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Resumen Este artículo revisa y discute las observaciones del profesor Maxi Nieto sobre algunos temas importantes de la moderna teoría del socialismo. En particular, su interpretación del argumento contra la "posibilidad" del cálculo económico sin derechos de propiedad privada desarrollado por la nueva generación de autores de la escuela austriaca. Centra la atención en cuestiones metodológicas para resaltar las deficiencias teóricas de algunas de las principales ideas defendidas por Nieto. También analiza su propuesta del ciber-comunismo como alternativa para superar el desafío del cálculo económico a través de las nuevas tecnologías de la información y la comunicación. Argumenta que su análisis es superficial y que el desafío de los austriacos sobre la imposibilidad del socialismo sigue siendo sólido. Abstract This article reviews and discusses Professor Maxi Nieto's observations on some major topics in in the modern theory of socialism. Notably, his interpretation of the argument against the "possibility" of economic calculus without private property rights developed by the new generation of Austrian school authors. It focuses on methodological issues to highlight the theoretical deficiencies of some of the leading ideas defended by Nieto. It also analyzes his proposal of cyber-communism as an alternative to overcome the challenge of economic calculation through the new information and communication technologies. It argues that his analysis is superficial and that the Austrian' challenge on the impossibility of socialism remains sound. Resumo Este artigo revisa e discute as observações do professor Maxi Nieto sobre algumas questões importantes na teoria do socialismo moderno. Notavelmente, sua interpretação do argumento contra a "possibilidade" de cálculo económico sem direitos de propriedade privada desenvolvido pela nova geração de autores da escola austríaca. Concentra em questões metodológicas para destacar as lacunas teóricas de algumas das principais ideias defendidas por Nieto. Analisa também sua proposta de ciber-comunismo como alternativa para superar o desafio do cálculo económico por meio das novas tecnologias de informação e comunicação. Argumenta que sua análise é superficial e que o desafio austríaco sobre a impossibilidade do socialismo permanece sólido.

The financial system is categorized as stable if there is no excessive volatility from financial pressures or crises. The IMF indicates that the crisis is not only related to one element but more than two or three elements of the crisis. The banking system's stability is measured by the banking stability index, gauging the effectiveness of monetary policy and financial risk. This study aims to measure the stability of the Indonesian banking system in the dual banking system model. The indicator to measure banking stability used the Z-score statistic based on fluctuations of Return on Assets for each type of bank. The Markov Switching Vector Autoregressive (MSVAR) model method was used to analyze the volatility of banking stability. Independent variables used included credit risk (NPL), Loan to Deposit Ratio, Liquidity Risk, Net Interest Margin, Capital Adequacy Ratio, Money Market Rate, Inflation, Gross Domestic Product, Federal Reserve rate, and Exchange Rate. The results of the regime switch analysis concluded that Indonesia's banking stability experienced a structural break due to the effects of the pandemic in April 2020. Based on the average Z-score value, the Islamic banking stability index was higher than conventional banking. In other words, Islamic banking was more stable than the conventional banking system. The Islamic banking stability index (iZscore) was significantly influenced by the level of Net Operating Margin, Financing to deposit ratio, Potential Loss Profit Sharing, Islamic Money Market Rate, and Exchange Rate. However, non-performing financing did not affect Islamic banking stability since the profit-sharing system implemented by Islamic banking stability was more influenced by the ratio of potential loss and profit-sharing system.

Resumen Este trabajo propone un análisis de sensibilidad para analizar la relación entre educación y salarios. Para diferentes políticas que incrementan la proporción de graduados universitarios, derivamos cotas para los cuantiles de la distribución contra factual de salarios. Luego usamos esas cotas para cuantificar la robustez de distintas conclusiones de interés. Nuestro análisis empírico sugiere que una política de educación dirigida a individuos en los cuantiles más bajos de la distribución de salarios puede contribuir a reducir la desigualdad aun en presencia de un considerable sesgo de selección. Códigos JEL: C1, C31, C54, J3, I26. Abstract This paper proposes a sensitivity analysis to analyze the relationship between edu- cation and wages. For different policies that increase the proportion of university graduates, we derive bounds for the quantiles of the counterfactua distribuition of wages. When then use these bounds to quantify the robustness of various concluisions of interest. Our empirical analysis suggests that an education policy targeting individuals in the lower quantiles of the wage distribution can contribute to reducing inequality even in the presence of considerable selection bias. JEL Codes: C1, C31, C54, J3, I26.

Because they exert cross-border spillover effects, fiscal policies of individual EU member states are a common concern for the entire EU.

La presente investigación tiene como objetivo reconstruir la manera en que la reforma a la ley laboral de 2019 se hizo concreta tomando como referencia el proceso de legitimación del contrato colectivo de los trabajadores de la planta de General Motors ubicada en el municipio de Silao, Guanajuato en México. Para dicha tarea fue necesario exponer los antecedentes que dieron origen a la nueva regulación del trabajo y el peso que en ella tuvo la renegociación del T-MEC. Un cambio en la ley que implicó modificar la configuración corporativa de las relaciones laborales que han dado sostén al modelo productivo toyotista precario mexicano. El estudio permitió identificar que las exigencias normativas en materia de democracia sindical y respeto a la libre asociación no se incorporaron de manera mecánica a las prácticas, su operatividad estuvo sujeta a presiones estructurales, mediaciones subjetivas y experienciales, y a la formación de acciones colectivas que disputaron el control de la representación de los trabajadores. La investigación siguió una estrategia etnográfica digital que se complementó con el análisis de fuentes oficiales y secundarias.

El presente artículo tiene como objetivo estimar el efecto de la diversidad económica regional sobre las condiciones socioeconómicas en las provincias del Ecuador, tomando como referencia el período 2014-2018. La investigación es de tipo explicativa, con diseño documental, no experimental, transversal y emplea como métodos de análisis los enfoques analítico-sintético y cuantitativo-empírico. Las estimaciones econométricas efectuadas con datos de corte transversal de las 24 provincias del Ecuador, con el método de Mínimos Cuadrados Ordinarios, sugieren efectos positivos del coeficiente de especialización regional y del índice de concentración sobre la volatilidad observada en el ingreso y en el crecimiento. Así mismo, la especialización regional se asocia con una mayor tasa de pobreza, mientras que hay una relación inversa entre especialización y concentración con la tasa promedio de crecimiento de las provincias. El estudio permitió concluir, en primer lugar, que la planificación del desarrollo exige la reducción de las heterogeneidades productivas que presenta una economía como Ecuador y, en segundo lugar, que los beneficios del desarrollo sólo serán ampliamente percibidos por la población en la medida que las regiones diversifican su actividad económica.

El propósito de esta investigación es exponer el avance de la personalidad de marca (PM) para fines de posicionamiento estratégico (PE) cuyo análisis involucre herramientas, modelos y sectores económicos. La metodología utilizada es una revisión sistemática de la literatura con una ventana de observación de 2018 a 2021; los principales hallazgos muestran que el análisis de correspondencia y el mapeo perceptual son herramientas que permiten medir el PE. Las principales contribuciones fueron en el campo del turismo, deporte, educación, automotriz, mercado internacional, política, retail, comercio electrónico, productos de aseo personal, servicios portuarios, publicidad, bebidas y periodismo. Los modelos que han surgido son el BCP, modelo para deportistas y el modelo STPS que permiten mejorar el PE desde la teoría de la PM, así como propuestas innovadoras mediante el uso de nuevas herramientas como emojis, índices, cuadro de divergencia y minería de textos.

PROVITEC (Provivienda para los trabajadores de la educación del Cauca) se constituye al interior del sindicato ASOINCA (Asociación de Institutores y Trabajadores de la Educación del Cauca), por docentes y trabajadores de la educación vinculados en Popayán y el Departamento del Cauca en Colombia, tras el terremoto de 1983. En el siguiente artículo de investigación se indaga su fecunda trayectoria organizativa marcada por sus protagonistas y el trabajo colaborativo, asociativo, etc. Se observan indicadores de aumentos de productividad por la unión de voluntades y esfuerzos (la solidaridad y el trabajo cooperativo convertidos en fuerza productiva), lo cual se aplica directamente en bienestar para los asociados y/o cooperativistas sin apropiación privada e individual de lo invertido y ganado en la organización y sus proyectos colectivos. De acuerdo a los marcos propuestos por Creswell (1998) y Dussel (1999) acordes con la investigación cualitativa, la investigación se construye desde un enfoque interpretativo crítico. A partir de entrevistas en profundidad estructuradas y la observación participante, se analizan sus prácticas que involucran el trabajo colectivo. Los hallazgos muestran que el trabajo colectivo, al ser llevado a las actividades cotidianas, fortalece las organizaciones de economía popular y solidaria, dando mayor cohesión y sentido de pertenencia en la lucha por su bienestar social, político y económico.

In the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, 4IR or Industry 4.0, since highly advanced technology largely replaced human works, many production activities of both goods and services were required to be innovative. The purposes of this study were to examine the role of energizing self-efficacy as a mediator of leadership empowering and innovative behavior to analyze the mediator’s role of affective commitment between the two. A survey method was used by distributing online questionnaires to 617 lecturers in Indonesia. For researching the interrelation of empowering leadership, energizing self-efficacy, affective commitment, and innovative behavior via statistical examination of their interrelationship, we applied Stata 13 software to test the hypotheses. The results pinpointed the significant impact of empowering leadership on affective commitment, energizing self-efficacy, and innovative behavior. Energizing self-efficacy significantly influenced innovative behavior, but the impact vice versa is not significant. There was an indirect effect of empowering leadership on innovative behavior through energizing self-efficacy, but the affective commitment was not a mediator between empowering leadership and innovative behavior. These findings indicated that lecturers could stimulate their innovative behaviors by increasing their self-efficacy through empowering leadership. Our research findings highlight the importance of enhancing innovative behavior, self-efficacy, and empowering leadership., U eri četvrte industrijske revolucije, 4IR ili industrije 4.0, budući da je visokonapredna tehnologija uvelike zamijenila ljudske radove, mnoge proizvodne aktivnosti i roba i usluga morale su biti inovativne. Svrha ove studije bila je ispitati ulogu poticanja samoefikasnosti kao posrednika osnaživanja vodstva i inovativnog ponašanja kako bi se analizirala posrednička uloga afektivne predanosti između njih dvoje. Korištena je anketna metoda distribucijom online upitnika za 617 predavača u Indoneziji. Za istraživanje međuodnosa osnaživanja vodstva, jačanja samoučinkovitosti, afektivne predanosti i inovativnog ponašanja putem statističkog ispitivanja njihove međusobne povezanosti, primijenili smo softver Stata 13 za testiranje hipoteza. Rezultati su ukazali na značajan utjecaj osnaživanja vodstva na afektivnu predanost, poticanje samoučinkovitosti i inovativno ponašanje. Energiziranje samoučinkovitosti značajno je utjecalo na inovativno ponašanje, ali utjecaj obrnuto nije značajan. Postojao je neizravan učinak osnaživanja vodstva na inovativno ponašanje kroz poticanje samoučinkovitosti, ali afektivna predanost nije bila posrednik između osnaživanja vodstva i inovativnog ponašanja. Ovi nalazi su pokazali da bi predavači mogli stimulirati svoje inovativno ponašanje povećanjem svoje samoučinkovitosti kroz osnaživanje vodstva. Naši rezultati istraživanja ističu važnost poboljšanja inovativnog ponašanja, samoučinkovitosti i osnaživanja vodstva.

Croatian banking sector amounts to the majority of its financial sector. Therefore, it is necessary that Croatian banks operate efficiently. In the past two decades, the Croatian banking sector went through a consolidation process that steadily decreased the number of banks and allocated the majority of assets and market share to a few large banks. A simple definition of efficiency is cost minimization and profit maximization. Therefore, a bank is efficient when it strives to minimize its costs while maximizing its profits. This paper aims to estimate efficiency of Croatian banks using the DEA methodology within the period 2014-2019. In addition, the performance indicators (return on assets, return on equity) calculated for the same period aim at comparing performance indicators to efficiency results. The results indicate that larger banks are generally more efficient in operating on the frontier. And, in comparison to performance indicators, they achieve higher levels of returns on assets and equity. Furthermore, some small banks tend to be efficient, while the benefits of being a medium bank are inconclusive since the results reveal that some medium banks have below average efficiency. Overall, average efficiency improved in the observed period, which means that the consolidation process of financial institutions creates large and efficient banks., Hrvatski bankarski sektor sačinjava većinu financijskog sektora. Stoga je neophodno da hrvatske banke posluju učinkovito. U posljednja dva desetljeća, hrvatski je bankarski sektor prošao kroz proces konsolidacije koji je postupno smanjivao broj banka, te većinu imovine i tržišnog udjela alocirao na nekoliko velikih banaka. Efikasnost se u užem smislu može definirati kao minimiziranje troškova i maksimiziranje profita. Stoga je banka učinkovita kada nastoji minimizirati svoje troškove, a istovremeno maksimizirati svoje profite. Svrha ovog rada je procijeniti efikasnost hrvatskih banaka koristeći se DEA metodologijom u razdoblju od 2014. do 2019. godine. Dodatno, u istom razdoblju izračunavaju se pokazatelji uspješnosti (profitabilnost imovine, profitabilnost kapitala) s ciljem usporedbe pokazatelja uspješnosti i rezultata efikasnosti. Rezultati ukazuju da su velike banke uglavnom efikasne (posluju na efikasnoj granici), te u usporedbi s pokazateljima uspješnosti, postižu veće razine profitabilnosti imovine i profitabilnosti kapitala. Nadalje, nekoliko malih banaka imaju tendenciju biti efikasne, dok koristi banaka srednje veličine nisu jasne s obzirom da rezultati otkrivaju kako nekoliko srednjih banaka ostvaruje ispodprosječnu efikasnost. Sveukupno gledano, u promatranom razdoblju prosječna se efikasnost povećala, što navodi da proces konsolidacije financijskih institucija stvara velike i efikasne banke.

Incoming foreign direct investments (FDI) may enhance the productivity level of the host country by bringing new advanced technologies. On the other hand, the nexus of FDI and productivity, rather than being linear, might be nonlinear because the effect of increases and decreases in FDI on productivity may not be symmetric. In this sense, this study investigates the asymmetric relationship between FDI and productivity in Turkey by using two different productivity indicators (i.e., PROD1 and PROD2) and employing a Nonlinear ARDL approach. Our hypothesis claims there is an asymmetric association between FDI and productivity in the long run in Turkey. Nonlinear cointegration test findings indicate that selected variables are cointegrated. Hence, they move together in the long run. Our study uses aggregated data at the macro level to analyze the long-term asymmetric relationship between foreign direct investment and labor productivity in Turkey using the NARDL estimation technique. Concerning the estimation results, a long-run nonlinear relationship between incoming FDI and labor productivity was detected, and this finding remained valid across two models constructed by using two distinct labor productivity indicators. As a whole, our results are consistent with the ones found in the literature. Besides, for the first time in the literature, this study addresses the long-run asymmetric nexus between FDI and labor productivity by using macro-level data specific to Turkey and makes various policy recommendations.

The paper explores the mismatch between the skills and qualifications required by the labour market and those acquired through education and on-the-job learning. The skill mismatch in transition economies tends to be even more pronounced as the labour markets in these countries are characterized by structural unemployment, affecting both older workers with obsolete skills and the young ones. Employers face poor incentives for investing in workforce skill development, due to the inadequate investment climate and volatile business environment. Transition countries face increasing outward mobility of an educated workforce, loss of human capital, and shortage of workforce in the fields such as ICT, medicine, science and research. The research is based on empirical data generated in a survey on ICT and manufacturing enterprises in the City of Niš, Serbia. The research methodology combines workers' self-assessment method for the skill gap measurement and the competence approach combined with the statistical methods. The findings indicate the presence of a qualification mismatch, in the form of the over-qualification as a dominant irregularity in the analysed labour market. The results of the study are expected to contribute to creating a network of policy instrumentaria that tend to be effective on a sub-national level in addressing the mismatch.

The research note contains an analysis of data on health, pregnancy, and childbirth experience among female labour migrants arriving in Russia from Central Asia. Empirically, the study bases on the data of three surveys conducted in 2015, 2017, and 2020. In total, the surveys contain information on 2,028 migrants from Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan living in Russia. The analysis proves that with gradual feminization of labour migration from Central Asia, pregnancy and childbirth in a significant part of labour migrants take place in risky living conditions; the existing system of maternal health protection for migrants in Russia needs modernization. Compared to earlier studies on this topic, the survey data showed a higher proportion of female migrants who had got pregnant and gave birth in Russia along with a lower proportion of migrants who terminated pregnancy. These differences may indicate a change in the reproductive behaviour of women who come to work in Russia from the countries of Central Asia. The presented note shows the need for in-depth studies of the reproductive behaviour of labour migrants in Russia, as well as the development of national migration statistics, which should become gender sensitive.

Over the last few decades, the millennial generation have become a major segment in green marketing and have been identified for their pro-environmental attitudes. The current study explores the influencers (socialization agents) impacting the ecologically conscious consumer behavior (ECCB) of the millennials using the consumer socialization framework. For this purpose the impact of socio-structural variables (age, gender, education and family income), socialization agents (family and peers) and perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) on environmental concern (EC) and ECCB has been studied in the Indian context.A sample of 325 millennials from a premier B-school was investigated through survey research method. Regression and mediation analyses, using PROCESS v 3.2, was administered to arrive at the results. Regression analysis confirmed the positive impact of perceived consumer effectiveness on ECCB. It also established the influence of socialization agents on environmental concern and ECCB of millennials. Further, mediation analyses revealed that, environmental concern mediated the relationship between family as a socialization agent and ECCB, while for peers it did not. In addition, environmental concern was established as a mediator between PCE and ECCB.The study confines itself to a sample of millennials from B-school background, and hence, may not be representative of the entire millennial generation. Among the socialization agents, the current study only considers family and peers in its framework, and remains silent on the evolving role of social media as an influencer.The findings have significant implications for both academicians and practitioners by highlighting the importance of social networks such as family and peers as channels of communication for effective implementation of marketers’ strategies.The current study contributes to the limited literature on millennials green buying behavior in the emerging market context. The applicability of the consumer socialization framework to collectivistic countries like India has been underexplored. Using this framework our study establishes the mediating role of environmental concern in the model. Further we have made an attempt to investigate the role of EC as a possible mediator between PCE and ECCB as it has been rarely explored.

This study examines the role of the fiscal and monetary policy mix on economic growth with the St. model. Louis, which Andersen and Jordan developed in 1968, included the variable quality of institutions (governance) as a moderator. This research model uses the independent variable in the form of money supply (M) as a proxy for monetary policy and government expenditure (G) and government debt (D) as a proxy for fiscal policy. The governance index variable (INS) consists of 6 indicators, namely 1). Voice and Accountability; 2). Political Stability and Absence of Violence/Terrorism; 3). Government Effectiveness; 4). Regulatory Quality; 5). Rule of Law; 6). Control of Corruption. The objects of this research are all member countries of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), 57 countries. Due to the limited data that can be accessed, 46 countries were selected as research samples with a research period of 2005-2018. The analytical tool used in this study is a moderating panel data regression consisting of 28 equations. This study indicates that fiscal policy (government expenditure) and monetary policy (money supply) have a significant effect on economic growth. The government debt has a negative effect on economic growth in OIC countries. The quality of governance has a positive effect on economic growth in the OIC countries. This shows the important role of the quality of governance in the economy, as in the latest economic growth theory. The quality of governance cannot moderate the effect of the fiscal and monetary policy mix on economic growth in the OIC countries. The governance index plays a more direct role in economic growth, not as an effective moderator for government economic policies. The governance index is more effective in moderating various economic variables, which are private economic activities.

This paper aims to analyse the influence of the demographical factors on the short-term sustainability of the pension system from Romania. The data used for econometric modelling consisted of panel data for the period 2009-2019 for 8 European Union member states, together with time series data for autoregressive modelling. The following econometrical models were used: random-effects GLS regression and Box-Jenkins (ARIMA). The results emphasize an increasing demographical pressure on the Romanian pension system and the need of pension system reform.

Assessing the effects of compensation for construction permits for residential and economic buildings in the urban part of Tetovo, the establishment of professional teams for the legalization of illegal buildings and the development of electronic services, on local economic development (LED) of the municipality of Tetovo. For analysing the data generated by the questionnaires, SPSS was used, as a method for testing the hypotheses of the study. The reduction ofthe compensation for construction, the creation of professional teams for the legalization of illegal buildings, the development of electronic services contribute to the increase in the satisfaction of the residents of the municipality of Tetovo, stimulate economic activity and increase fiscal revenues.

Lately, consumers have become more critical and alert to the quality of products and the factors that influence the sustainability of the society in which they live. The Romanian bakery market is in a continuous development, with a wide range of products. In order to attract and satisfy customers, manufacturers apply various quality strategies and sustainability measures. The study analyzes the quality strategies and sustainability measures adopted in this market. In order to achieve the objective of the paper, a quantitative marketing research was carried out.

The research is a case study on the analysis of the financial performance of a political party in Romania, at the end of 2020, using the strategic model for measuring the performance of the Balanced Scorecard. A review of the existing international scientific literature and case studies was conducted to define a balanced plan of performance indicators for one of the four perspectives of the BSC theoretical model, namely the financial perspective, which is common to both an economic organization and a political organization. The paper evaluates the financial activity of a political party through a computer application - BSC Designer Light, whose architecture allows customizing the theoretical model of the Balanced Scorecard on the activity of a political organization. The purpose of the scientific approach is to evaluate the result of the financial activity, quantifying the scores obtained by the analysed party for each indicator and sub-indicator defined within the financial perspective. This study can be a consistent basis for expanding research to assess the performance of a political party from an electoral or parliamentary perspective and can be a viable alternative to current methods of quantitative evaluation used by political parties in analysing the activity results.

This paper aims to analyse the impact of Covid-19 on economic and fiscal consequences in North Macedonia. In addition, the paper assesses the effects of economic and fiscal packages implemented by the Government of the country. The study uses secondary data in order to find out the real consequences caused by Covid-19 pandemic in the economy of North Macedonia. The findings reveal thatCovid-19 pandemic produced negative economic and fiscal consequences during 2020 in all sectors. Moreover at the end of 2020 the real sector of the economy recorded a 4.5% decline in GDP, the fiscal deficit achived a level of -8.1% of the GDP. The findings of the paper show that government assistance through various packages, partly affected the reduction of negative economic consequences of Covid-19.

La crisis sanitaria provocada por la pandemia de Covid-19 ha tenido graves implicaciones en la dinámica laboral, tanto a nivel nacional como local, que afectan principalmente a los jóvenes. Utilizando datos oficiales y primarios, este articulo explora el comportamiento del desempleo juvenil en la ciudad de Cali durante la pandemia. Mediante la estimación de modelos paramétricos y no paramétricos, los resultados revelan que el tiempo que tardan los jóvenes en salir del desempleo se habría duplicado, con una probabilidad menor para las mujeres jóvenes. Sugiere, entonces, la necesidad de diseñar instrumentos específicos de política pública que reconozcan esta problemática estructural.

Los economistas predicen que los daños del calentamiento global serán de un 2,1% de la producción mundial si la temperatura media de la superficie del planeta aumenta en 3°C, y de un 7,9% si aumenta 6°C. Esas estimaciones contrastan con la predicción de los científicos: la fuerte reducción de la habitabilidad humana debida al cambio climático. Pero los modelos que usan para hacer esas predicciones influyen en el debate internacional sobre el tema y en las prescripciones de política. Aquí revisamos ese trabajo empírico y mostramos que subestima gravemente los daños del cambio climático al cometer varios errores. Y más importante, que el modelo de evaluación integrada DICE no genera un colapso económico, independientemente del nivel de daños. Debido a tales defectos, esas estimaciones se deberían rechazar por no ser científicas, y los modelos calibrados con ellas no se deberían utilizar para evaluar los riesgos económicos del cambio climático ni para proponer políticas que atenúen los daños.

Este trabajo estudia la relación de la percepción de corrupción y de falta de transparencia con las preferencias por el voto y la protesta. Examina el caso de Colombia con datos de la Encuesta Latinobarómetro 2015 y un modelo logístico multinomial que supone una elección simultánea del tipo de participación (o una combinación de tipos), lo que permite establecer si la preferencia por la protesta sustituye o complementan la preferencia por el voto. Se encontró una relación positiva entre la percepción de corrupción y de falta de transparencia con la preferencia de protestar además de votar. Si los ciudadanos perciben una mayor corrupción o dudan de la transparencia del gobierno están más dispuestos a participar en manifestaciones, sin reducir su apoyo a la participación electoral. Esto sugiere que hay una aceptación general de la participación democrática formal a pesar de las deficiencias del régimen político. This paper studies the relationship of the perception of corruption and lack of transparency with voting preferences and protests. It examines the case of Colombia using data from the 2015 Latinobarómetro Survey and a multinomial logistic model that assumes a simultaneous choice of participation type (or a combination of types), which allows us to establish whether the preference for protest substitutes or complements the preference for voting. A positive relationship was found between the perception of corruption and lack of transparency with the preference to protest in addition to voting. If citizens perceive greater corruption or doubt government transparency, they are more willing to participate in demonstrations, without reducing their support for electoral participation. This suggests that there is a general acceptance of formal democratic participation despite the shortcomings of the political regime.

La economía es una disciplina política que trata los problemas de la organización social y del bien general, coevoluciona con las circunstancias y es históricamente contingente. El mundo al que se dirigen las políticas económicas es un sistema complejo, pero los economistas que buscan elaborar políticas apropiadas se guían necesariamente por simplificaciones y heurísticas. La pregunta que enfrenta la disciplina es qué tipo de simplificación se adapta mejor a la tarea. Este artículo argumenta que las generalizaciones, simplificaciones, heurísticas y principios apropiados se deben derivar del estudio del mundo real. Aunque pueden emplear herramientas matemáticas y aprovechar ideas del comportamiento de los sistemas matemáticos, estos son inadecuados, en especial cuando parten de los dogmas muertos de la corriente neoclásica: ex nihilo nihil fit. Economics is a policy discipline that deals with the problems of social organization and the general good. It co-evolves with circumstances, and it is historically contingent. The world to which economic policies are ultimately addressed is a complex system. Yet economists seeking to develop appropriate policies are necessarily guided by simplifications and heuristics. The question before the discipline is to decide what sort of simplification is best suited to the task. In the spirit of modern science, this paper argues that appropriate generalizations, simplifications, heuristics, and principles are to be derived from a study of the actual world. While these may deploy mathematical tools and draw on insights from the behavior of mathematical systems, the latter by themselves are inadequate, especially where they start from the dead dogmas of the neoclassical mainstream: ex nihilo nihil fit.

In this paper, we analyze the relationship between nominal and real GDP growth for G7 countries for the period 1971 – 2018. A visual inspection of the data indicates the presence of a threshold, above which the structure of the relationship between nominal and real GDP growth rates changes from a positive one to a flat one. Moreover, the volatility of real growth is observed to be higher at high rates of nominal GDP growth. We first test for the presence of a two regime non-linearity by using the Sup F test of Andrews (1993). Due to the presence of heteroskedasticity we also apply the Sup MZ test of Ahmed et al. (2017). Both tests operate under an unknown change point and the latter also allows for heteroskedasticity. The results of the tests point to the presence of a ‘demand deficiency ’regime for low nominal demand growth rates and to a ‘harmful inflation ’regime for higher nominal GDP growth rates, these results have strong implications for guiding recent policy discussions on nominal GDP targeting.

This paper analyzes the evolution of the Lebanese GDP growth rate over the period 1970-2018 by estimating two kinds of switching models: The Smooth Transition Autoregressive (STAR) model and the model of the Markov process. These models show, on the one hand, asymmetries in the evolution of GDP growth with an abrupt transition from a regime to another and, on the other hand, a high probability that the economy remains in the recession regime. Even though the duration of the expansion phase is longer than the duration of the recession phase, the Lebanese economy experiencing the greatest difficulties in moving from a recession regime to an expansion regime. In addition, such an evolution is explosive and volatile during the lower regime (recession phase) but stationary and damped in the upper regime (expansion phase). Finally, the paper shows that the STAR model, taking a logistic form, better fits the Lebanese GDP growth than the Markov model.

Las termitas son plagas de importancia económica en sistemas agroforestales y agrícolas. La investigación se realizó en el Centro de Referencia Fidel Castro Ruz del Instituto Tecnológico Agropecuario del municipio de Posoltega en convenio con la UNAN-LEON. El objetivo fue determinar la incidencia e identificar la especie de termitas presente en la plantación Moringa oleífera y evaluar la patogenicidad de hongos entomopatógenos en condiciones de campo. La investigación es de tipo cuasi experimental, se evaluaron 3 tratamientos Beuveria bassiana con una concentración de 3.6 x 107 conidias/ml, Metarhizium anisopliae con una concentración de 2.28 x 106 conidias/ml y tratamiento químico (Cipermetrina), dosis de 6cc/ litro de agua. En una población de 16 plantas con colmenas de termitas por tratamientos para un total de 48 unidades experimentales. La aplicación de los tratamientos se realizó mediante la perforación de cada colmena, en sus cuatro puntos cardinales (norte, sur, este y oeste) asperjando con una bomba de mochila manual. La eficacia se determinó mediante la fórmula de la efectividad biológica. El 39% de población de marango Moringa oleífera se encontró infectada por termitas. La especie de termitas presente en las plantaciones Moringa oleífera fue Nasutitermes corníger. La efectividad de los tratamientos presentó sig. Estadística (P= 0.000) siendo Cipermetrina que presento los mejores porcentaje de efectividad con valores promedios de 96% seguido por M. anisopliae con efectividad de 24 % y B. bassiana con 7%. Los porcentajes de esporulación presentaron sig. Estadística. (P= 0.0033) B. Bassiana con un 31% y M. anisopliae presento 69%.

This paper highlights the limitations and applicability of results developed by Chao & Nahata (2015) for nonlinear pricing. Although Chao and Nahata appear to provide necessary and sufficient conditions for general utility functions, we show that one of their results leads only to a restatement of two constraints, and another result may not be valid when consumers can freely dispose of the good. Their model allows for the possibility that higher quantities will have a lower price than smaller quantities. We provide conditions under free disposal that preclude this anomaly. Our analysis suggests that further research on violations of the single-crossing condition should be encouraged.

We consider 2-person bargaining situations in which the feasible set is known, but the disagreement point is uncertain. We investigate the implications of various axioms concerning uncertain disagreement points and characterize the family of linear solutions, which includes the egalitarian, lexicographic egalitarian, Nash, and Kalai-Rosenthal solutions. We also show that how the important subfamilies (or members) of this family can be singled out by imposing additional axioms or strengthening the axioms used in the characterizations.

We design and implement a program-proposing deferred acceptance mechanism with ties (DAT) and apply it to childcare assignment in two German cities. The mechanism can accommodate complementarities in providers' preferences, is fast to terminate even in larger cities, is difficult to manipulate in practice, and produces stable allocations. It can be further sped up by introducing two new features. First, allowing for an arbitrary share of facilities who participate in a centralized manner by submitting a rank-order-list over applicants. Second, by breaking ties in applicants' rank-order-lists on a first-come-first-serve basis, which sets incentives for programs to propose faster. We provide and evaluate simulation results.

El objetivo de la investigación fue realizar un análisis financiero de la cadena productiva en los eslabones de producción, agro transformación y comercialización de los productos y subproductos de sacha inchi. La metodología utilizada sigue los lineamientos de una investigación cuantitativa, evaluativa y transversal con la consulta de fuentes documentales, cooperativas, tiendas agropecuarias, productores, profesionales de la agroindustria y comercializadores de la región. Los componentes financieros de la cadena productiva mostraron altos niveles de ingresos económicos por hectárea por ventas de la producción de semillas (68%); agro trasformacion (66% harina y 63% aceite) y; comercialización del aceite (46%) y de la harina (62%) de sacha inchi. Los indicadores financieros fueron positivos en la producción (agricultor) con rentabilidad estática del 53%, ROI de 0.14 y C/B de 1.14; en la agro transformación (aceite y harina) con rentabilidad estática del 60%, ROI de 0.66 y C/B de 1.66 y; en la comercialización de los productos con una rentabilidad estática del 56%; ROI de 0.38 y C/B de 1.38. Se concluye que la cadena de valor de sacha inchi presenta indicadores financieros positivos y significativos en cada uno de sus eslabones, por lo que se constituye en un agro negocio con altas potencialidades de desarrollo en el departamento Norte de Santander.

Bereits der Einführung des Mindestlohns zum 1.1.2015 ist eine Debatte über Tarifautonomie und Beschäftigungseffekte vorausgegangen. In der Ex-post-Betrachtung lässt sich feststellen, dass die negativen Beschäftigungsverhältnisse im Wesentlichen ausgeblieben sind. Nun hat die Ampelregierung die politisch bestimmte Erhöhung des Mindestlohns auf 12 Euro beschlossen. Es stellt sich die Frage, ob diese deutliche Anhebung den Mindestlohn auf eine Höhe setzt, die sozialpolitische Risiken in sich birgt und zu Arbeitsplatzverlusten im Niedriglohnbereich führen wird. The introduction of the minimum wage on 1 January 2015 was preceded by a lively debate on collective bargaining autonomy and employment effects. In an expost analysis, it appears that the negative employment effects have essentially failed to materialise. Now the German "traffic light" coalition government has decided on an increase of the minimum wage of 12 euros. The question now is whether this significant increase will set the minimum wage at a level that entails socio-political risks and will lead to job losses in the low-wage sector.

As is well known, the characteristics of being human are important to all of us because they signify our basic identity as individuals. It can be asked, however, which of those characteristics are related to our well-being as that is assessed by our life satisfaction. It is the intention of this study to explore the connections among human character strengths and life satisfaction. The human character strengths studied here include curiosity, love of learning, wisdom, having a “big picture perspective,” self-awareness, honesty, kindness, social intelligence, intangible values, gift giving, social responsibility, and hope and humor. A total of 498 responses were collected from adult shoppers in Bangkok, Thailand. The results of the multiple regression analysis indicated that among the various human character strengths, as well the demographic characteristics, wisdom, self-awareness, household income, hope, education, social responsibility, and intangible values have positive impacts on life satisfaction The only negative element that was seen to have a negative influence on life satisfaction was curiosity. Further analyses of the significant determinants of life satisfaction for those with varying household incomes and levels of education were carried out and are discussed in this article.

The global hospitality and tourism industry has been severely impacted by the spread of COVID-19 and large-scale travel restrictions. Due to the nature of the crisis of COVID-19, Hotel businesses in Indonesia need to adapting many new strategies in response to the evolving circumstances. This study presents a comparative coronavirus readiness strategy at International Chain Hotel and Local Hotel in Indonesia and their impacts on hotel guests’ trust and satisfaction. The study used quantitative approaches by using an online survey to obtain data from a total of 400 participants. The data were collected from respondents that have been stayed in both the International Chain hotel or Local Chain Hotel in Indonesia during pandemics. The data collected is analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with Smart PLS statistical software. The findings from this dataset show that both local and international hotel readiness had a significant effect on customer trust and satisfaction with COVID-19 readiness in the hotel industry.

The auditor has responsibility to give audit opinion and identify whether the financial statements are free from material misstatement caused by fraud. The purpose of this research is to analyze the effect of competence, independence, time budget pressure, work experience and professional skepticism towards auditor’s ability to detect fraud. The object were auditors working at Public Accounting Firms in Tangerang and Jakarta. Primary data was collected by distributing questionnaires and analyzed by using multiple linear regression. The result are competence, work experience and professional skepticism have positive significant effect towards auditor’s ability to detect fraud. To increase auditor’s ability in detecting fraud, auditors should improve their competence to be able to perform audit in accordance with Professional Standards for Certified Public Accountants. Public Accounting Firms must improve their auditors experience by enhancing variety of audit works and widening knowledge in various industries. Auditors must maintain their professional skepticism to provide appropriate assessment of audit evidence.

Tourism in protected areas contributes to the financial sustainability of its sites. It has a positive impact on a stakeholder within and beyond the destinations through effective and efficient benefit-sharing. This study examine the environmental attitudes, community attachment, economic gain, and community involvement that will impact to the stakeholder perceptions to revitalization project in Komodo National Park, Indonesia. In the context of protected areas of World Heritage Sites by UNESCO, this project related to the extensive tourism infrastructure development from nature-based tourism to a new project of Jurassic Park. The concerns regarding the stakeholders’ support may have on expectations for tourism development. This research use the Social Exchange Theory (SET) and Weber’s Theory of Substantive and Formal Rationality (WTSFR) with a quantitative approach. A total of 182 questionnaires with Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) were applied. Finding provides that stakeholder perceptions play a significant role as a mediator in shaping the relationship between each of variables to support tourism development. Ultimately, this study paves the way for improving normative practices toward Sustainability and offers practical solutions to the challenges the government and non-government organizations face to protect the endangered species, society, and the environment.

The e-grocery industry in Indonesia is multiplying and is expected to become one of the most important markets in the world. Massive amount of funding for e-grocery start-ups, the high desire of Indonesian consumers to buy grocery products online, and COVID19 are increasing the growth of e-grocery services in Indonesia. Although the desire to use e-grocery services in Indonesia is high, data shows that e-grocery adoption is still far below other e-commerce product categories such as fashion and electronics. Previous research and surveys also show that consumers will return to shopping for wholesale products offline and stop/reduce the use of e-grocery after the COVID19 pandemic. Therefore, this research is interested in examining the factors that can increase the adoption of e-grocery in Indonesia. Quantitative research was conducted using the purposive sampling method and obtained 135 respondents who have ever used e-grocery service/shopping in the JABODETABEK area. Data were analyzed using PLS-SEM (Partial Least Square – Structural Equation Model). The results of this study indicate that perceived risk has a negative effect on Trust. Social Influence, Perceived Usefulness, and Perceived Ease of Use have a positive effect on Trust. Social Influence and Perceived Ease of Use have a positive effect on Perceived Usefulness. However, it turns out that Trust in this study was not proven to affect the intention to use e-grocery services/shopping for grocery products online.

El cambio climático afecta de forma negativa a los ecosistemas, medios de vida, y a la sociedad en general. Debido a esto, surgen alternativas como la bioeconomía que busca disminuir el impacto ambiental y cambio climático a través de sus principales senderos. De esta forma, el objetivo de la presente investigación fue evaluar la contribución del sector agrícola al Producto Interno Bruto (PIB) de Honduras y el potencial de desarrollo de la bioeconomía en el país. La investigación se llevó a cabo en Honduras, durante el año 2020 y el enfoque utilizado fue cualitativo; concretamente, la técnica utilizada fue una revisión de literatura sistemática. Los principales resultados muestran que durante el período entre los años 2015 y 2018 la contribución del sector agrícola se mantuvo en 14%, ocupando el tercer lugar después del sector de industria manufacturera y la intermediación financiera. Ahora bien, en relación a la bioeconomía fue posible establecer contribuciones puntuales en los siguientes senderos: a) Valoración de los recursos de la biodiversidad, b) Eco intensificación, c) Aplicaciones de biotecnología, d) Servicios eco sistémicos, e) Eficiencia de las cadenas de valor, y f) Biorefinería y bioproductos. Como conclusión se tiene que el tema de bioeconomía en Honduras se inclina hacia la biotecnología y la biorefinería. Aunque ambos senderos involucran tecnologías poco accesibles a pequeños productores agropecuarios. Por lo tanto, es primordial el diseño participativo de políticas y estrategias de bioeconomía para el sector de productos y servicios, lo que mejoraría la competitividad y desarrollo sostenible del país.

Research background: The analysis of the genesis and the way of defining clinical hospitals allows us to conclude that the evaluation of their activities should consider many criteria, not only the treatment process in itself. Activities characteristic for a clinical hospital include, apart from the medical, also prophylaxis and preventative measures, preceded by the identification of health risks, soliciting research and creating new directions of medical research, as well as implementing new medical technologies and treatment methods (Article 3, paragraph 2, points 1–2, Journal of Laws of 2020, items 295, 567, 1493, 2112, i.e.) combined with the training of medical personnel. Which all makes those units unique among hospitals. Purpose: The article aims to confirm the thesis that, despite significant organizational and functional differences, due to the specific nature of their activities, clinical hospitals do not differ significantly in the structure of generated costs. Research methodology: The article proposes using the taxonomic method as a tool for a comparative analysis of Polish clinical hospitals between the years 2012–2016. The study was conducted from a space-time perspective and concerned 20 hospitals. The use of the hierarchical agglomeration method to assess the cost structure of clinical hospitals is, according to the author, a tool that should be used, in addition to standard methods, by both external and internal decision-makers, in the process of assessing the coherence of the activities of units. Results: The conducted research confirmed that despite the differences between the analyzed units, they are characterized by the same structure of prime costs. Novelty: These studies should form the basis for further, a more detailed, cause-and-effect analysis of the cost structure to identify the main determinants shaping total operating costs.

Research background: An assessment of the dynamics of the development of the housing market is critical for development activity and the institutions that finance it. Due to the capital intensity of development projects, it seems necessary to perform detailed analyses to be sure that the investment will find buyers and to know how much time it will take for this undertaking to be sold. The absorption rate reports it. Purpose: The aim of the article is, therefore, to verify the importance of the absorption rate in assessing the dynamics of property market development based on the example of housing development activity in Łódź. Research methodology: To achieve the aim, in the empirical part of the article, information on developers’ investments in Łódź was independently collected, and based on them, absorption ratios for several periods were estimated. Results: The study showed dynamic changes in the absorption rate, as well as its diversity depending on the type of building and location. That is why it is so important to analyze this indicator in developers’ activity, where the risk of recovering the capital engaged is very high. Novelty: In Poland, there are few publications on the given topic, and the existing analyses of the absorption rate in Poland, prepared for the largest Polish cities, do not include the division into specific locations or the type of real estate, which is why they are not sufficiently reliable information for developers.

Research background: There is no consensus among scholars on the interaction effect between money supply, price, and wages despite various studies conducted to that effect. Purpose: This study investigates whether the neutrality of money assumption holds in the long run in Nigeria, using annual data from 1970 to 2018. Research methodology: The study utilized the Johansen cointegration test and the Vector Error Correction (VECM) approach for estimation. Results: The results from the Phillips curve model contradict the classical school of economics assumption that money is neutral in the long run. This implies that in the Nigerian economy, money is not neutral in the long run. The long run Fishers’ effect model shows that the coefficient of LOG (CPI) exhibits a negative sign and is statistically significant at a 5% significant level, thus contradicting the hypothesis which states that a one percent increase in consumer prices will lead to an increase in the rate of interest by one percent. The coefficient of nominal money supply indicates a negative sign and insignificant statistically on the interest rate. The Short-run estimated results showed that the coefficient of the error correction term ECM (–1) indicates a negative sign and is significant statistically in the Fishers’ effect model. The result shows the actual and equilibrium values are corrected with adjustment speeds equal to 31% yearly. Novelty: The study recommends that the Central Bank of Nigeria should ensure an effective implementation of monetary targeting measures in fine-tuning the economy and curbing inflationary pressures.

El objetivo general del artículo fue analizar las tendencias globales en las que se desenvuelve la agroindustria, así como mostrar algunos instrumentos que se pueden utilizar para medir la sostenibilidad tanto fuerte como débil en aras del desarrollo sostenible como eje trasversal de Agenda 2030 como los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio. La metodología fue de corte cualitativo y el método fue de revisión documental. La conclusión principal, es que la agroindustria a medida que pasa el tiempo tiene mayor relevancia en el desarrollo de las sociedades dado su relación directa con la obtención de calorías por parte de los animales humanos y no humanos. Acotando que las tres tendencias en las que se desenvuelve son la Bioeconomía, la Biotecnología y la Agroindustria 4.0.

Research background: Monetary access and literacy are significant factors of concern confronting the survival and sustainability of small and medium-sized enterprises. Purpose: This led to this paper seeking to understand the impact monetary access and monetary literacy have on the sustainability of SMEs in the COVID-19 era. Research methodology: The method was employed by this study is a quantitative research method, which is supported by a positivism research paradigm. Data was collected using a questionnaire completed by 310 sampled participants. Using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences to analyse data, descriptive, the Pearson correlation and regression analyses were used to estimate the model. Results: The Pearson correlation indicated a positive and significant correlation between monetary access and monetary literacy to the sustainability of small and medium-sized enterprises (r = 0.564). The result indicated that some small and medium-sized enterprises do possess basic monetary skills while some do not. A significant number of small and medium-sized enterprises do not understand basic monetary terms, which justifies the lack of monetary literacy. Novelty: The study recommends that government agencies that assist with business registration should include a monetary training course as part of registration formalities. Further to that, the study recommended that government, banks and other business support institutions should simplify support programmes for the prosperity of small and medium-sized enterprises during and post COVID-19 pandemic.

Si bien la literatura de desastres naturales ha evidenciado un amplio consenso sobre los efectos negativos que estos shocks ocasionan a corto plazo sobre el desarrollo individual, sus consecuencias de largo plazo aún son materia de debate. En este trabajo se brinda una revisión de la literatura sobre este tópico. Si bien los resultados confirman una amplia heterogeneidad en la literatura empírica (según el tipo de desastre, país o región de análisis y horizonte temporal considerado), la mayor parte de los trabajos considerados tiende a reportar hallazgos consistentes con la idea de persistencia en el largo plazo de los efectos negativos. Así, surge que la exposición a desastres tiende a incrementar persistentemente la probabilidad de ser pobre o estar desempleado, de tener un bajo logro educativo, bajos ingresos o un deteriorado estatus de salud. De los hallazgos de esta revisión surgen cuatro recomendaciones de política. Primero, cada grupo de desastres provoca efectos diferentes y esto debe ser considerado en la implementación de acciones de preparación y mitigación. Segundo, las embarazadas y niños en sus primeros meses de vida (especialmente en los primeros 1000 días) deben ser especialmente protegidos, dado que los efectos de largo plazo se concentran en este subgrupo. Tercero, debido a que una mejora en la infraestructura básica reduce el riesgo de desastre, las acciones de preparación y mitigación frente a desastres deben entenderse en forma complementaria a aquellas de reducción de la pobreza. Cuarto, la política pública debe incorporar explícitamente la dimensión de género.

This article introduces the Xavier database, one of the major sources for studying historical populations in Japan. The database consists of 162 years of annual observations for 28,105 individuals living in three villages and one town of the current Fukushima prefecture between 1708 and 1870. We review the extensive efforts of the founder of Japanese historical demography, Akira Hayami, and his group in collecting, transcribing, coding, and finally making local population registers into this database for demographic analysis. We discuss the studies that flourished domestically and internationally using the data in the last two decades, followed by the discussion of current and promising development.

Very little is known about what family life looked like for settlers in colonial South Africa during the 18th or 19th century, nor how events over these centuries might have affected demographic change. The primary reason for this lacuna is a shortage of adequate data. Historians and genealogists have, over the last century, worked to combine the rich administrative records that are available in the Cape Archives in Cape Town and beyond, into a single genealogical volume of all settlers living in the 18th, 19th and early 20th century. Until recently, this valuable resource was not in a format that would enable its use for the type of event-history analyses that have come to dominate the field of contemporary historical demography. This is now changing with the introduction of the South African Families database (SAF). SAF is one of very few databases known to document a full population of immigrants and their families over several generations. This article introduces provides a brief background to, and technical overview of, the construction of the SAF. It discusses both the merits and limitations of its use in longitudinal demographic studies and offers a look into the types of studies it can enable.

La globalización y la libertad de mercados son aspectos relevantes para la toma de decisiones de las naciones y su aparato productivo, donde la innovación es el principal componente para estimular la competitividad y alcanzar los objetivos de desarrollo sostenible. Este artículo analiza las metodologías de diseño para la innovación y su relación con la competitividad de las empresas del sector textil y de las confecciones de Medellín. El objetivo del estudio es describir y explicar la relación que existe entre las metodologías de diseño para la innovación y la competitividad de las pequeñas y medianas empresas del sector textil y de las confecciones de Medellín y su alcance en los resultados económicos. Para efectos metodológicos se usa un modelo de elección discreta y representativa sobre una muestra de pequeñas y medianas empresas del sector textil de Medellín, en las cuales se aplica un instrumento tipo encuesta, diseñado y probado para alcanzar los propósitos de gestión de la información. La investigación tiene un enfoque mixto, alcance descriptivo-explicativo, creando la necesidad de estudiar la aplicación de metodologías de diseño para la generación de innovación empresarial. Los hallazgos del estudio señalan que existe una relación del 64.3% entre las de metodologías de diseño para la innovación y la competitividad de las empresas que hacen parte del análisis, a su vez, una relación del 62.05% entre las metodologías de diseño para la innovación y los resultados de la actividad empresarial expresada en términos de ventas, participación de mercado, rentabilidad e imagen corporativa.

El presente artículo propone una nueva perspectiva de la concepción del emprendimiento a partir del concepto de posibilidad real de Charles Sanders Peirce. La nueva perspectiva que se propone busca contribuir a la comprensión de lo que se conoce como emprendimiento. En la concepción de experiencia peirceana, para experimentar algo no es necesario que este algo suceda realmente ni actuar conforme a su acontecimiento, como suele suceder hoy con las explicaciones del emprendimiento; la experiencia en esta concepción, la peirceana, corresponde a un hábito o regla de acción que se produce frente a hechos real. Consideramos así que las actuales significaciones del emprendimiento se basan en aquella experiencia dada y no como se propone aquí, en la experiencia como una regla de acción, habito, que se produce ante un hecho concebiblemente real aun cuando llegado el momento no suceda.

La gestión del riesgo es un sistema organizado que permite prepararse para cualquier situación que eventualmente pueda afectar el funcionamiento organizacional. En Colombia, las Instituciones Prestadoras de Salud (IPS) en su mayoría se han limitado a la gestión de la seguridad del paciente, dejando a un lado, otros riesgos igualmente importantes, predisponiéndoles a detrimento patrimonial o reputacional. De otros sectores, es posible rescatar claves o estrategias para ser aplicadas en el sector salud. Este documento identifica estrategias de implementación de sistemas de gestión del riesgo para las instituciones prestadoras de servicios de salud en Colombia, a partir de una revisión exhaustiva y crítica de literatura con enfoque descriptivo. Se tuvieron en cuenta documentos a nivel nacional e internacional de carácter científico, técnico, y normativo relacionados con la gestión del riesgo en diferentes sectores. La implementación de un sistema de gestión de riesgo, otorga a las IPS herramientas para competir apropiadamente en el mercado de la salud, participar en cualquier RIAS, ya sea como prestador primario o complementario, adaptarse a los nuevos modelos de contratación y garantizar los ingresos operacionales. Por esta razón, se hace necesario que las IPS consideren la gestión de riesgos como el riesgo reputacional, el riesgo de gobierno corporativo, los riesgos de mercado, el riesgo del modelo de negocio, el riesgo de crédito, el operacional, los riesgos comerciales, el riesgo informático, el de corrupción y por supuesto el riesgo financiero. Por lo anterior, la implementación efectiva de la gestión del riesgo en salud, pero sin detrimento de la gestión de la enfermedad, es una necesidad manifiesta.