr. J.-C. et met en évidence l’utilisation fréquente de la structure de l’infinitif par opposition à l’utilisation du participe, qui se produit beaucoup plus rarement. En parallèle, des expressions stéréotypées sont présentées, qui sont construites avec des propositions subordonnées consécutives et apparaissent principalement dans les documents juridiques. Les exemples ont été tirés par un corpus d’environ 55 000 papyrus et 15 000 ostraca non littéraires de la base de données en ligne Duke Databank of Documentary Papyri (DDbDP). Afin d’éviter toute erreur, ces textes ont été aussi vérifiés sur leurs éditions imprimées. Περίληψη: Στόχος της παρούσας μελέτης είναι να εξετάσει τον τρόπο σύνταξης των συμπερασματικών προτάσεων με απαρέμφατο και μετοχή σε ελληνικούς μη λογοτεχνικούς παπύρους της αυτοκρατορικής και της πρώιμης αραβικής εποχής. Το άρθρο παρουσιάζει τη συχνότητα με την οποίο εμφανίζονται οι δύο ρηματικοί τύποι στα παπυρικά έγγραφα από το 31 π.Χ. μέχρι τον 8ο αι. μ.Χ. και αναδεικνύει τη συχνή χρήση της απαρεμφατικής δομής σε αντίθεση με τη χρήση της μετοχικής δομής, η οποία εμφανίζεται πολύ πιο σπάνια. Παράλληλα παρουσιάζονται στερεοτυπικές εκφράσεις οι οποίες εκφέρονται με συμπερασματικές προτάσεις και απαντούν σε νομικά κυρίως έγγραφα. Τα παραδείγματα αντλήθηκαν από ένα σώμα περίπου 55.000 μη λογοτεχνικών παπυρικών κειμένων και 15.000 οστράκων της διαδικτυακής βάσης δεδομένων Duke Databank of Documentary Papyri (DDdDP) και στη συνέχεια, προς αποφυγή πιθανών λαθών, ελέγχθηκαν από τις έντυπες εκδόσεις τους.

Using theCorpus der altdeutschen Originalurkunden‘Corpus of Old German Original Charters’ (Wilhelm et al. 1932–2004), we will show that charters offer valuable information on dialectological differences during the Middle High German period. This text genre is unsurpassed in terms of its geographical resolution even though it faces certain challenges due to its partially formulaic style. With two well-known phenomena, i.e. inflected forms of the infinitive (‘gerunds’) and so-called ‘contracted’ verbs likehaben/hân‘have’, we will show how these materials can be analysed and put into perspective with other sources like the newMittelhochdeutsche GrammatikbyKlein, Solms & Wegera (2018).

Esta investigación busca identificar las funciones sintácticas y textuales que desempeñan los gerundio-participios (-ing) e infinitivos en notas periodísticas en idioma inglés. La metodología adaptada consistió en analizar un corpus de veinticinco notas deportivas, para lo cual construimos un modelo de análisis mediante el que examinamos las funciones principales de ambas formas no finitas, tanto a nivel oracional como supraoracional. Con base en este modelo, clasificamos gerundio-participios e infinitivos del corpus con la finalidad de establecer un parangón respecto de su asiduidad y sus respectivas funciones en este género discursivo. Entre nuestros hallazgos, constatamos que ambas formas no finitas se hacen anteceder de verbos auxiliares para formar perífrasis verbales. En complemento preposicional, ambas formas se asocian a sintagmas nominales y adjetivales. A nivel supraoracional, el gerundio-participio juega un rol más textual en las notas periodísticas deportivas del corpus que el infinitivo. Con esta investigación, pretendemos contribuir a los estudios del discurso deportivo, en particular aquellos enfocados en las formas no finitas.

The Portuguese language, unlike many other languages, has the verb ficar, which is often used in resultative constructions and is characterized by having a multifunctionality: staying in a certain place, presenting the result of a change or an aspectual operation (ficar a + infinitive). In this way, this work aims to study the behavior of the verb ficar, as an indicator of change, in progressive constructions with adjectives and participles, to characterize not only the verb ficar and the progressive constructions, but also the adjectives and participles that occur in them. To this end, we selected examples of two distinct corpora built with adjectives and participles, whose tense of “estar a” would be in one of following: Presente, Pretérito Perfeito and Imperfeito (Simples do Indicativo). So, the observation of the selected tenses that occurred in these constructions, the type of adjective and its possible graduation, as well as some participles and their proximity to the typical characteristics of the adjectives, were considered as essential aspects for the development of this study. In this work, it was possible to conclude that the presence of the verb ficar in progressive constructions seems to demonstrate the loss of the characteristic completeness and resultative meaning of this verb, presenting the progressive a progression which seems to prevail. Besides, it was also possible to conclude that ficar in these constructions, selects mainly adjectives and that the selected tense is mostly Presente do Indicativo

This paper deals with the main similarities and differences that arise between past and future tenses. In particular, we argue that, while the propositions associated with past tenses are completely settled and their truth-value can be evaluated at the speech time, the propositions described by future tenses cannot be seen as true or false at the utterance time since these linguistic forms are ramifying, in that they typically point to a variety of inertia histories or inertia worlds. Nevertheless, if we consider more closely some particular tenses in European Portuguese – namely the Pretérito Imperfeito (Imperfect) and the Pretérito Perfeito do Indicativo (simple past), as representatives of the past tenses, and the Futuro Simples (simple future) and the structure ir (‘go’) + Infinitive, as representatives of the future ones, we conclude that there are also some important parallels across the two temporal domains. We claim that both the Imperfeito and the Futuro Simples merely locate the situations in a past or future interval, respectively, and that the final interpretation of the sentences in which they occur is the result of the interaction of their temporal characteristics with aspectual and modal features. The Pretérito Perfeito and the structure ir (‘go’) + Infinitive, on the other hand, share the common property of imposing an additional temporal boundary beyond which the eventualities cannot take place; as a result, aspectual effects and modal readings are much more conditioned and pure temporal interpretations – both in the past and in the future – become greatly predominant.

This article seeks to investigate Russian infinitive as an adjective with the meaning of motivation and the means to convey it in Persian language. Russian infinitive has noun or verbal forms, which can express semantic meanings by lexical and intonational units even into the function of adjective, while Persian infinitive in a sentence is expressed by a noun. Hence in some cases no problem can be seen in expressing Russian infinitive adjective with the meaning of motivation in Persian language, but in other cases, according to the context, Russian infinitive adjective in Persian should be conveyed as a verb form. During our research on the basis of comparative analysis, we studied infinitive as an adjective with the meaning of motivation by the variety of examples, which were derived from the epic novel "The Road to Calvary" by A.N. Tolstoy. Moreover we tested the Persian translation of these samples to demonstrate the language tools, which are used for expressing the aforementioned meaning by Russian infinitive adjective in Persian language.

In this work, we study the linguistic variation of the ser de + infinitive construction with passive interpretation (Eso es de aplaudir) with examples taken from CORPES and Corpus del Español (Mark Davies). The consultation of both corpora has allowed us to confirm that the construction not only has more vitality in American Spanish, but that it presents two uncommon variants in European Spanish: it appears with accusative clitic (Eso es de aplaudirlo) and with the particle se (Eso es de admirarse). We will argue that this behavior responds to two different analyses: a passive one, which would explain the absence of a direct complement in general Spanish or the presence of particle se in some American varieties, and an impersonal active one (present mostly in Central America), which would in turn justify the presence of the accusative clitic. En este trabajo se estudia la variación lingüística de la construcción ser de + infinitivo de interpretación pasiva (Eso es de aplaudir) a partir del CORPES y del Corpus del Español (Mark Davies). La consulta de ambos corpus nos ha permitido confirmar que la construcción no solo tiene más vitalidad en el español americano, sino que presenta dos variantes raras en el español europeo: aparece con clítico acusativo (Eso es de aplaudirlo) y con la partícula se (Eso es de admirarse). Defenderemos que el comportamiento de la construcción responde a dos análisis diferentes: uno pasivo, que explica la ausencia de complemento directo en el español general o la presencia de la partícula se en algunas variedades americanas, y otro impersonal (presente sobre todo en Centroamérica), que explica la presencia del clítico acusativo.

The article elucidates the study findings regarding the specific functioning features of a Compound Nominal Predicate in legal languge style. A case study material is the Constitution of the Republic of Poland. In the process of lingual-stylistic analysis of Сompound Nominal Predicates identified in the document, it was found out that a Compound Predicate is quite productive in this style. In the focus of analysis are the lexico-grammatical means of expressing predicatives. Being a frequent occurrence in business language, this category has both general features of functioning, characteristic for all predicates, and specific ones, characteristic only of a Compound Nominal Predicate. The linking verb types in the above-mentioned syntactic category in the sentences from the text of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland are not diverse. 90% of constructions have a predicate with a linking verb byc in different tenses and forms (most often in the Present tense of Indicative Mood of the third person singular or plural). From a morphological point of view, the predicative element is most productively expressed by nouns in the Common Case and an adjective or Participle form in the Common Case. To express a predicative feature, the text of the Basic Law of Poland actively uses a polynomial compound predicate, which, due to its specific organization, is characterized by multifunctional capacity and causes some difficulty in expressing lexical and grammatical meanings, productively conveys the semantics of the objective modality, which determines the reality or unreality of the sentence content. Despite a high frequency of operation, this syntactic category is not particularly diverse. Thus, the first component of the linking part of the predicate, the modal auxiliary verb, is almost in 100% cases represented by the word moc in the form of the Present tense of the third person singular, its second component is expressed by the infinitive byc, but the predicate nominative part is mostly expressed by Participle in the form of a noun, much less often – by a noun in the instrumental case. The business style is characterized by the use of stable formulas that serve as the nominative part of the Compound Nominal Predicate and are a combination of two or more words between which there are semantic and grammatical connections. Lexically structural components are so interconnected that they express a single concept. The case study of the text of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland has revealed that, although the organization of a predicate is not characterized by a diversity of structure, the method of expressing a predicative feature in syntactic constructions with the help of a Compound Nominal Predicate is rather productive, demonstrating the highest frequency of using Participle, Nominative and Adjectives in the predicative part.

У статті розглядаються граматичні, лексико-семантичні та статистичні характеристики модальних конструкцій із “may/might + infinitive” й “can/could + infinitive” для їх подальшого порівняння. Матеріалом для роботи послугували текстові корпуси технічних спеціальностей «теплотехніка», «електротехніка» й «автомобільна промисловість». Вони складені на основі статей із наукових журналів у відповідних галузях знань, опублікованих у Великобританії та США. Загальний обсяг становив 300 тис. слововживань. Найбільш частими конструкціями з дієсловами may/might були моделі з другим складником в інфінітиві в дійсній заставі – may V, яка в загальній частоті представляє більше ніж половина всіх конструкцій з активним інфінітивом у другому складнику. Дієслова can/could – у них пріоритет мають дієслівні конструкції, які використовуються у формі пасивного інфінітиву. Найбільш частою є модель can be Ven, яка також охоплює більше ніж половину загальної частоти всіх моделей із can/could. Отже, поряд із абсолютно різними граматичними характеристиками в конструкціях із may/might і can/ could вони (конструкції) мають статистичні збіги, крім того, є лексичні та стилістичні збіги в других складниках модальних конструкцій: вони (складники) належать до тих самих лексичних шар – загальновживаної та загальнонаукової. У конструкціях, що посідають друге місце за частотою використання, також можна спостерігати певні збіги. У конструкціях, що посідають друге місце за частотою використання, також можна спостерігати певні збіги. На другому місці за частотою використання в текстах у конструкціях із модальним дієсловом may/might знаходяться моделі, у яких другий складник використовується в пасивному заставі (33% від загальної частоти всіх моделей із цим дієсловом), і найбільш високочастотною конструкцією є модель may be Ven. У модальних конструкціях із can/could на другому місці з’являються ті, де інфінітив зустрічається в дійсному заставі, і знову 33% від загальної частоти всіх моделей із цим дієсловом. Отже, набір граматичних зразків з обома модальними дієсловами абсолютно однаковий. У менш частих конструкціях другі складники здебільшого також належать до загального й загальнонаукового шарів. Детальний огляд прикладів показав, що основним значенням обох дієслів є «здатність щось робити». Збіг усіх вищезазначених характеристик у конструкціях із модальними дієсловами may/might і can/could дає змогу дійти висновку, що дієслова may й can у них можуть бути функціональними замінниками й використовуватися в текстових корпусах наукового дискурсу з тією самою функцією.

The objective of this study is to describe the syntactic complexity present in the written narrative corpus of 3rd, 5th and 7th grade students in two types of educational establishments. It seeks to determine in detail the characteristics of the sentences used in the corpus in terms of their complexity (number, use of simple and subordinate sentences, and types of subordinate sentences used) in each of the school levels studied. In addition, it seeks to establish whether there are differences related to the type of educational establishment in which these samples were taken. Regarding this last point, there were no differences of any kind. On the other hand, the results show a sustained development in terms of the number of subordinate sentences that are produced from one school level to the next and a decrease in the use of simple sentences. Regarding the types of subordinate sentences present in the corpus, there is a greater use of substantive subordinate sentences (carried out, for the most part, through infinitive verbs) and of adverbial subordinate sentences of time, mode and cause over the other types of sentences. Finally, it is concluded that the processes of complexity of narrative discourse could be supported through a focus not only centered on teaching particular strategies for the production of this type of discourse in superstructural terms, but also accompanied by models of syntactic production of growing complexity.

This article discusses the Polish independent infinitive, which constitutes a predicate in imperative utterances, and its French functional equivalents. The analysis was conducted at two levels. In the first part, the author describes the independent infinitive in the Polish language referring to the Polish formal structural syntax (Saloni, Świdziński 2012). This is to determine which place is occupied by this unit in a sentence, both in relation to other uses of the infinitive and in comparison to other units with the function of a predicate in statements of the same modality. The French structural equivalent has been determined on the basis of the same criterion of syntax dependency. However, even though both languages have corresponding structures, they do not use them in the same way. Only in Polish it is possible to form sentences with infinitive predicates in the spoken language, in face-to-face conversation. What are the factors that favour choosing this form? The author answers this question in her semantic and pragmatic analysis, conducted in the methodological framework of speech act theory (Searle 1979, Vanderveken 1988). She presents imperatives as a class of speech acts, which are extensively developed and specifies those, which can be executed by means of utterances with infinitive predicates. Additionally, factors of social and psychological character have been taken into consideration, as those which favour selecting the discussed form. What structure constitutes its functional equivalent in the French language? An analysis of a body composed of examples originating primarily from dialogues in contemporary literary works and their approved translations has allowed, on the one hand, to confirm the intuitive belief that grammar forms perform this function, in face-to-face oral communication the French language has only the command mode forms (l’impératif in French). On the other hand, we can launch a discussion about possibilities to translate them into a language which does not allow for an analogous use of the available infinitive structure.

In this paper, three cases of grammatical variation in Spanish are studied in which a subjunctive verb alternates with another verbal mood in a main clause: optative main sentences with a bare subjunctive verb (alternating with optative main sentences introduced by a conjunction or an adverb); declarative and interrogative sentences with a subjunctive verb (alternating with a conditional verb); and «retrospective imperative» sentences (where the subjunctive mood alternates with a perfect infinitive). It is proposed that, in the varieties where these main clauses with a subjunctive verb are possible, the subjunctive mood has a performative value and satisfies the illocutionary properties in Force associated with sentential modality. The performative value of subjunctive is associated with an irrealis modal base, which is provided by the lexical meaning of a modal verb or by the past perfect temporal anchoring of tense. The proposal shows that the same conditions constraint the three constructions under study and explains the coincidence between the varieties that allow the performative subjunctive (or use it more frequently).

This work describes a particular type of substantive clause: “para + infinitive”, where the infinitive has a [+posteriority] value and para is admitted as a subordinator. The work presents the relationships it share with final clauses and questions the relevance of the theory of language contact (Guaraní and Portuguese) as the only explanatory factor. To do this, it show that it is not an exclusive phenomenon of the variety of Paraguayan Spanish, nor of bilingual speakers, since it is registered in other areas (Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela, but also Mexico, Ecuador and Argentina). It is proposed that some varieties tend to fix the synthetic subparameter (subordinate with subjunctive [+Flex]) and other varieties use the analytic one (subordinate with infinitive [-Flex]). In these cases, the infinitive is understood as a verbal mode, and para assigns nominative case or an optional mark.

In this article subordinate and matrix infinitive utterances are defined as one-basis (with one transformational terminal chain) and two-basis (with two or more transformational terminal chains) synonymic transforms of the virtual (linguistic) primary propositionnal structure with the concessive, temporal, causal, final, hypothetical semantic meanings. They are actualized in the form of preferential options-compressed, extended or quantitatively equacomponential discourse innovations with the explicit predicate and the implicit actant coreferent or non-coreferent with the actant of the matrix utterance according to the communicative intention or the idiostyle of the author. Different semantic-structural types of subordinate infinitive utterances, the matrix infinitive utterances containing the verb savoir, the specific extended polypredicative constructions (with the extender-demonstrative pronoun) and the quantitatively equacomponential structures with the initial infinitive are distinguished. The inverse reconstruction (discourse → language) of the virtual transformational processes is carried out in order to identify all the members of the virtual synonymic chains. It is proved that the procedure of the inverse reconstruction and the identification of the primary proposition are impossible in case of the insufficience of the expression. The “alternativeˮ linguistic experiment allows for justifying the co(n)textual (linguistic and situational) pertinence of the analyzed synonymic preferential options and determining the author’s idiostylistic peculiarities.

O objetivo principal deste artigo é propor uma descrição inicial, com base nos estudos gerativistas, de um tipo de oração infinitiva do português brasileiro introduzida pelo conectivo para (Ana foi até o banco só para descobrir que esqueceu o cartão), que denominamos de oração mirativa (cf. JĘDRZEJOWSKI, 2018). Essas orações se assemelham às orações adverbiais finais infinitivas em sua forma, mas, diferentemente das finais, não expressam um sentido de finalidade, denotando sobretudo um desfecho contrário às expectativas. Mostramos que, além da diferença de sentido, as mirativas também se distinguem das finais no que se refere ao controle do sujeito do infinitivo e à sensibilidade a certas operações sintáticas, como deslocamento da oração. Mostramos ainda que, quando mirativas e finais coocorrem em uma sentença, a ordem entre elas deve ser finais-mirativas, o que indica que as mirativas estariam adjungidas a uma posição mais alta na estrutura.

The paper deals with the studying of means of expression of the predicative centre of sentences with pronominal-infinitive complex on the semantic-syntactical and the formal-grammatical levels. Different approaches to the determination of syntactical matter of such constructions are defined, the fact of non-belonging of the infinitive to their predicative centre is revealed. The predicative centre of every type of sentences with pronominal-infinitive complex (two-member and mononuclear) is determined, the ways (structural-semantic and semantic) and means (modal and phasal lexemes) of their complication are described. KEYWORDS: sentence with pronominal-infinitive complex, infinitive, pronominal component, two-member sentence, mononuclear sentence, predicative centre, predicate, valency, modal verb, phasal verb. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15181/ rh.v0i16.1015

The objective of the study is to know the using of regular and irregular verb in the students writing essay, and to know the most dominant verb past written by the students in their students writing essay. The design of this study is qualitative research. Based on the analysis from 14 students writing essay, it shows that the students use both regular and irregular verb (past) in their students writing essay. Both regular and irregular verbs are 312 data in verb 2 (past). In the regular verbs, there are 142 data or 45.51 %, and in irregular verb, there are 170 data or 54.49 %. It shows that the most dominant verb past written by the students in their students writing essay is irregular verb. Regular verbs are verbs that can change according to tense and change it regularly. Regular verbs are verbs whose changes comply with normal rules, that is with add the letter -d or -ed to the verb first-form / verb-1 (infinitive) so that it becomes a verb form second / verb-2 (past tense). There are several things that must be considered in the way of forming regular verbs by adding the letter -ed suffix or -d in the basic verb/verb-1 (infinitive). Irregular verbs are verbs that change according to the tense and do not comply with normal compliance. The past tense Irregular verbs are not formed from basic verbs / verb-1 (infinitives) plus letters -d or -ed letters to form verb-2/past tense. Irregular verbs form their past tense in a different way (through) not always) through a vowel and consonant change. So that, these forms must be memorized by the learners/students.

الملخص : اجتهد النحويون في وضع أصول النحو العربي منذ بداية الطور الأول البصري إلى أن انتهت جميع أبوابه في الطورين الثاني والثالث من أطوار النحو على يد الطبقة السابعة البصرية والخامسة الکوفية, فشمل النحو أبواب الصرف کذلک , ثم وزعوا هذه الأبواب على ترتيب ماله الأولوية من الأصول, و الفروع التي تحمل عليها , مبتدئين بالأسماء والأفعال والحروف, فجرى الاتفاق بينهم على أن الاسم هو الأصل لتمکنه وقبوله حروف الجر والتنوين, والإسناد, النداء والتعريف بأل , والفعل والحرف فرعان, ثم الحديث عن الإعراب والبناء في الأسماء فجرى القول على أن المعرب هو الأصل, لأنه؛ الأقوى وأصل الإعراب الضم , وبعد ذلک تناولوا أصولية الجموع وفرعيتها؛ فاتفقوا على أن التذکير هو الأصل والتأنيث فرعا عليه. أما أقوالهم عن أصولية الأفعال وفرعيتها, فقد قسموا الأفعال إلى ثلاثة أقسام باعتبار الزمن : ماض حاضر ومستقبل , ثم اختلفوا في أيهم أصل ومقدم . وناقشت اختلافاتهم في الأصول والفروع واختلافهم في الفعل والمصدر أيهما مشتق من الآخر , فذهب البصريون إلى أن الفعل مشتق من المصدر لخفته , وذهب الکوفيون إلى أن المصدر مشتق من الفعل لدلالته على الحدث , وبعد ذلک فصلوا القول عن اهتمامهم بالأصول و إهمالهم الفروع ,مستشهدين بآيات الذکر الحکيم والشعر العربي , ويشمل کلامهم مراعاة مراجعة الأصل الأقرب دون الفرع وقد أفاضوا في الدراسة عن انحطاط الفروع عن رتب الأصول بقولهم: إن الفرع أحط رتبة من الأصل وتناولوا الأصول المنصرف عنها إلي الفروع وما جاء شاذا منها للضرورة. Abstract The grammarians worked hard to establish the fundamentals of Arabic grammar from the beginning of the first stage at Basra until all its rules were finished in the second and third stages of the grammar by the seventh class at Basra and fifth class of Koufic. The theories of Arabic grammar at that time included the structure chapters, also . After that they classified all these chapters according to their necessity and priority into the fundamentals and the branches starting with nouns, verbs and letters. They agreed that the noun is the fundamental and this because it can be easily used and accompanied with prepositions, Noonation (Nunation) (tanween) and the definite article " solar laam " " lunar laam " . They also agreed that verb and the letter are two branches. Then they talked about the verbal expressions (indicative, subjunctive and jussive moods) and the structure of nouns and said that the verbal expressions noun is the origin because it is the strongest and the origin of the mood signs is " Damma " . After that they talked about the origin and the branches if the different kinds of the plurals and agreed that the masculinity is the origin and the feminity is a branch. But according to what the grammarians said about the origin and the branches in verbs: - They sorted the verbs to three types the simple past , the simple present and the simple future and do not agreed which one of them is the origin and has the priority. Then Mohammad Bin Al Serag said that the present simple is the origin and has the priority. Also, the grammarians had different opinions about the origins " sources " and the branches of the verb and the infinitive : -Which one is derived from the other? The Basra grammarians said that the verb is derived from the infinitive that is because it is lighter " easier " in use and pronunciation but the Koufic grammarian said that the infinitive is derived from the verb because it explains what is happening clearer. After that, they classified the fundamentals and the branches according to the verses quoted from of the Holy Quran and the Arabic poetry. They also put in their consideration reviewing the near origin not the branch. They went deeply in study about degeneration of the branches comparing with the origin saying " The branch is downgraded from the origin. and they used the origin that are not commonly used than the used branches and the odd ones for necessity.

The article called “Category of the gender and number and infinitive in Arabic borrowings in the modern Spanish language” issues of relative gender and number of Spanish words of Arabic origin. It is pointed out that the number of words in the sourse language may not always coinside with the same parameters of the language accepting these borrowings. Alsa cases of hesetations, relatively connected with this problem are also considered. Infinitives of the first, second and the fourth nature of infinitives are studied as well in the article. The article partially reflects the consideration of the given scientific problem. Key words: morphological indications, formal gender category, regular plural, internal plural

The aim of the paper is to consider the pragmatic effects of the Polish (Proszę) ‘request1 SG. NON-PAST.’ + VINF construction in different contexts. The specific research problem is how these effects are related to the conceptual make-up of the construction. The framework for the analysis is the theory of cognitive grammar (cf. e. g. Langacker 1987, 1991, 2008, 2009). The analysis starts with an account of the conceptual make-up of the construction. Then, its selected uses are considered, with emphasis on the pragmatic effects in the relevant contexts. The study offers a qualitative analysis of two kinds of data: a sample of hand-picked utterances and a corpus of utterances extracted from the National Corpus of Polish (NCP). The claim made in the study is that the construction profiles a process figuring in a directive scenario in the role of the process the speaker wishes the hearer to engage in. At the same time, it involves defocusing of the trajector of the profiled process, identified with the hearer. The construction’s pragmatic effects in specific contexts are claimed to follow from how this trajector defocusing is put in correspondence with specific aspects of the actual ground.

The issue on language and communication disorder of individuals with Down Syndrome becomes the focus of this study. It explores the disorder as a language phenomenon represented in movie. Where Hope Grows movie describes the character with Down Syndrome struggling in communicating with people in his workspace and independent livelihood. The result of this study shows that the utterances have dissimilarities with common people particularly in phonological terms such consonant clusters produced as a singleton, omitted word final consonant, target fricatives and affricates are produced as stops, and aspirated voiceless stops in initial position are de-aspirated. Moreover, there are also issues within the syntactical terms such simple infinitive clauses with equivalent subjects, infinitive clauses with different subjects, and quotes as full clauses. Further studies should cover more elaborative communication strategies of speakers with Down Syndrome in more impromptu and spontaneous speech contexts.

This paper examines periphrastic constructions with future time reference in Middle Russian, focusing on constructions with an inchoative verb and an infinitive clause: pocnu ‘begin’ + inf, nacnu ‘...

The relation between morpho-syntactic structure and its externalization into interpretive levels is the topic of this article. In many languages, typically in Romance and Albanian varieties, modal contexts, specifically imperative and infinitive, and negation, give rise to phenomena of clitic reordering and an interesting micro-variation. Imperative differs from declarative sentences in selecting enclisis except in negative contexts. Moreover, in Albanian mesoclisis appears in the 2nd plural person of imperative, between the verbal base and the person inflection. A similar distribution characterizes Calabro-Lucanian varieties spoken in Lausberg area, in contact with Arbëresh (Italo-Albanian) dialects. This article proposes to analyze the influence of modal contexts on the lexicalization of object clitics (OCls) and their different behavior in connection to their referential properties. Our descriptive and theoretical starting point is the representational morpho-syntactic approach adopted in Manzini and Savoia (2011 and subsequent works; see Section 5).

The paper deals with the morphosyntactic properties of infinitives in the Dabida language. As in the majority of Bantu languages, Dabida infinitives are allocated to noun class 15 by virtue of their morphological structure, in particular, the nominal prefix ku-. Nevertheless, from the morphosyntactic point of view infi nitives demonstrate a number of nominal and verbal properties that reveal their dual nature. Although these properties are not usually attested in the same ku- form thus contrasting the two uses, there are, however, syntactic positions where both verbal and nominal features are exhibited at once.

The article deals with the problem of functional peculiarities of the modal verb “would” in narrative texts. The analysed corpus comprises those meanings of “would” that render temporal aspects of the semantics of the following simple infinitive. The various meanings of modal constructions are considered in terms of the relative frequency of their usage in written texts as well as of their dependence on the broader lexical and pragmatic context. The present article also studies cognitive nuances of creating and perceiving “would + simple infinitive” phrases including their referential characteristics. At the end of the paper we attempt to build a cognitive model of the narrative discourse functioning of “would”-constructions, which takes into account the addressor’s presuppositions at the input and the implications at the output as inferred by the addressee.

espanol"Ficar a + infinitive" is a construction that focuses on the ‘beginning’ of the situation denoted by the predicate whose core is the infinitive form of the verb. This value, “inceptive”, is expressed by a considerable set of other constructions, of which comecar a, romper a, meter-se a + infinitive are just examples. Therefore, it is a central objective of this article to investigate the idiosyncrasies of the construction under analysis. To this end, and almost always using a corpus made up of authentic linguistic material, collected in the written press and in literary texts (late 20th century and early 21st century), – I (will) call forth several arguments, both structurally and syntactic-semantic nature. portugues"Ficar a + infinitivo" e uma construcao que focaliza o ‘comeco’ da situacao denotada pelo predicado cujo nucleo e a forma verbal de infinitivo. Este valor, o “inceptivo”, e expresso por um conjunto consideravel de outras construcoes, de que comecar a, romper a, meter-se a + infinitivo sao apenas meros exemplos. Por conseguinte, constitui objetivo central deste artigo indagar as idiossincrasias da construcao sob analise. Para tal, e recorrendo quase sempre a um corpus constituido por material linguistico autentico, recolhido na imprensa escrita e em textos literarios (finais do sec. xx e inicios do sec. xxi), convoco argumentos varios, de natureza estrutural (uns) e sintatico-semântica (outros).

The present work focuses on presenting the elaboration process of a diplomatic edition of satirical songs – or cantigas satiricas – of the Cancioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional (Colocci-Brancuti) – also known as the Biblioteca Nacional’s Songbook – with the purpose of developing a finite and infinitive verbal forms vocabulary, patented in these songs, being produced based upon the Historical Lexicography precepts, with the intention of contributing to the work of reconstructing the trajectory of the Portuguese language during the archaic period. Emphasized here is the importance of the access to the remaining documents through digital archives provided by some libraries and their platforms, which has allowed the observance of the linguistic data richness of these codices in order to preserve all aspects that could offer clues to an investigation and registration of the patented language in troubadour songs.

The article Death delayed indefinitely. Edward Stachura philosophizing on time, death and eternity is an attempt to read Stachura from a different side than as a poet, bard and mediocre singer. It is a compilation of the writer’s various texts, but the leading one is a little-known work called Everything is poetry. The story-river (edited by H. Bereza, Z. Fedecki, K. Rutkowski, vol. 4, Warsaw 1984). Stachura transforms into almost a sage, into a philosopher who tries to create ele­mentary definitions of the world, people, time and eternity. He believes that there is no such thing as “nothing” like death, which would mean the definitive end. Thus, he proves that he is not only an “extreme” creator, but one who seeks hope and gaps in describing and understanding the world. The writer attempts to describe eternity, to visualize it, to grasp death as a transition from the „non-our-form-life” to, it seems, a better place. He even changes the forms of talking about eternity — he uses the invented appropriate verb, the infinitive “to be”, which does not take into account the existence of any time . This is the term “perpetual time”. There is no place to distinguish the present, future or past, because eternity is a “measure”, we always find it in the moment of lasting. Therefore, eternity has no beginning or end, unlike time. These concepts of Stachura mainly dictate fear to the end. Thus, he tries to reformulate the common patterns in thinking about death and passing away. Ultimately, it is a study of broadly understood optimism of Stachura, underestimated in his work on a daily basis.

Šio straipsnio tikslas – ištirti pragmatinius predikatinės bendraties konstrukcijos latvių kalboje aspektus ir įrodyti, kad šios konstrukcijos turi specifinius pragmatinius ženklus. Priešingai nei tokie pragmatiniai ženklai kaip dalelytės, jungtukai, prieveiksmiai ar prozodija, predikatinės bendraties konstrukcijos latvių kalboje pragmatiškai funkcionuoja kaip atskiras vienetas, t. y., struktūrinis funkcionalumas kyla iš sąsajos, o ne iš atskirų leksinių ar gramatinių elementų. Šios konstrukcijos latvių kalboje žymi marginalinį modalumą, o jų vartojimas yra susijęs su neutraliais, pažymėtais kalbos registrais. Taigi straipsnyje pagrindinis dėmesys skiriamas modalinėms ir laikinoms reikšmėms bei predikatinių bendraties konstrukcijų poliariškumui. Kadangi šių konstrukcijų modalinės ir laiko reikšmės yra glaudžiai susijusios su komunikaciniais kalbos tipais, jų naudojimas apsiriboja tam tikrais teksto tipais: įspėjimais, kategoriškais prašymais ir draudimais, reklama, antraštėmis žiniasklaidoje ir t. t. The purpose of this article is to examine Latvian predicative infinitive constructions in a pragmatic aspect, showing that they constitute a special type of pragmatic marking. Unlike such pragmatic markers as particles, conjunctions, adverbs or prosody, predicative infinitive constructions in Latvian are pragmatically functioning as a single unit, i.e., their constructional functionality follows from this unity rather than from separate lexical or grammatical elements. Insofar as they represent a marginal modally marked construction type in Latvian, their use is related to non-neutral, marked registers of the language. Therefore, the article focuses on modal and temporal meanings, as well as polarity of predicative infinitive constructions. As their modal and temporal meanings are closely related to communicative types of utterances, the use of these constructions is restricted to specific text types – warnings, categorical requests and prohibitions, advertisements, headlines in mass media, etc.

The organization of language material in a foreign language course depends on many factors i ncluded i n the so-called glottodidactic systems. Models of the glottodidactic systems created in Polish literature have not yet taken into account factors such as the purpose of the language course, the program of the course and the author of the program.The content of the program depends on the course purpose. The author of the program creates it using pragmatic, statistical and intra-language criteria. Language phenomena are chronologically ordered in the curriculum. This chronology takes into account the practical needs of learners and statistics of language phenomena, but above all the relations between the phenomena presented. We propose to order the course of Polish as a foreign language in which the verb’s personal forms are presented before the infinitive; the nominative in singular is followed by a locative and genitive, and the accusative is fourth; the presentation of the object begins with the pronouns of him and her; we introduce grammatical tenses in the order: present, future perfect, past perfect — then imperfect past and imperfect future, marked against the perfect tenses, what allows to use the aspect correctly. Uporządkowanie materiału językowego w kursie języka obcego zależy od licznych czynników ujmowanych w tzw. układach glottodydaktycznych. Stworzone w polskiej literaturze przedmiotu modele procesu glottodydaktycznego nie uwzględniały dotąd takich czynników, jak cel kursu językowego, program kursu i autor programu.Zawartość programu zależy od przyjętego celu kursu. Autor programu tworzy go, stosując kryteria pragmatyczne, statystyczne i wewnątrzjęzykowe. Zjawiska językowe są w programie nauczania uporządkowane chronologicznie. Chronologia ta uwzględnia praktyczne potrzeby uczących się i statystykę zjawisk językowych, ale przede wszystkim relacje między prezentowanymi zjawiskami. Proponujemy autorskie uporządkowanie kursu języka polskiego jako obcego, w którym formy osobowe czasownika są prezentowane przed bezokolicznikiem; po mianowniku l. poj. następują miejscownik i dopełniacz, a dopiero potem biernik; prezentacja form dopełnienia bliższego zaczyna się od zaimków go, ją i je; czasy gramatyczne wprowadzamy w kolejności: teraźniejszy, przyszły dokonany, przeszły dokonany — potem dopiero niedokonane, jako nacechowane względem dokonanych, co pozwala prawidłowo używać aspektu.

This paper investigates the variation between to-infinitive and gerund-participle complements with the verbs dread and fear. Specifically, it aims to explain the reasons underlying complement selection with these two verbs as well as a number of semantic effects which arise with these complement clause constructions. The approach taken here argues that an explanation of these constructions must be predicated upon an analysis of the semantic content of the items of which each one is composed. Three factors are proposed as being relevant to explaining the issues: (1) the meaning and function of the gerund-participle, (2) the meaning and function of the to-infinitive, and (3) the meaning of the main predicate. The findings of this study are in line with those of previous studies which have applied the same approach. This paper is intended as a small contribution to ongoing efforts to crack the complementation issue in English.

The paper reevaluates the evidence for dative case marking of the direct object of the infinitive in Hittite against the Indo-European and cross-linguistic background. It provides a full corpus of relevant examples in Hittite, suggests a new taxonomy of them and proposes that a syntactic rule has to be formulated to account for the non-finite contexts where dative case marks the direct object of the infinitive in Hittite.

Zusammenfassung In the construction ἑκὼν εἶναι, grammars identify the function of εἶναι either with the function of an old dative or accusative. However, some scholars consider εἶναι redundant because it is difficult to ascertain its exact semantic and syntactic function. In any case, neither the original meaning of εἶναι in this construction nor the functional relationship of ἑκών with the infinitive has been described satisfactorily. The semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic differences between ἑκών and ἑκὼν εἶναι have not been determined either. This paper analyzes both ἑκών and εἶναι based on a selection of works of different chronology and genres in order to propose both a diachronic and a synchronic explanation of the construction ἑκὼν εἶναι. The data analysis supports the interpretation of εἶναι as a limitative infinitive that developed into a focusing element. In sentences with negative polarity, ἑκὼν εἶναι has regularly evolved into a parenthetical, specifically a self-correction parenthetical.

The article deals with the main features of the infinitive, the specifics of its grammatical and syntactic functions in modern German language. It is found out that the infinitive has partial properties of both the verb and the noun. Therefore, the infinitive is considered a morpho-syntactically hybrid phenomenon, which is between the noun and the verb in the classification of parts of speech. The author proves that although infinitive and differs from a verb that it has no personal forms and the form of number, however as well as a verb expresses an action, process or state, has grammatical categories of time and state. The concept of infinitive time is special, because it does not express absolute time, but only the temporal ratio of actions. This time value is expressed in two forms Infinitive Present / Infinitive I and Infinitive Perfect / Infinitive II. The use of Infinitive I is responsible for the simultaneity or continuity of action, and Infinitive II for premature action. The grammatical category of the state of the German infinitive has six different forms: Infinitive I Active, Infinitive II Active, Infinitive I Passive, Infinitive II Passive, Infinitive I Stative, Infinitive II Stative. The affinity of the infinitive to the verb can be traced in the possibility of the formation of analytical verb forms (Future I, Future II, Conditional I, Conditional II), as well as in the function of the predicate in the sentence. As a result of the research it has been found that as well as a noun, the infinitive can express an action, process or state without specifying the person, number, method and time, it is easily substantivized and performs the appropriate syntactic functions. The analysis allows us to assert the powerful potential of the infinitive in the syntactic context, because it can perform the functions of both the main members of the sentence (subject, predicate) and secondary (object, attribute, adverbial modefier). This syntactic polyfunctionality of the infinitive distinguishes it from verb finite forms, which act only as a predicate.