Search

Iron ore is the most mined metal and the second most mined mineral in the world. The mining of iron ore and the processing of iron and steel increased sharply during the 20th century and peaked at the beginning of the 21st century. Associated processes along the iron ore cycle (mining, processing, recycling, weathering) such as the massive displacement of rock, the emission of waste and pollutants, or the weathering of products resulted in long-term environmental and stratigraphic changes. Key findings link the iron ore industry to 170 gigatons of rock overburden, a global share of CO2 with 7.6%, mercury with 7.4%, and a variety of other metals, pollutants, and residues. These global changes led to physical, chemical, biological, magnetic, and sequential markers, which are used for the justification of the Anthropocene. The potential markers vary significantly regarding their persistence and measurability, but key findings are summarised as TMPs (Technogenic Magnetic Particles), SCPs (Spheroidal Carbonaceous fly ash Particles), POPs (Persistent Organic Particles), heavy metals (vanadium, mercury, etc.), as well as steel input and steel corrosion residues.

International audience; Through a reconstruction of the chronology and intensity of charcoal-making activities, this paper reopens the debate about the supposed impact of the charcoal iron industry on forest cover in the French Pyrenees. This reappraisal focuses on the former territory of the communities of Haut-Vicdessos valley. This more refined chronology, based on the analyses of historical documents (n=617) and charcoal kiln remains (n=42), has highlighted the non-linear industrial development. The emergence of water-powered bloomeries during the early 14th c. led to a brief expansion of the iron industry, but was followed by a slowdown in the 15th c. The combined effect of regulation and the outsourcing of a part of the charcoal supply on other territories, mitigated the impact of the iron industry on local forest, avoiding a forest crisis. The most significant industrial growth occurred from the mid-17th c. with development of the Catalan bloomery. Forests underwent major changes in structure and composition but cover was maintained to satisfy the local economy and people's needs. Charcoal production always occurred in well-stocked forests dominated by beech and fir. The increase of charcoal supply combined to the agro-pastoral growth led to the prohibition of charcoal-making in the mid-18th c. and to the exclusive recourse to an external fuel supply. Minimum forest cover was only reached in the mid-19th c. due to the demographic explosion resulting in the increase of daily needs and in the refocus on agro-pastoral economy. Conversely to the common premise, the iron charcoal industry in European mountains did not necessarily induce forest depletion but rather its maintenance through sustainable management and policies.

Keeping in view of the hazardous effects of production of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) on the environment, it is necessary to minimize the usage of OPC and subsequently replace it by the alternative materials which possess the binding properties. One such attempt led to discovery of geopolymer concrete. In present study, Alumina Refinery Residue (ARR) and slag from iron industry (GGBFS) are the two binder materials used in the ratio of 25:75 (ARR: GGBFS) along with the combination of Sodium Hydroxide and plagioclase-based alkali activator for initiating polymerization reaction. Present study focuses on evaluation of performance of geopolymer concrete in terms of Compressive Strength and Acid Durability Factor. Test results revealed that 28 days compressive strength of geopolymer concrete was found to be 38.37 N/mm2 and that for NCC was 35.32 N/mm2. It is also observed that the percentage weight loss and strength loss after 120 days of immersion of the specimens in 10% HCl solution, was found to be 11.133% and 13.526% for GPC and that for NCC was found to be 13.504% and 21.347% respectively. Results of Acid Durability Factor proved that GPC specimens were found to perform 7.82 times better than NCC specimens. Further, Scanning Electron Microscope technique was used to analyze microstructure of both GPC and NCC specimens. Micro analysis results also showed that GPC specimens prove to be better than NCC specimens. The present study significantly determines the performance of GPC specimens produced by the combination of Sodium Hydroxide and Plagioclase based activator for initiating polymerization reaction. Generall, In this study, sodium/potassium based silicate compound in the alkali activator part is completely replaced by Plagioclase based activator (in the powder form) in order to have better mechanical, durable and microstructure properties, resulting to a economic mix for massive applications.

Charcoal was the primary fuel used for iron smelting and processing until the end of the 19th century. It was produced through burning piles of wood called charcoal kilns. The aim of the study was to identify and record traces of charcoal kilns related to past ironworks in the valley of the River Czarna (Małopolska Upland, Central Poland). Detailed analysis was conducted in areas adjacent to historical centres of iron processing in Maleniec, Kołoniec and Machory. A quantitative analysis of the traces of charcoal kilns in the topography was done based on DEM from airborne LiDAR. Soil profiles were analysed at the sites where traces of charcoal kilns were identified from DEM. Radiocarbon dating and palaeobotanical analyses were performed for selected charcoal from kiln remnants. In the study area we identified over 11,500 charcoal kilns. The radiocarbon age of these charcoals indicate that the charcoal kilns under study were used in the 15th, 18th and 19th century. Thus the results suggest that the iron industry in the studied area is c 100 years older than the historical written sources indicate. Palaeobotanical analyses show that coniferous trees were used for charcoal production. The large number of traces of charcoal kilns and their wide spatial distribution indicate that past charcoal production has had a significant impact on the environment and landscape change in the River Czarna valley and adjacent areas.

Occupational exposures in different industries may pose serious health impacts. A number of epidemiological studies have focused on the association of occupational exposures and adverse health effects. The need of the hour is to focus on the reproductive health of workers engaged at different jobs in varied industries. Increasing environmental as well as occupational exposures have led to serious effects on the reproductive health of workers and have also endangered the life of future generations. The present paper highlights the impact of occupational exposures on iron industry workers. Future health based researches are recommended so as to assess the impact of occupational exposures on reproductive capabilities of workers.

The role of indigenous knowledge on the development of iron industry among the Tugen of Baringo County; Kenya. The study examined two distinctive epochs from which the understanding of how ironwork in Tugen land was conducted. They learnt the skill through their interaction with their physical environments to cope with the changing climatic conditions by making suitable artefacts for the varied demands in all sectors. The study relied on oral traditions and archival sources as primary sources. Secondary sources were utilised, such as unpublished works like articles, books, and thesis. The study described the distribution, methods and techniques and the procedure used in ironwork. It further assessed the types and uses of iron products. This study established the forces that led to the dismantling of the industry during the early periods of colonial rule, such as taxation, forced labour, settler farming, and western education. Ironwork in the 1930s underwent re-organisations in the form of labour innovativeness, cultural transformation, marketing strategies etc. These were analysed to ascertain the forces behind the persistence and resilience of the industry. The Tugen devised ways of survival to compete favourably with the British colonisers, which led to the Tugen transformation of the iron industry from 1945. This paper raised an argument against this position. The study has recorded the Tugen iron industry for posterity purposes. The study recommends the inclusion of indigenous knowledge to any industrial development and innovation in the country.

Demand in the steel and iron industry is influenced by multiple factors. Not all of them can be identified and measured. The paper presents the results of the analysis of the levels of demand achieved by a selected enterprise from this sector in the years 2010–2014. The aim of the study is to build a hidden Markov model which would reflect the turning points of this demand, thus making it possible to forecast its future levels. The model’s forecasting properties and stability have been examined. A simulation has been carried out that involved generating a high number of series for selected model parameters and checking their properties. This demonstrated that a three-state second order hidden Markov model was most relevant to the purpose of the study. Thanks to the model’s application, it was possible to describe states which could potentially shape the demand. Moreover, taking the transition state into consideration allowed spotting the signal about the upcoming replacement of the growth phase with the decline phase, and vice versa. The presented second order hidden Markov model can serve as an alternative to the traditional methods of the analysis of time series. The forecast generated by the model informs about the shaping of a trend in demand and serves as an indication of the shifts in economic cycles.

Iron has been important in human civilization since the abandonment of stone tools. The traditional technology of iron ore smelting in Indonesia has been known for hundreds of years, but research on the local traditional iron industry is still very minimal. This study aims to explain the iron industry in the southeast Kalimantan before modern times until the present using ethnohistory and experimental archaeological approaches. The research conducted in 2017-2019 at the upstream of Barito watershed, North Barito Regency, Central Kalimantan, has found 19 sites with the findings were furnaces, air pipes, iron ore fragments, charcoal, and slag. The traditional iron-making began with the process of mining, followed by iron ore smelting and forging. The archaeological experiments by smelting furnace produced the raw iron by a percentage of 40-60% from ore. The experiments produced the ingots with Fe content of about 80% (XRF analysis) and showed good ore quality. However, since the early 20th century the iron-making industry has been abandoned because of the arrivals of cheaper iron from China. Recently, the remaining iron industry consists of only the blacksmiths who produce agricultural equipment from scrap iron, some only gild to sharpen machetes and ‘mandau’.

Summary The aim of the present article is a reassessment of the Hittite written sources related to iron. Through a new examination of the documentary material, which pays special attention to typological and chronological features, the article reappraises the hypothesis of a progressive development in the Hittite iron industry during the Late Bronze Age.

In the Sonian Forest of Middle Belgium, undisturbed remnants of ancient metallurgic activity, dating from the Early Middle Ages, are found. They occur in an area with iron-rich geological formations at shallow depth below a loess cover. Iron-industry traces include scoria mounds, which always occur in pairs. Associated with each pair is a single large zone with a reddish-pink colour of the upper part of the soil. These zones were formed by heating of the soil from the surface, most likely during roasting of the iron sandstone ore as pretreatment. The surface horizon was later homogenised by biological activity, down to the top of the Bt horizon or the compacted part of the E horizon. Charcoal mounds, whose distribution is not clearly related to that of other archaeological structures, date at least partly from more recent periods. Another associated feature is an area with a surface cover of yellowish sands, representing a site where the sandstone was unloaded or cleaned before further treatment. The preservation of these various features related to ancient metallurgic activity is due to the unique land-use history of the Sonian Forest, where a centuries-long continuous prohibition of agricultural practices has prevented the destruction of shallow surface structures.

Emission of fugitive iron particles from anthropogenic sources can have significant effects on the human health and the environment. In this study, a regulatory air pollutant dispersion model (AERMOD) was implemented to predict the dispersion and deposition of fugitive iron particles towards a mid-sized residential area in Sultanate of Oman. The performance of the model was validated using air, soil, and dust fall samples. PM10 was found as the most abundant iron particles in the soil samples. The results showed that the maximum daily concentration level of fugitive iron particles simulated through AERMOD was 7.19 μg/m3. Statistical analysis, including fractional bias (FB), normalized mean square error (NMSE), and predicted/observed ratio (Pred./Obs.), showed a reliable agreement in accuracy and precision between the datasets (for air samples FB = 0.024, NMSE = 0.001, Pred./Obs. = 0.976; for dust fall samples FB = −0.004, NMSE = 0.000, Pred./Obs. = 1.004). However, uncertainties and differences were from the external sources, such as other industries in the region. The results presented that the concentration levels were below the national and international guidelines proposed by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and Omani Ambient Air Quality Standards (OAAQS). The methodology followed and the developed dispersion model can be generalized to other industries from which the dispersion of fugitive metal particles need to be evaluated as a potential route for human exposure.

The viability of combining waste slag produced from steel (Basic Oxygen furnace) and iron (Blast Furnace) industry as replacement of cement in cement mortars was investigated. The impacts on the normal consistency, setting times, soundness, compressive strength, microstructure, and durability of cement paste/mortar were studied. The results revealed that the water requirement and the setting time of cement paste increased by the addition of steel slag powder. The optimum content of steel slag and GGBS (ground granulated blast furnace slag) as a combined admixture was 40%. The 28 day compressive strength was comparable, whereas it exceeded the strength of control mortar after 90 days of curing. The microstructure of samples was studied using SEM micrographs, which indicated denser structures of ternary mortars. The durability tests of accelerated carbonation, sulphuric acid resistance, and electrical resistivity showed acceptable results. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of ternary mortar indicated visible decrease in environmental impacts in all categories. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was adopted to find relation between partial replacement of cement by steel slag and GGBS in ternary blend and compressive strength. This research bestows a new understanding of how industrial wastes can be managed sustainably with imparting additional benefits to the concrete economically.

This article examines the energy transition in the iron industry and studies the consequence of this switch to coal-fueling technology upon forests: what happens to long-lived energy carriers when a new source of heat and power makes significant inroads into their own markets? What factors underpin the substitution of older raw materials by new ones? The major lesson to be drawn from the iron industry energy transition points to the fact that within the “transitional” time-frame one may expect either the effective substitution of the older energy carrier or incentives to its actual expansion.

Sinter plants and electric arc furnaces are the most important emission sources of PCDD/Fs. In order to understand the contribution and distribution of PCDD/Fs risk from steel and iron industry, the incremental health risk assessment of PCDD/Fs has been accomplished for the all sinter plants and electric arc furnaces in Taiwan. The study combined the multimedia, multiple pathway exposure modeling and site-specific exposure scenario to evaluate dioxin risks contributed from the 22 major companies of steel and iron industry including 4 sinter plants and 21 electric arc furnaces. The incremental cancer risks to the resident living in the 25 km × 25 km impact range of the above emission sources ranged from 3.10E-10 to 5.73E-06 under the site-specific exposure scenario. Among these 22 emission sources, the stacks with higher exit flows and worse operational characteristics would contribute higher inhalation risks; moreover, the sources located at the major agricultural districts in central Taiwan contributed higher ingestion risks. In conclusion, four sinter plants accounted for more than 24% of total PCDD/Fs exit rates in steel and iron industry, and the incremental risks of these were lower than those of other electric arc furnaces investigated in this study. Furthermore, comparing background cancer mortality for incremental PCDD/Fs risks of steel and iron industry, the total PCDD/Fs population risks contributed from steel and iron industry are low but still cannot be ignored.

Iron production in Russia in the eighteenth century centred on the Urals, but in time was encouraged by export markets to move to the north-west. A slump in the engineering and export markets encouraged its use in the home decorative architectural fields, particularly around the luxurious buildings of St Petersburg. The paper excludes consideration of bridges, but iron was also used for practical purposes such as in roofing plates and furniture, as well as replacing wood for support and constraint of building walls, floors and roofs, although the plentiful supply of wood from local forests encouraged its continued use in iron smelting and in building. Some local expertise had been lost with the slump and many iron-working experts from Britain feature in this account, some staying in Russia for long periods.

Disquiet has remained over Hyde's conclusions as to the costs of coke-ironmaking in the early eighteenth century. A detailed re-examination of the production costs at Coalbrookdale has confirmed his conclusions for pig iron, but not for bar iron. Coalbrookdale Forge was merely small and inefficient. Any technological difficulties in the use of coke pig iron in finery forges were overcome before 1728. However, the iron industry was depressed in the 1730s due to Russian bar iron imports. After the Swedes increased their prices from 1747, new Shropshire furnaces began making pig coke iron for forges in 1754.

The iron industry was fully industrialized by the seventeenth century. The initial ironmasters were landowners, with clerks managing their ironworks. Professional ironmasters emerged from the clerks by the 1600s. The largest iron businesses (such as that of the Foley family described here) had general managers. Loans (secured by bonds) were important for business finance, including for paying up share capital. Accounting varied between charge and discharge-oriented systems of double entry bookkeeping and those maintained according to the classic Italian method. Cost accounting was not systematically practised, but yields from raw materials were monitored and the information contained in the financial accounts contained data relevant to performance decision making. Managers were trained on the job by experienced managers.

Examing the discourse surrounding the charcoal iron industry between 1760 and 1860 in North America, this article suggests that, prior to the industrialization of work, technical communication took place in a prediscursive setting, an oral and physical world that we can just manage to glimpse even as we watch it recede. The letters of Robert Erskine written in 1770 illustrate the prediscursive methods of technical communication. By the 1860s, a flood of governmental, professional, and commercial publications appeared, each signifying the disappearance of this prediscursive world. This transition from prediscursive to discursive methods may mark one of the largest changes in the history of technical communication.

Union General George Stoneman’s December 1864 raid cut a wide path of destruction in southwestern Virginia. That attack, intended primarily to disable the salt works, lead mines, and Virginia and Tennessee Railroad, also found and leveled some of the iron-making sites in the Great Valley.

Before the revolution in coal technology that swept the British iron industry in the last years of the eighteenth century, native ironmasters were unable to meet the burgeoning demand for malleable bar iron. The shortfall was made good by imports of bar iron from the Baltic, first from Sweden, then from Russia. This article presents new empirical evidence on the role played by Baltic iron in the Georgian economy. It also considers the impact of Swedish and Russian iron on domestic ironmasters as they sought organizational, as well as technological, ways to overcome the energy constraints facing the industry.

This thesis explores the transition between the Iron Age and Roman periods in Britain using one of the most survivable and data packed archaeological artefacts, iron smelting slag. By using a series of complimentary analytical methods it is possible to reconstruct the smelting process. Not just on a purely metallurgical level but also revealing some of the actions of the smelters. The transition from the Iron Age to the Roman period has been a longstanding area of discussion in European archaeology, marking the change from prehistory to protohistory. A geographical limitation has been placed on this study to southern Britain, this is to cover the area with the most complete coverage of archaeological sites and also with a distinct archaeological change between the two periods. The analysis of smelting slag at a macromorphological level reveals furnace morphology and operation. The microstructure of the slag examined using reflective light microscopy reveals under what conditions the slag solidified. The chemical composition of slag determined using Scanning Electron Microscopy Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) reveals the inputs to the smelting process and through their interaction the temperature and chemical change within the furnace. Combining these methods adds further information about the smelt, giving the reasons for the identifiable characteristics of the smelt. Traditional metallurgical analysis of iron smelting slag has focussed on the purely technical result of the smelt, effectively how efficient the smelt was and what ore was being used. The results of this study indicate that the production of iron from the earliest period in Britain was part of a complicated wider picture of resource exploitation, interaction between groups geographically and temporarily.

Robert Hartwell's research in the early 1960's into the iron industry of Song China (960-1279) showed, using a variety of evidence, that the applications of iron expanded greatly in the early Song. He then calculated from tax data the annual iron production of China in the 11th century. This article argues that, while Hartwell's qualitative conclusions hold, his specific calculation of annual production is flawed: no reliable calculation is possible based on presently available sources. Les recherches de Robert Hartwell au début des années 1960 sur l'industrie du fer en Chine à l'époque Song (960-1279) ont montré, en exploitant un large éventail de faits évidents, que les demandes en fer ont fort augmenté dans la première période de l'époque Song. Il avait alors calculé, d'après les données tirées des registres d'imposition, la production annuelle de ce minerai en Chine au XIème siècle. Cet article relève que, si les conclusions qualitatives de Hartwell paraissent correctes, son évaluation de la production annuelle s'avère infondée: aucun calcul fiable ne peut être effectué en exploitant les données actuellement disponibles.

Utilization waste material on concrete ingredients or its manufacturing that did not harm the environment is the need for the environment sustainability. It is the background of research in concrete design for more environmental friendly as often called green concrete. This work aims to investigate the usability of the melted slag, obtained from local wrought iron industry, as aggregates replacement according to waste material utilization. In particular, it focused on studying the feasibility of replacing the aggregates using melted slag by investigating the basic physical characteristic. Slag is known have a high percentage of silica and ferric oxides, which gives pozzolanic activities that suitable to use as cement blended product. Slag waste used in this work is obtained from the wrought iron industry from Pakis district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The slag chunk extracted from the furnace then crushed to smaller particle sizing as fine aggregates and coarse aggregates. The aggregates characteristic is observed in relation to gradation test, specific gravity, bulk density, clay lumps percentage, and Los Angeles abrasion value. All of observation parameters are taken consecutively based on SNI and ASTM specification to evaluate its compatibility as concrete aggregates. The current work remarks that the fine and coarse aggregates generated from wrought iron slag do not reveal complete fulfilment in the aggregate specifications of any standard. Even though, the slag fine aggregates could be used in standard or lightweight concrete with further treatment such as crushing to smaller particle size, washing to minimize the clay lumps, and mixing with natural aggregates.