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Context Increasing mating weight or condition score increases the lambing potential of ewes (fetuses scanned per 100 ewes joined). Aim We hypothesised that in some years, condition score would contribute an additional effect to mating weight on lambing potential. Methods Border Leicester Merino and Merino ewes were mated naturally to Merino or Terminal rams between 2008 and 2013 at eight linked sites across Australia. Border Leicester Merino ewes were mated in their first year while Merino ewes were not mated until their second year. All ewes were mated for a second time as 2 year olds (Border Leicester Merinos) or 3 year olds (Merino). A total of 4270 Border Leicester Merino and 5788 Merino ewes were weighed and condition scored at mating and scanned for pregnancy. Key results Lambing potential increased by 3.1% per 1 kg increase in mating weight, compared to 1.3% for 1 and 2 year old Border Leicester Merinos respectively, and by 2.1% compared to 1.4% for 2 and 3 year old Merinos respectively (P

Context In Australia’s high-rainfall zone (>550 mm/year), winter-type canola (Brassica napus L.) can be sown in spring and grazed as a forage crop during its vegetative phase, producing a canola grain crop in late spring of the second year. The timing, length and intensity of grazing or defoliation that can be imposed on canola before a grain yield penalty occurs remains largely unknown. Aim Our research aimed to determine the impact of grazing spring sown canola during summer and autumn on the subsequent canola grain yield. Methods A paddock-scale field experiment was conducted over 2 years, 2013–14 and 2015–2016, at Hamilton, Victoria, Australia, with two winter-type canola treatments and three grazing–defoliation sub-treatments replicated four times in a replicated block design. The canola cultivars used were Hyola971CL and Taurus in 2013–14 and Hyola971CL and Brazzil in 2015–16. The three grazing–defoliation sub-treatments were: NG, no grazing; VG, grazing with sheep for a 10-week period during the vegetative phase over summer–autumn; RG, grazing with sheep as per the VG sub-treatment and then in the reproductive phase, either cutting the canola for silage in August (2013–14) or grazing with sheep between 28 July and 17 August 2016 (2015–16). Key results The VG sub-treatment resulted in no grain-yield penalty (P > 0.05) relative to NG in either year. In 2014, canola grain yields from VG for Hyola971CL and Taurus were 2.32 and 2.13 t/ha, compared with NG grain yields of 2.66 and 2.19 t/ha. In 2016, grain yields from VG for Hyola971CL and Brazzil were 2.14 and 1.74 t/ha, compared with NG grain yields of 1.87 and 1.90 t/ha. The RG sub-treatment reduced (P < 0.05) canola grain yield by ~65% in 2014 and 80% in 2016 compared with NG and VG. Conclusions Spring-sown winter-type canola can be grazed during summer and autumn in southern Australia with no grain-yield penalty relative to ungrazed canola. However, further grazing or defoliation in winter once bud elongation commences can result in large grain-yield penalties. Implications Spring-sown winter-type canola is a viable forage option for filling the summer–autumn feed gap in southern Australia while also providing a dual-purpose income in mixed-farming systems.

Context Filling the summer–autumn feed gap is a key priority for sheep producers in southern Australia’s high-rainfall zone. Aim Our research aimed to determine whether spring-sown winter-type canola (Brassica napus L.) could increase herbage mass and nutritive characteristics during summer and autumn relative to other forage options in southern Australia’s HRZ. Methods A field experiment was conducted at Hamilton, Victoria, Australia, in 2014 and 2016 testing seven forage treatments replicated four times in the complete block design. The treatments were: canola (two treatments of different cultivars), forage brassica (B. napus), lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), chicory (Cichorium intybus L.), plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). Key results Herbage mass and nutritive characteristics of the canola varieties did not differ (P > 0.05) from forage brassica. Herbage mass in March 2014 was 3.35–3.64 t dry matter (DM)/ha for brassicas; 1.05–1.37 t DM/ha for perennial ryegrass, plantain and chicory; and 2.94 t DM/ha for lucerne (P < 0.001, l.s.d. = 1.20). In March 2016, herbage mass was 1.86–2.05 t DM/ha for brassicas and 2.14–2.49 for the other forage treatments (P < 0.05; l.s.d. = 0.47). Brassicas had higher (P < 0.05) metabolisable energy (ME) concentrations and lower (P < 0.05) neutral detergent fibre (NDF) concentrations on most sampling dates than chicory, plantain, lucerne and perennial ryegrass. The crude protein (CP) concentration of the brassica treatments was not different (P > 0.05) from that of the other forage treatments. Concentrations of ME, CP and NDF were very similar between years for the brassicas, with March ME, CP and NDF concentrations of 12.0–13.2 MJ/kg DM, 14.0–20.1% DM and 16.7–23.6% DM. Conclusion Canola provided increased or equivalent levels of herbage mass and nutritive characteristics compared with other forage options in south-western Victoria on most, but not all, sampling dates. However, the annual spring-sowing requirement is a challenge under variable spring-rainfall conditions and may limit productivity if there is poor establishment. Implications Spring-sown canola is a viable alternative forage for livestock producers and offers a potential second income stream in high-rainfall-zone livestock farming systems.

Context Economic modelling identified that mating of ewe lambs for lambing at 1 year of age has the potential to increase the profitability of sheep-production systems in south-western Victoria. In order to optimise reproductive rates, ewe lambs should weigh at least 35–40 kg, have a condition score (CS) of 3.0 at mating, and be gaining weight (100–150 g/day) during mating. However, typical perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) pastures in south-west Victoria do not support the attainment of these targets without additional supplementation. Aim Our research aimed to determine how grazing summer-active pastures or brassica (Brassica napus L.) forages affects the liveweight, CS, conception and reproductive rate of ewe lambs when offered before and during mating compared with a system using perennial ryegrass plus supplement. Methods A field experiment was conducted at Hamilton, Victoria, Australia, in 2014 and 2016 testing seven forage treatments replicated four times in a complete block design. The treatments were: canola (B. napus, two treatments of different cultivars), forage brassica, lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), chicory (Cichorium intybus L.), plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) and perennial ryegrass. Key results Ewe lambs grazing canola or forage brassica had higher (P < 0.05) liveweight gains during the pre-mating and mating periods than those grazing the perennial ryegrass treatment (148 vs 75 g/day in 2014, s.e.m. 17; 139 vs 54 g/day in 2016, s.e.m. 17). In 2014, spring-sown dual-purpose canola, lucerne and chicory resulted in higher (P < 0.05) reproductive rates (144–151%) than the perennial ryegrass treatment (103%); forage brassica and plantain gave intermediate results (128% and 129%). Conclusion Brassica forages (including spring-sown canola), lucerne and chicory can support the attainment of key liveweight and CS targets for successful mating of ewe lambs in autumn. Implications Spring-sown canola is therefore a viable alternative forage for use by livestock producers in southern Australia and presents an opportunity to incorporate an alternative income stream in mixed-farming systems.

The reproductive performance of Merino ewe lambs is highly variable and generally poor in comparison to older ewes. In this study, we determined the impacts of growth pattern to the end of the mating period and sire genetics on the reproductive performance of Merino ewe lambs. Five hundred ewe lambs with full pedigree records were managed under commercial conditions from weaning and weighed 43.5 kg at the start of the mating period with an average age of 224 days. The ewe lambs were offered a moderate or high feed allowance to achieve target growth rates of 100 or 200 g/day during a 46-day mating period. They were then recombined and scanned for pregnancy status 60 days after the mating period. At the individual animal level, a 5 kg greater live weight at the start of the mating period increased reproductive rate (foetuses per 100 ewes joined) by about 20% (P

Improving the survival of twin-born lambs is a high priority for the Australian sheep industry. Higher mob sizes at lambing have been suggested to decrease the survival of twin-born lambs. However, our recent work indicated that this effect may not occur when feed-on-offer (FOO) exceeds 2400 kg DM/ha during the lambing period. Increasing mob size at lambing when FOO is limited may exacerbate the risk of mismothering due to the need for ewes to seek feed and thus result in poorer lamb survival. Therefore, this study tested the hypothesis that (i) a higher mob size at lambing will decrease lamb survival when FOO from pasture is limited and ewes are supplementary fed and (ii) that this is related to a greater rate of interaction with foreign ewes and lambs during the periparturient period. Twin-bearing Merino ewes (n = 795) were allocated into one of two treatments on day 140 of pregnancy; high (n = 210) or low (n = 55) mob size, with three replicates of each treatment. Feed-on-offer from live pasture at lambing was below 390 kg DM/ha and ewes were supplementary fed until lamb marking. Behaviour during the periparturient period was observed and dead lambs were collected for autopsy for 14 days during the peak of lambing. The survival of lambs to marking was recorded for each mob. Lamb survival was 6.2% higher at the low compared to the high mob size (P

Higher stocking rates of lambing ewes have been associated with poorer ewe-lamb behaviour and lamb survival. This study tested the hypothesis that increasing the mob size and stocking rate of lambi...

Context Automated feeding units allow the recording of individual feeding behaviour of group-housed sheep and provide data for research into feed efficiency. Aim It was hypothesised that measures of feeding behaviour such as the number of non-feeding events, meal size, eating rate and meal duration would change under different levels of feeding. Method Maternal Composite ewes (n = 126, 18 per pen) were fed a hay-based pellet using automated feeding units (2 per pen) for four periods differing in total daily feed allowance (kg/day) and meal allowance (g/meal). Sheep were initially fed ad libitum (meal allowance ~1000 g) for 19 days during an adaptation period, before restricted feeding for 41 days at daily allowances of 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%, 140% and 180% of estimated maintenance requirements, with a meal allowance of ~100 g. These restricted daily allowances were the experimental treatments that were randomly applied to sheep and replicated three times per pen. The daily allowance was then adjusted to 1.4 kg/day (with a ~200 g meal allowance) for all sheep over 5 days, before ad libitum feeding of all sheep for a period of 16 days. All feeding and non-feeding events were recorded. Key results Under restricted feeding, sheep altered the timing of their meals to consume more meals during the early morning after daily allowances were reset at 0000 hours. This change was more pronounced for sheep fed a smaller proportion of maintenance. The number of non-feeding events (~8/day) was not affected by the level of restricted feeding, but meal size was smaller, meal duration was longer and eating rate was lower for sheep fed 40% of their maintenance requirement. Under ad libitum feeding, sheep reverted to a preferred meal size and number of meals, with fewer than two non-feeding events per day, but differences in eating rate remained. Conclusions Sheep feeding behaviours adapt and respond quickly to changes in daily allowance and offered meal size, but the similar number of non-feeding events at different proportions of maintenance feeding suggest that non-feeding events may not reflect levels of hunger. Implications Our observations suggest that sheep are capable of learning and adapting to different levels of feeding and that this may allow for automated feeding systems to supplementary feed larger numbers of sheep under extensive situations.

Sheep production in southern Australia (particularly south west Victoria) is based increasingly on the Maternal Composite ewe, a self-replacing stable crossbred. Breeding programs have focussed on maternal traits such as reproduction and lamb growth. Understanding the variability, range and correlations between the traits of residual feed intake (RFI), feed intake (dry matter intake, DMI), growth rate and methane (CH4) emissions within the Maternal Composite ewe flock is essential to development of selection parameters that improve feed efficiency and reduce environmental impact. Sheep and cattle with low RFI (more efficient) have been observed to produce less CH4 than animals with high RFI. Selecting for animals with improved RFI may enable producers to improve the enterprise productivity while decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. Using automated feeders, feed intake, liveweight and growth rate of Maternal Composite ewes (n = 505) at three different ages (post-weaning, hogget and adult) were measured over 42 days and used to estimate residual feed intake (RFI) as a measure of feed efficiency. Methane emissions were determined twice during each RFI test period via portable accumulation chambers (PACs). During the feed intake test period, ewes were allowed ad libitum access to feed and their liveweight was recorded 3 times weekly. Daily dry matter intake varied by up to 2.1 kg DM/day between animals. Residual feed intake was phenotypically strongly correlated with DMI for all birth year and age group combinations. Within age groups, there were significant phenotypic correlations between measured traits (DMI, growth rate, RFI and CH4 emissions). However, these observed phenotypic relationships were not consistent at post-weaning, hogget or adult ages. Apart from one age by birth year combination, the relationship between CH4 emissions and RFI was not significant. This data suggests that there is enough variation in the Maternal Composite population for selection based on RFI to improve feed efficiency however, there was insufficient evidence of correlations between RFI and CH4 emissions to determine conclusively if improvements in RFI would also reduce CH4 emissions. The strong, consistent correlations between DMI and RFI suggest that a short-term measure of feed intake, coupled with a measure of animal liveweight (or mature weight) could potentially be used as an alternative measure of feed efficiency.

Alkaloid concentration of perennial ryegrass herbage is affected by endophyte strain and host plant genotype. However, previous studies suggest that associations between host and endophyte also depends on environmental conditions, especially those affecting nutrient reserves and that water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC) concentration of perennial ryegrass plants may influence grass-endophyte associations. In this study a single transgenic event, with altered expression of fructosyltransferase genes to produce high WSC and biomass, has been crossed into a range of cultivar backgrounds with varying Epichloe endophyte strains. The effect of the association between the transgenic trait and alkaloid production was assessed and compared with transgene free control populations. In the vast-majority of comparisons there was no significant difference between alkaloid concentrations of transgenic and non-transgenic plants within the same cultivar and endophyte backgrounds. There was no significant difference between GOI+ (gene of interest positive) and GOI− (gene of interest negative) populations in Janthritrem response. Peramine concentration was not different between GOI+ and GOI− for 10 of the 12 endophytes-cultivar combinations. Cultivar Trojan infected with NEA6 and Alto with SE (standard endophyte) exhibited higher peramine and lolitrem B (only for Alto SE) concentration, in the control GOI− compared with GOI+. Similarly, cultivar Trojan infected with NEA6 and Alto with NEA3 presented higher ergovaline concentration in GOI−. Differences in alkaloid concentration may be attributable to an indirect effect in the modulation of fungal biomass. These results conclude that the presence of this transgenic insertion, does not alter the risk (toxicity) of the endophyte–grass associations. Endophyte–host interactions are complex and further research into associations with high WSC plant should be performed in a case by case basis.

Vitamin E and selenium have been reported to improve immune function across a range of species. Ewes lambing on poor-quality dry pasture in autumn in Western Australia are at risk of being deficient in vitamin E and selenium at lambing thus predisposing their lambs to deficiencies and increasing the risk of infection and disease. This study tested the hypotheses that (i) supplementation of autumn-lambing ewes with vitamin E plus selenium in late gestation will increase the concentrations of vitamin E and selenium in plasma in the ewe and lamb and (ii) that the increased concentrations of vitamin E and selenium in plasma in the lambs will improve their innate and adaptive immune responses and thus survival. Pregnant Merino ewes were divided into a control group (n=58) which received no supplementation or a group supplemented with vitamin E plus selenium (n=55). On days 111, 125 and 140 of pregnancy ewes in the vitamin E plus selenium group were given 4 g all-rac-α-tocopherol acetate orally. On day 111 the ewes were also given 60 mg of selenium as barium selenate by subcutaneous injection. The concentrations of α-tocopherol and selenium were measured in ewes and/or lambs from day 111 of pregnancy to 14 weeks of age±10 days (weaning). Immune function of the lamb was assessed by analysing the numbers and phagocytic capacities of monocytes and polymorphonuclear leucocytes and plasma IgG and anti-tetanus toxoid antibody concentrations between birth and 14 weeks of age±10 days. Maternal supplementation with vitamin E plus selenium increased the concentration of α-tocopherol in plasma (1.13 v. 0.67 mg/l; P

Context Data collected from producers in south-eastern Australia found that the survival of twin-born lambs decreased by 3.5% for each extra 100 ewes in the mob at lambing. Increasing stocking rate by 1 ewe/ha decreased lamb survival by a further 0.7%. These survey findings suggest that lamb survival could be improved by optimising the allocation of ewes to mobs and paddocks at lambing. Aim The present paper reports two experiments. Experiment 1 tested the hypotheses that (1) the survival of twin-born lambs would be greater when ewes lamb in smaller mobs and at lower stocking rates, and (2) the effects of mob size and stocking rate would be greater in Merinos than in non-Merino breeds. Experiment 2 tested the hypothesis that the survival of twin-born Merino lambs would be greater at lower mob sizes when ewes lambed at stocking rates

Sheep production systems in south-west Victoria are based predominantly on perennial ryegrass pastures, resulting in highly seasonal growth and declining feed quantity and nutritive value in late spring and summer. These changes result in reduced animal performance and increased CH4 emissions per kg DM intake. A potential alternative to the feedbase used in south-west Victoria that provides high quality and quantity of feed in late spring and early summer are legume-based pastures, such as clovers and lucerne. This experiment examined the impact of legume-based pastures on the growth rates and CH4 emissions of Maternal Composite ewes during late spring and early summer. In 2014, 240 Maternal Composite ewes grazed either perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) or arrowleaf clover (Trifolium vesiculosum Savi.) pastures for 6 weeks during late spring and early summer (November and December). Sheep grazing subterranean clover were heavier at the end of the experiment than sheep grazing perennial ryegrass. Methane measurements using portable accumulation chambers indicated lower daily CH4 emissions (g/day) from sheep grazing subterranean clover (23.5 g/day) than from sheep grazing lucerne (27.3 g/day) and perennial ryegrass (32.3 g/day) pastures. Methane emissions and liveweight changes appeared to be associated with the nutritive characteristics of the forage offered. Legume-based pastures provide sheep producers in south-west Victoria an option to increase growth rates and decrease CH4 emissions during a period when perennial ryegrass pastures are declining in nutritive value.

Current Australian ewe management guidelines are based on research from Merino ewes and have been transposed to crossbred ewes. It is unknown whether guidelines developed for Merino ewes are applicable to crossbred ewe production systems. To investigate this, the effect of ewe liveweight and condition score profile during pregnancy on lamb birthweight and survival for Border Leicester × Merino (BLM) crossbreds was compared with Merino ewes. Condition score profiles of 720 Merino and 680 BLM ewes were managed from 50 days after ram introduction to achieve one of four target condition scores at lambing. There were three replicates of the four target condition score treatments and both breeds of ewes were in each plot. By Day 140 after rams in, the BLM ewes were fatter (P < 0.001) and heavier (P < 0.001) than the Merino ewes, despite being managed in the same plots. Liveweight at conception and change in liveweight in late pregnancy of the Merino and BLM ewes had a similar effect on the birthweight and weaning weight of their lambs. However, birthweight and weaning weight of lambs from BLM ewes was less sensitive to ewe liveweight change in early pregnancy. Birthweight survival curves were similar in lambs from Merino and multiple-born lambs from BLM ewes, and the survival of lambs from multiple-bearing BLM ewes responded to manipulation of condition score in a similar pattern to lambs from Merino ewes. Therefore, managing liveweight or condition score of multiple-bearing BLM ewes is likely to improve lamb survival in a similar fashion to lambs from Merino ewes, although the absolute response in survival will be smaller than that achieved in Merino ewes at the same condition score. In addition, it is important to manage liveweight of both single and multiple-bearing BLM ewes during pregnancy to optimise weaning weight of their lambs, as those lambs born to BLM ewes of low liveweight were significantly lighter at weaning.

Management of nutrition during pregnancy for maternal composite ewes has the potential to improve lamb production and survival in prime lamb production systems but existing condition score (CS) guidelines developed for Merinos may not be appropriate for the optimum production of maternal ewes. To address this, three replicated experiments were conducted at two research sites in Victoria and one in Western Australia. Ewes (781–800 per site) were allocated to four CS treatments following pregnancy scanning (~Day 50) and differentially fed to reach approximate targets of CS 2.4, 2.8, 3.2 and 3.6 by lambing. Single and multiple bearing ewes grazed together, and nutritional treatments were applied until the end of lambing after which ewes and lambs were aggregated into management groups containing all treatments. At lambing, maternal ewe liveweight had a range between treatments of 13.7–19.1 kg (average 16.4 kg) and CS varied by 1.1–1.5 of a CS (average 1.24). Across site analysis indicated that lamb birthweight and weaning weight increased with application of higher CS treatments (P < 0.001). There was also an improvement in survival of multiple born lambs with increasing CS at lambing (P < 0.001). Birthweight was significantly related to survival (P < 0.001) at all sites with no significant effect of birth type on lamb survival. Changes in birthweight and weaning weight could be predicted from ewe joining liveweight, ewe liveweight change to Day 90 and ewe liveweight change Day 90 to lambing. The coefficients derived for each of these effects were similar to those found in previous experiments examining Merino and crossbred Border Leicester Merino ewes. The optimum CS targets for multiple bearing maternal composite ewes may be higher than the industry recommended target for Merino ewes based on advantages in lamb survival and weaning weight.

This long term experiment provides production data for evaluation of combined forestry and livestock systems. Five systems were established in Pinus radiata planted in 1981 (620 mm average annual rainfall). Sheep were introduced in 1984 and trees were pruned in several lifts. Adjusted tree stockings were (1) 60 widely spaced trees ha−1, (2) 200 widely spaced trees ha−1, (3) 200 trees ha−1 in five-row belts, (4) 1,090 trees ha−1 (unpruned) and 815 trees ha−1, and (5) no trees (open pasture). Tree growth, wool production, liveweight gain and pasture production were measured. At year 25, tree diameter under bark at 1.3 m (DBHUB) in Systems 1, 2, 3 and 4 (unpruned) was 46.0, 39.2, 33.5 and 24.1 cm, while volume of bark-free 6-m butt-logs was 49, 117, 86 and 233 m3 ha−1. Inner rows of System 3 belts contained smaller trees than outer rows. Pruned System 4 trees had slightly greater diameter than unpruned trees. Pasture production declined with tree stocking and time, due to shading and competition. Wool production (WP ha−1) and liveweight gain (LWG ha−1) declined linearly from year 9 to 17 with increasing disparity among systems. In 1998 (year 17) WP ha−1 in Systems 1, 2 and 3 was 64, 16 and 43% of that in open pasture. Further analysis is needed to evaluate the financial costs and returns of various systems under particular rotation lengths and market prices.

Genetic map construction and identification of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for blackleg resistance were performed for four mapping populations derived from five different canola source cultivars. Three of the populations were generated from crosses between single genotypes from the blackleg-resistant cultivars Caiman, Camberra and (AV)Sapphire and the blackleg-susceptible cultivar Westar(10). The fourth population was derived from a cross between genotypes from two blackleg resistant varieties (Rainbow and (AV)Sapphire). Different types of DNA-based markers were designed and characterised from a collection of 20,000 EST sequences generated from multiple Brassica species, including a new set of 445 EST-SSR markers of high value to the international community. Multiple molecular genetic marker systems were used to construct linkage maps with locus numbers varying between 219 and 468, and coverage ranging from 1173 to 1800 cM. The proportion of polymorphic markers assigned to map locations varied from 70 to 89% across the four populations. Publicly available simple sequence repeat markers were used to assign linkage groups to reference nomenclature, and a sub-set of mapped markers were also screened on the Tapidor x Ningyou (T x N) reference population to assist this process. QTL analysis was performed based on percentage survival at low and high disease pressure sites. Multiple QTLs were identified across the four mapping populations, accounting for 13-33% of phenotypic variance (V (p)). QTL-linked marker data are suitable for implementation in breeding for disease resistance in Australian canola cultivars. However, the likelihood of shifts in pathogen race structure across different geographical locations may have implications for the long-term durability of such associations.

The aim of this study was to quantify the movement patterns of various playing positions during professional rugby union match-play, such that the relative importance of aerobic and anaerobic energy pathways to performance could be estimated. Video analysis was conducted of individual players (n=29) from the Otago Highlanders during six "Super 12" representative fixtures. Each movement was coded as one of six speeds of locomotion (standing still, walking, jogging, cruising, sprinting, and utility), three states of non-running intensive exertion (rucking/mauling, tackling, and scrummaging), and three discrete activities (kicking, jumping, passing). The results indicated significant demands on all energy systems in all playing positions, yet implied a greater reliance on anaerobic glycolytic metabolism in forwards, due primarily to their regular involvement in non-running intense activities such as rucking, mauling, scrummaging, and tackling. Positional group comparisons indicated that while the greatest differences existed between forwards and backs, each positional group had its own unique demands. Front row forwards were mostly involved in activities involving gaining/retaining possession, back row forwards tended to play more of a pseudo back-line role, performing less rucking/mauling than front row forwards, yet being more involved in aspects of broken play such as sprinting and tackling. While outside backs tended to specialize in the running aspects of play, inside backs tended to show greater involvement in confrontational aspects of play such as rucking/mauling and tackling. These results suggest that rugby training and fitness testing should be tailored specifically to positional groups rather than simply differentiating between forwards and backs.

Efficient liveweight gain is an important component of profitable livestock systems. In cattle, studies of residual feed intake (RFI) suggest that there are behavioural differences between efficient and inefficient animals; more efficient animals have less frequent, larger feed events. There is limited understanding of the association between feeding behaviour and feed conversion efficiency (measured as RFI) in sheep. We hypothesised that more efficient sheep would have lower daily number of meals but larger meal size than would less efficient sheep and that feeding behaviour would be repeatable between measurements conducted using the same sheep at different ages. Feeding behaviour was monitored at post-weaning (average 311 days) and hogget (average 533 days) age in a single cohort of maternal composite 2014-born ewes undergoing feed-efficiency testing. Feed intake (kg/day) and daily feeding behaviour (meal number, meal size and eating rate) were recorded by using automated feeders. Feed intake was recorded daily for a minimum of 40 days (mean 41 days), following a 14-day adaptation period. Animals were fed a pelleted hay-based diet, with liveweight measured three times per week. At both ages of measurement, a positive (P < 0.01) linear relationship was established between average daily number of meals and RFI. In these cohorts, as daily number of meals increased, RFI became more positive (less efficient). Meal size (kg DM) was also related to RFI (P < 0.05) when measured at the hogget age, with meal size decreasing with an increasing RFI (less efficient animals had smaller meals). These analyses suggest that sheep feeding behaviour, and in particular daily meal number, is associated with feed efficiency.

Temperate pastures that leak water below the root zone have been linked to an increase in dryland salinity in southern Australia through their conservative use of stored water. An experiment was conducted at Hamilton in south-western Victoria to test the hypothesis that deep-rooted, summer-active perennial pasture species can substantially reduce leakage. On topographic crests the experiment compared lucerne and chicory with a traditional perennial ryegrass variety with low summer activity, whereas on the poorly drained valleys the comparison was between tall fescue, kikuyu and a perennial ryegrass variety with high summer activity. Lucerne developed a buffer of dry soil to a depth of at least 5 m. An empirical relationship with June–September rainfall indicated that with this dry buffer, leakage below the root zone would not occur even in the wettest of years. Chicory developed a dry buffer to the depth of measurement (3 m), but plant density gradually declined and leakage started to occur 5 years after sowing. The perennial ryegrass with low summer activity had leakage nearly every year. On the valleys kikuyu was initially the most effective at drying the soil in summer, but its density declined at the expense of annuals and 3 years after sowing it became wetter than the other treatments. None of the pasture options on the valley fully controlled leakage, but both the summer-active perennial ryegrass and tall fescue were persistent and there was little difference in their capacity to extract summer moisture. This study showed that four characteristics were associated with a pasture that controlled leakage – summer activity, persistence, adequate density and deep rootedness. Of the species tested only lucerne satisfied all these criteria.

Myoblast cell cultures have been widely employed in conventional (1g) studies of biological processes because characteristics of intact muscle can be readily observed in these cultured cells. We decided to investigate the effects of spaceflight on muscle by utilizing a well characterized myoblast cell line (L8 rat myoblasts) as cultured in the recently designed Space Tissue Loss Flight Module "A" (STL-A). The STL-A is a "state of the art," compact, fully contained, automated cell culture apparatus which replaces a single mid-deck locker on the Space Shuttle. The L8 cells were successfully flown in the STL-A on the Space Shuttle STS-45 mission. Upon return to earth, reculturing of these spaceflown L8 cells (L8SF) resulted in their unexpected failure to fuse and differentiate into myotubes. This inability of the L8SF cells to fuse was found to be a permanent phenotypic alteration. Scanning electron microscopic examination of L8SF cells growing at 1g on fibronectin-coated polypropylene fibers exhibited a strikingly different morphology as compared to control cells. In addition to their failure to fuse into myotubes, L8SF cells also piled up on top of each other. When assayed in fusion-promoting soft agar, L8SF cells gave rise to substantially more and larger colonies than did either preflight (L8AT) or ground control (L8GC) cells. All data to this point indicate that flying L8 rat myoblasts on the Space Shuttle for a duration of 7-10 d at subconfluent densities results in several permanent phenotypic alterations in these cells.

(1993). CHARACTERISTICS OF ELDERLY PEOPLE WITH A MENTAL HANDICAP LIVING IN A MENTAL HANDICAP HOSPITAL: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY. The British Journal of Development Disabilities: Vol. 39, No. 76, pp. 31-49.

Perennial ryegrass is a globally cultivated obligate outbreeding diploid species (2n = 2x = 14) which is subjected to periods of waterlogging stress due to flood irrigation during winter and the lead-up to summer. Reduction of oxygen supply to root systems due to waterlogging produces consequent deleterious effects on plant performance. Framework genetic maps for a large-scale genetic mapping family [F 1(NA x × AU6)] were constructed containing 91 simple sequence repeat and 24 single nucleotide polymorphism genetic markers. Genetic trait dissection using both control and waterlogging treatments was performed in the glasshouse, a total of 143 maximally recombinant genotypes being selected from the overall sib-ship and replicated threefold in the trial. Analysis was performed for nine quantitative morphological traits measured 8 weeks after stress treatments were applied. A total of 37 quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were identified; 19 on the NA x parental genetic map, and 18 on the AU6 parental genetic map. Regions of particular interest were identified on linkage groups (LGs) 4 and 3 of the respective maps, which have been targeted for further analysis by selection of critical recombinants. This first study of genetic control of waterlogging tolerance in ryegrasses has important implications for breeding improvement of abiotic stress adaptation.

Allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 32) white clover (Trifolium repens L.) is the most commonly cultivated legume component of temperate pastures, sown in swards with a companion grass species. Genetic control of growth performance of white clover on saline land is highly important for dairy industries, due to increasing soil salinity problems. The objective of this study was to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for salinity tolerance in terms of vegetative growth under stress. Two parental genetic maps consisting of 213 and 159 marker loci and spanning 1,973.0 and 1,837.6 cM, respectively, were constructed using simple sequence repeat (SSR) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers from a two-way pseudo-test cross F(1) population derived from pair-crossing of the Haifa(2) and LCL(2) genotypes. A total of 8 unique genomic regions on 8 linkage groups (LGs) of the Haifa(2) parental map and 6 unique regions on 5 LGs in the LCL(2) parental map were associated with plant growth under salt stress and relative growth under stress, as compared to control conditions. The results of this study indicate that salt tolerance in white clover is controlled by multiple QTLs, some at common locations, but each of limited magnitude. Location of these QTLs provides the genetic basis and potential for pyramiding of salt tolerance genes in breeding improvement.

Functional deficiencies of the immune system are known to predispose human and animal neonates to death. Thus, immune competency may be a significant factor influencing the mortality of lambs. Vitamin D has been recognised to improve immune function and is transferred across the placenta. This study tested the hypotheses that (1) supplementation of Merino ewes with cholecalciferol during late pregnancy will increase the concentrations of vitamin D in the ewe and lamb at birth and (2) supplementation of Merino ewes with cholecalciferol during late pregnancy is correlated with an increase in innate phagocytic and adaptive antibody immune responses in the lamb. Merino ewes (n = 53) were injected intramuscularly with 1 × 106 IU cholecalciferol at Days 113 and 141 of pregnancy. A control group (n = 58) consisted of ewes receiving no additional nutritional treatments. The vitamin D status of ewes and lambs was assessed up until 1 month post-lambing. Lamb immune function was assessed by analysing the functional capacity of phagocytes, and the plasma IgG and anti-tetanus-toxoid antibody concentrations between birth and weaning. Maternal supplementation with cholecalciferol increased the plasma 25(OH)D concentrations of both ewes (137 vs 79 nmol/L; P < 0.001) and lambs (49 vs 24 nmol/L; P < 0.001) at birth compared with the controls. Supplementation with cholecalciferol had no significant effect on the phagocytic capacity of monocytes or polymorphonuclear leukocytes, the concentration of IgG in the colostrum or plasma of lambs, or the vaccine-specific antibody response against tetanus toxoid. Overall, the results support our first hypothesis, but suggest that maternal supplementation with 1 × 106 IU cholecalciferol does not improve innate, passive or adaptive immune function in lambs.

White clover (Trifolium repens L.) is a key component legume of temperate pasture agriculture and an important target for molecular marker-assisted plant breeding. A genetic map of white clover has been used to assess genetic control of agronomically important traits that vary in the F2(I.4R×I.5J) mapping family. Phenotypic analysis was performed for a range of vegetative morphogenesis traits (such as leaf area, internode length, plant height and plant spread) and reproductive morphogenesis and development traits (such as flowering date, floral intensity and seed yield), with both spatial and temporal replication. A multi-environment combined analysis (combined analysis) has been performed for traits assessed across multiple experimental datasets in order to identify consistent genetic effects. Quantitative trait locus (QTLs) were detected for the majority of traits, and the locations and magnitudes of QTL effects were compared between individual and combined analyses. This molecular genetic dissection of agronomic traits in white clover provides the basis for equivalent studies in more complex populations, design of marker-assisted selection strategies and comparative genetics with model legume species. Selection for QTLs derived from the combined analysis will permit robust improvement of phenotypic traits over different environments.

Erythromycin A (EryA), sec-butyl erythromycin B (SEryB), oleandomycin (Olean) and a synthetic derivative, roxithromycin (Rox), were used to investigate the fragmentation of polyketide macrolide antibiotics by collision induced dissociation (CID) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Analyses were performed with two commercially available mass spectrometers: a Q-TOF hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight instrument and a BioApex II (4.7 Tesla) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTICR) instrument both equipped with electrospray ionisation (ESI) sources. One of the first fragmentation processes is the loss of an H(2)O molecule from the [M+H](+) ion. EryA has three hydroxyl groups on the polyketide ring and loses three H(2)O molecules during CID. This study indicates that these facts are not necessarily related. Deuterium exchange experiments were carried out in order to isotopically label free hydroxyl groups. (18)O-exchange experiments were also carried out in order to label the carbonyl group at the 9-position. In EryA and its analogue the first H(2)O loss shifts in mass from loss of 18 Da to loss of 20 Da in deuterated solvents. For both molecules the loss also shifts in mass from loss of 18 Da to loss of 20 Da during the (18)O-exchange experiments. This suggests that the first loss of H(2)O is from the 9-position carbonyl group, indicating that this, and not the nitrogen of the amino sugar, is the site of protonation of the activated MH(+) ions. For Rox the initial loss of H(2)O is replaced by loss of the 9-position oxime group, the rest of the fragmentation sequence being the same as for EryA. For Olean, there is no H(2)O loss from the parent ion. The results have allowed the proposal of a mechanism for the first loss of H(2)O in the EryA MS/MS fragmentation.

Erythromycin A (EryA) was studied by electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) with the aim of developing a methodology for the structural elucidation of novel erythromycins developed by biological synthetic methods. Skimmer dissociation along with sequential mass spectrometry studies (up to MS5) have been employed in this study. In the low-resolution MS/MS analysis of the polyketides, there are several fragment ions that are easily assigned to various neutral losses. These have all been confirmed by accurate-mass measurements. There is also a series of peaks due to ring opening and fragmentation that can only be assigned by high-resolution MSn analysis. Further experiments were performed in deuterated media (D2O/CD3OD 50%) which, along with the high-resolution MSn of erythromycin analogues, has enabled us to identify some of the steps in the ring fragmentation, particularly the loss of the polyketide starter acid. This is an essential step for determining structural alterations in the novel polyketides, but further labelling experiments and studies on more erythromycin analogues are required before the complete fragmentation pathway can be confirmed.

Birthweight is the single largest determinant of survival in lambs and can be predicted from ewe liveweight at conception and liveweight changes during pregnancy. These prediction equations are known for Merino ewes, but it is unknown if they are applicable to non-Merino breeds. We tested the hypothesis that increasing conception weights of ewes will increase the birthweights, survival to weaning and weaning weights of their lambs, irrespective of ewe or sire breed, but that non-Merino lamb birthweights would be less responsive than Merino lamb birthweights, to changes in ewe liveweights during pregnancy. Ewe liveweight, lamb birth and weaning weight records from Merino sires mated to Merino ewes (MM), Border Leicester Merino (Maternal) sires mated to Merino ewes, Poll Dorset or Suffolk (Terminal) sires mated to Merino ewes (TM), and Terminal sires mated to Border Leicester Merino ewes (TMAT) were analysed from the 2007 to 2011 lambings of eight information nucleus flocks. Lamb birthweights increased by 0.032 ± 0.0012 kg from MM ewes and 0.024 ± 0.0026 kg from TMAT ewes with every 1-kg increase in conception weight (P < 0.001). Irrespective of breed, for every 1-kg increase in liveweight change during early and late pregnancy, lamb birthweights increased by 0.021 ± 0.0019 kg and 0.034 ± 0.0019 kg and weaning weights by 0.26 ± 0.013 kg and 0.09 ± 0.011 kg, respectively (P < 0.001). Survival to weaning of single, twin and triplet lambs was highest for lambs from TMAT ewes (89.3% ± 1.25, 84.6% ± 1.49 and 73.4% ± 2.35) and lowest for TM ewes (80.2% ± 1.89, 72.8% ± 2.09 and 57.4% ± 2.98; P < 0.001). Coefficients relating ewe liveweight change during pregnancy to lamb birthweights are similar for Merino and Maternal ewes, however conception weights of Maternal ewes are significantly heavier than Merino ewes when run together, and lamb birthweights from Maternal ewes are less responsive to ewe conception weights. The coefficients reported in this paper will enable development of optimum management guidelines for single-, twin- and triple-bearing Maternal ewes.

Achieving higher lamb weaning percentages by reducing lamb mortality can improve the profitability of sheep enterprises. In this paper we estimated the financial benefits from providing shelter to reduce the mortality of twin lambs in self-replacing Merino or dual-purpose Merino flock enterprises in south-west Victoria. A whole-farm bio-economic model (MIDAS) was initially used to estimate the increase in profit from reducing mortality of twin lambs and a second analysis included the costs of using perennial grass hedges to provide the shelter during lambing. The economic value of providing shelter was tested at three rates of twinning (10, 30 and 50%), three rates of mortality without shelter (70, 50 and 30%) and two levels of reduction in lamb mortality by providing shelter (25 and 50% reduction). A sensitivity analysis to wool and lamb prices, costs of establishing the grass hedges and stocking rates in the shelter area were also tested. Overall, more than 2500 scenarios were tested. Across the range of twinning rates and levels of twin mortality tested, at standard wool and meat prices, providing shelter to the dual-purpose Merino ewe flock was always profitable ($0.05 to 11.35/ewe) and the profits from providing shelter to the self-replacing Merino ewe flock were generally lower ($0.15 to $6.35/ewe). The impacts of changing wool and lamb prices depended on enterprise type, whereas the costs of establishment of the hedges or stocking rate of ewes in the hedge area during lambing had little impact on profitability. The main factor that determined the economic return from shelter was the reduction in mortality provided by the shelter but the proportion of twin-bearing ewes in the flock and the base rate of lamb mortality without shelter was also important. Overall, based on the assumptions used, we conclude that the profitability of many sheep enterprises lambing during frequent high chill weather conditions in temperate areas of south-eastern Australia could be improved by providing low cost shelter for twin-bearing Merino ewes lambing from July to September.

The reproductive performance of Merino ewe lambs is lower than that achieved by mature ewes and is highly variable. It is likely that embryo loss represents a major source of reproductive wastage in Merino ewe lambs, but to our knowledge no studies have attempted to determine when the major reproductive losses occur or identify predisposing factors that are likely to lead to high rates of pregnancy failures in ewe lambs. After characterising where reproductive losses occurred in Merino ewe lambs mated at 8–10 months of age, we tested the hypothesis that pregnancy failure in ewe lambs is influenced by nutrition and liveweight change around conception and the genetic potential for growth of the ewe lamb. Two-hundred and twenty-four Merino ewe lambs born from 10 sires with Australian Sheep Breeding Values were teased for 14 days using vasectomised rams, and then fed two different diets for 68 days during mating. All ewe lambs were weighed and the appearance of crayon marks on their rump was recorded most days. Blood samples for progesterone assay were collected on Days 5, 12 and 17 after the first record of a crayon mark. Ultrasonography using a trans-rectal probe was used to measure the number of corpora lutea present, as a proxy for ovulation rate, 9 days after the first record of a crayon mark during the mating period. A further trans-rectal ultrasonography was undertaken 30 days after marking from the entire ram to determine pregnancy status and count the number of embryos. Over the entire mating period 54% of ewe lambs were pregnant with 66 fetuses per 100 ewes mated. The average ovulation rate was 150% however up to 84% of this potential was lost by weaning and the major contributor to this apparent deficit was the loss that occurred during the first 17 days after mating. Pregnancy failure was not significantly related to nutrition or liveweight change during mating however, there were significant differences in pregnancy failure between different sire groups. Pregnancy failure was significantly less for ewe lambs from sires with higher breeding values for weight and fat at post-weaning age (8–10 months). Only 60% of ewe lambs had achieved puberty when rams were introduced and only 83% by 35 days after mating. In addition, almost half of the ewe lambs that were mated for the first time during the first 35 days after rams were introduced, but failed to get pregnant, then seemed to skip a cycle or did not cycle again before the end of the 68-day mating period. Liveweight at introduction of entire rams was positively related to fertility, ovulation rate and reproductive rate. This study confirms that selection of sires with higher breeding values for post-weaning weight and fat will increase the fertility and reproductive rate of Merino ewe lambs mated at 8–10 months. This response is due in part to enhancing the onset of puberty and increasing the proportion of ewe lambs cycling at the start of mating and reducing pregnancy failure.

Nutrition of ewes during pregnancy can have permanent impacts on the production potential of their progeny. The hypothesis tested in the experiments reported in this paper was that improving the nutrition of Merino ewes during pregnancy and lactation increases the fleece weight and reduces the fibre diameter of their progeny’s wool during their lifetime. In addition, that these effects on the progeny’s wool production can be predicted from the ewe’s liveweight profile. At sites in Victoria and Western Australia in each of 2 years, a wide range in the liveweight and condition score profiles of Merino ewes was generated by varying the amount of supplements fed from joining to Day 100 of pregnancy and the amount of feed on offer grazed from Day 100 to weaning. The site in Victoria was based on perennial pastures and included both single- and twin-bearing ewes whereas the site in Western Australia was based on annual pastures and included single-bearing ewes only. The production and characteristics of wool from the progeny were measured until 51 months of age at the site in Victoria and 33 months of age at the site in Western Australia. The nutritional treatments and the resulting changes in ewe liveweight had significant impacts on the fleece weight and to a lesser extent the fibre diameter of wool produced by their progeny, but there were no consistent effects on other characteristics of progeny fleece wool. The fleece weight of the progeny was related to the liveweight change during pregnancy of their mothers (P < 0.05) and the relationships were similar for the two experiments at each site. At the site in Victoria, a loss of 10 kg in ewe liveweight between joining and Day 100 of pregnancy reduced fleece weight by ~0.2 kg at each shearing until 51 months of age whereas gaining 10 kg from Day 100 of pregnancy to lambing had the opposite effect. The effect of changes in ewe liveweight during late pregnancy on the fleece weight of their progeny at each shearing was of similar magnitude at the site in Western Australia. When evident, the effect of the ewe liveweight profile on the fibre diameter of progeny wool was opposite to the effect on clean fleece weight and the effect of poor nutrition in early to mid pregnancy could be completely overcome by improving nutrition during late pregnancy. Twin-born and reared progeny produced ~0.3 kg less clean wool at each shearing (P < 0.001) that was 0.3-μm broader (P < 0.001) than that from single-born progeny at the site in Victoria. However, the effects of varying ewe nutrition and ewe liveweight change during pregnancy on fleece weight and fibre diameter of progeny wool were similar (P > 0.05) for both single- and twin-born or reared progeny. Overall, these results supported our hypothesis and it is clear that the nutritional management of Merino ewes during pregnancy is important for optimal wool production from their progeny during their lifetime.

Lamb growth to weaning, and during the period immediately following weaning, influences post-weaning mortality and may affect mature size. The hypothesis tested in the experiments reported in this paper was that changes in the maternal liveweight of Merino ewes during pregnancy and lactation could predict the weight at weaning, post-weaning survival and mature size of their progeny. At two sites (Vic. and WA) in each of two years, a wide range in the liveweight profiles of ewes was generated during pregnancy and lactation by varying the amount of supplements fed and feed on offer grazed. Across the four experiments this resulted in progeny weights ranging from 13.8 to 28.3 kg just before weaning. Lamb growth was primarily related to the amount of feed on offer during lactation, but was also related to the liveweight change of the ewe during pregnancy. These relationships were consistent in both experiments at each site. Weaning weight was strongly associated with post-weaning survival at the Vic. site. Survival rates decreased significantly when weaning weights were below 20 kg. These results indicate that management of ewe and lamb nutrition to maximise growth of lambs before weaning and growing weaners at 30 g/day or more after weaning are important for optimal post-weaning survival. The findings also suggest that the mature size of offspring is unlikely to be adversely affected by pre-weaning nutrition within the range of nutritional scenarios during pregnancy and lactation that are likely to be experienced within the Australian sheep industry.

The single largest influence on the survival of lambs in the first few days of life is their birthweight. Fetal growth and birthweight are regulated by genotype of the fetus, maternal genotype, maternal nutrition and the external environment. In this paper we report the extent to which the changes in maternal liveweight during pregnancy and lactation (liveweight profile) of Merino ewes can be used to predict the birthweight and survival of their progeny to weaning. At two sites [Victoria (Vic.) ~700 ewes and Western Australia (WA) ~300 ewes] in each of 2 years, a similar experiment used adult Merino ewes to explore effects of nutrition from joining to Day 100 of pregnancy and from Day 100 of pregnancy to weaning. The average difference between extreme treatments at Day 100 of pregnancy were 7 kg in ewe liveweight and 0.7 of a condition score (CS) and at lambing 11.9 kg and 1.3 of a CS. This resulted in average birthweights of progeny from different treatments ranging from 4.0 to 5.4 kg and survival to weaning ranging from 68 to 92%. Across the four experiments between 68 and 85% of all lamb deaths to weaning occurred within 48 h of birth. Lambs born to ewes in CS 2 at Day 100 of pregnancy were lighter (P < 0.05) in both years at the Vic. site than those from ewes in CS 3 at Day 100 of pregnancy. Lambs born to the ewes grazing a feed on offer of 800 kg DM/ha during late pregnancy were also lighter than those from other levels of feed on offer between 1100 and 3000 kg DM/ha at the Vic. site in both years and at the WA site in 1 year (P < 0.001). Lambs from the 800 kg DM/ha treatment during late pregnancy at the Vic. site had a lower survival than other treatments, especially in the second year. There were no significant effects of treatments on lamb survival at the WA site; however, the results were in the same direction. The birthweight of individual lambs was significantly related to the liveweight profile of their mothers. Their liveweight at joining, change in liveweight to Day 100 of pregnancy and change in liveweight from Day 100 to lambing all contributed (P < 0.05) to the prediction of the birthweight of their lambs. The responses were consistent across experimental sites and years, lamb birth rank and sex, and confirmed that the effects of poor nutrition up until Day 100 of pregnancy could be completely overcome by improving nutrition during late pregnancy. At the Vic. site, survival to 48 h was most influenced by the birthweight of the lamb and survival was significantly higher in single- than twin-born lambs and female than male lambs after adjusting for differences in birthweight. A higher chill index during the 48 h after birth reduced survival of both single and twin lambs to a similar extent, but reduced survival of male lambs more than female lambs. There were no effects of birthweight or chill index on lamb survival at the WA site where most lambs weighed more than 4 kg at birth and climatic conditions during lambing were less extreme. Overall, these results supported our hypothesis that improving the nutrition of Merino ewes during pregnancy increases birthweight and this leads to improved survival of their progeny.

Defining the nature of the relationship between change in liveweight throughout a breeding cycle and ewe wool production and reproduction would be useful for developing management guidelines for Merino ewes. In this paper we tested the hypotheses that (1) feed on offer has variable effects on liveweight profiles of individual ewes; and (2) liveweight profiles of individual ewes can be used to predict their fleece wool production and reproductive performance. At sites in Victoria and Western Australia in 2001 and 2002, pregnant Merino ewes were exposed to 10 nutritional treatments. In each of the four experiments, ewes in average condition score 3 at artificial insemination were fed to achieve either maintenance or loss of a condition score over the first 100 days of pregnancy before grazing one of five levels of feed on offer between Day 100 and lamb weaning. Across all four experiments, the average difference in ewe liveweight between extreme treatments was: 7.0 kg (range 4.7–8.7 kg) at Day 100 of pregnancy; 11.9 kg (range 4.9–17.8 kg) at lambing; and by weaning was 13.9 kg (range 8.8–22.7 kg). Liveweight at joining and liveweight change during pregnancy and lactation of individual Merino ewes were significantly related to their clean fleece weight, fibre diameter and staple length and thus the second hypothesis was supported. Heavier ewes at joining produced more wool that was longer and broader and this effect was consistent across both sites and years. A 10-kg loss in ewe liveweight between joining and mid pregnancy, mid pregnancy and lambing or during lactation reduced clean fleece weight by 0.4–0.7 kg and fibre diameter by 0.5–1.4 um. At the Victorian site, where ewes were shorn in summer, a loss of 10 kg in liveweight between joining and Day 100 of pregnancy reduced staple strength by 5 N/ktex. As expected the influence of food on offer on changes in ewe liveweight was different between years and sites and between late pregnancy and lactation due to a complex group of pasture and animal factors. Therefore, managing changes in ewe liveweight itself rather than feed on offer will achieve more predictable outcomes. A higher liveweight at joining resulted in a predictable improvement in ewe reproductive rate and liveweight at joining was more important than the liveweight profile leading up to joining. This paper has shown that it is possible to predict the differences in wool production and reproductive rate of flocks of Merino ewes if ewe liveweight records at key times are known.

The profitable production of lamb from pasture-based systems is dependent on high levels of pasture production being efficiently utilised by sheep of superior genetic merit. Pastures that can extend the pasture-growing season and provide high quality feed in late spring and summer have the potential to increase production efficiency and the proportion of lambs that meet market specifications. In this paper we tested the hypothesis that arrowleaf clover (cv. Arrotas), a cultivar selected for late maturity, would supply feed of higher nutritive value than conventional annual legumes and perennial ryegrass mixtures during December and January and this would improve lamb growth rates over this period. Two experiments were conducted to compare the nutritive value of pasture and growth rates of lambs grazing arrowleaf clover, subterranean clover (cv. Leura) or subterranean clover/perennial ryegrass mixtures at different stocking rates during late spring and early summer in south-west Victoria. In the second experiment an arrowleaf clover/perennial ryegrass treatment was also included. Lambs were removed from the plots when they could no longer maintain liveweight. Arrowleaf clover extended the growing season by 4–6 weeks and provided feed of significantly higher digestibility than subterranean clover during December and January. The digestibility of arrowleaf and perennial ryegrass was comparable, but arrowleaf had significantly higher crude protein content during this period. Lambs grazing arrowleaf clover at stocking rates up to 24 lambs/ha grew at or above 100 g/day until the end of January, whereas lambs grazing subterranean clover and perennial ryegrass mixed pastures could not maintain weight by mid-to-late December in both years and were removed from the pastures. At the highest stocking rates total lamb production from arrowleaf clover monoculture pastures in late spring and early summer was ~400 kg liveweight/ha, and was more than double that achieved from the subterranean clover and perennial ryegrass/subterranean clover mixed pastures. The perennial ryegrass/arrowleaf clover mixed pastures in the second experiment produced a similar quantity of lamb per hectare as the arrowleaf clover monoculture pastures at the same stocking rate. In this paper we demonstrated that late-maturing arrowleaf clover can be a profitable, special purpose lamb-finishing pasture. Arrowleaf clover was most suited to more elevated parts of the landscape where estimated carrying capacity was 20 to 40% greater than that from lower lying parts of the landscape that were more subject to water logging and weed infestation. The risks of including arrowleaf clover pastures into the farming system could be reduced by direct drilling arrowleaf clover, which has relatively poor winter production, into existing perennial ryegrass pastures.

Selection against fatness in the Australian sheep industry has been a priority, but defining the true value of fat requires an understanding of the effects it has on both the value of lamb carcasses and on sheep productivity. A Merino flock with 10 years of reproduction data was used to analyse the correlation between breeding values for fatness at yearling age (YFAT) and the number of lambs born per ewe mated (NLB). In 2 production years, NLB was related (P < 0.01) to YFAT resulting in an extra 14 or 24.5 lambs born per 100 ewes mated per mm of YFAT. Based on these relationships, bio-economic modelling was used to assess the whole-farm value of YFAT for different sheep production systems and for years representing a low, medium and high response of NLB to YFAT. The changes in whole-farm profitability for a 1-mm increase in YFAT varied from $1000 (2%) for a wool enterprise with a low response up to $44 000 (25%) for a lamb enterprise with a high response. Appropriate carcass value discounts for higher YFAT were investigated but were not evident because of the small change in GR fat depth associated with the range of YFAT investigated. In most years there is no impact of YFAT on NLB and therefore profitability, yet in years where Merino ewes with higher YFAT produce higher NLB, ewes with an extra 1 mm of YFAT will be up to 25% more profitable. Therefore, care is required in determining the appropriate selection pressure to be placed on YFAT in Merino selection.

Eleven windbreaks (Monterey cypress, Monterey pine, tuart, sugar gum, black wattle and mixed native species) were studied in south-west Victoria. Windrun (U) was measured with cup anemometers set above ground (Z) at 1.5 m and 0.5 m (eight windbreaks), 1.5 m (two windbreaks), or 0.5 and 0.25 m (0.95 m mesh). The U pattern (U/U0, where U0 is open windspeed) was: (1) to windward, a shelter effect to at least –3 H, (where H means windbreak height) with a reduction of 20% or more at –1 H and (2) to lee, Xmin (position of minimum windspeed, Umin) from 1–7 H; Umin (minimum U/Uo) varied with windbreak density; and XS (distance where U/U0 is

Two lines of Melilotus albus (Medik) of different maturity and morphological characteristics were subjected to 6 cutting regimes ranging from a single cut in March (2002) to 6 cuts between mid-October (2001) and March (2002). The yield of the late maturing, tall line, H11743 (B) was more than 13 t/ha of dry matter for the season, which was achieved with either 1 or 2 cuts. Dry matter production decreased as the number of cuts increased, with production reduced to 6 t/ha when it was cut every month between October and March inclusive. The early maturing, more prostrate genotype, Adela (E) was similarly affected by cutting regime; however, its production was lower, ranging between 4 and 6 t/ha for the season. Seed yields were not seriously affected in H11743 when it was cut until December, before allowing the plants to grow until maturity. Continuing to cut into January and February severely decreased seed yields. Seed yields for Adela were lower but followed a similar pattern to H11743. When Adela was cut every month from October until January or later it produced very little seed. Seedling regeneration closely followed seed yields, being highest (4000 seedlings/m2) with 2 cuts and being adequate (more than 2000 seedlings/m2) for both lines when the last cut was in December. Seed softened gradually over time after maturity in February, and from the end of August onwards the residual hard seed remained relatively stable at around 10% with no differences in seed softening rates between the 2 lines. The results suggest that if persistence is to be achieved, defoliation of annual Melilotus albus will have to be stopped around January or the grazing pressure will have to be substantially reduced to allow seed set and regeneration. The late maturing genotype produced more dry matter and regenerated better than the early type, regardless of cutting regime.

Soil salinity of non-irrigated farmlands in Australia has been largely attributed to tree clearing and their replacement by annual pasture and crop species. This paper deals with the effects of sowing perennial ryegrass and greater inputs of fertiliser, and the effect of grazing management, on water use and the potential to improve recharge control on a gravelly soil derived from basalt.In 1991, neutron access tubes were inserted into plots on a project established in 1989 to examine the impact of upgrading the pasture on sheep productivity. These plots were subdivided in 1996 to examine the impact of grazing management (tactical v. set-stocking) and pasture type (pastures dominated by annual species v. upgraded pastures) on productivity. Neutron probe readings were taken periodically from tubes in each plot, at depth intervals of 25 cm (December 1991–March 1995) or 20 cm (August 1995–April 1999) to 170 cm. There was no effect of treatment on soil moisture. Data for 2 wet years (1995 and 1996) indicate that the effective soil-water storage capacity to 170 cm depth for these pastures was a mean of 125 mm of water. This represents the potential buffer before winter rainfall exceeds the water use by the pasture, fills the soil profile to capacity and then either runs off or allows deep drainage to occur.We did not achieve a significant reduction in soil-water storage, and therefore potential recharge of groundwater, by re-sowing the pasture with perennial ryegrass and applying more fertiliser, or by altering the grazing management to a form of rotational grazing. Compared with set-stocked annual pasture, the impact of such treatments was to reduce soil-water storage to a depth of 170 cm in autumn by less than 20 mm/year. There was no association between total herbage production and soil-water storage, however an increased percentage of perennial ryegrass in the pasture was associated with a small reduction in soil-water storage in 1 year. Greater use of soil-water may depend upon using deeper-rooted perennials or maintaining a higher proportion of perennial species in the sward (the perennial ryegrass in the re-sown pastures declined from 53% in October 1996 to 4% in October 1998).

Ryegrass species are among the most important species in sown pastures, turf settings, and weed populations worldwide. Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) is an outcrossing, wind-pollinated grass. Recent research has demonstrated the feasibility of developing transgenic perennial ryegrass varieties. In order to model the consequences of gene flow from transgenic grass genotypes in a field situation, the model non-transgenic trait of fertility among autotetraploid genotypes was chosen. Gene flow over distance and direction from a donor plot to surrounding sexually compatible recipient plants was studied. Reproductive isolation was achieved through the fertility barrier that arises between tetraploid and diploid ryegrass genotypes, despite the presence of diploid plants in a meadow situation. Fertility was used as an indication of effective gene flow over distance and direction. Measures of the fertility of recipient plants included total seed production (TSP), floret site utilisation (FSU), and relative fertility of recipient plants as a percentage of those within the donor plot (RF%). A leptokurtic distribution for gene flow was identified, with differences in the rate of decline over distance depending on direction. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) polymorphism was used to identify the paternity of progeny plants. The proportional representation of parents among the progeny was not significantly different from that expected due to the numerical representation of the different donor parent genotypes. The results of this research will have important implications for risk analysis prior to the field release of transgenic ryegrasses, fescues, and other pasture grass species, and for seed production in terms of cultivar purity and optimum isolation distance.

The effects of combinations of different fertiliser rates and grazing methods applied to phalaris-based pastures on an acid, saline, yellow sodosol on the Dundas Tablelands of western Victoria (mean annual rainfall 623�mm) were measured from 1997 to 2000. The objective was to help identify management systems that improve phalaris growth and persistence, water use, and animal production, and thereby the productivity and sustainability of grazing systems. Pastures were either set stocked with low [mean 6.4 kg phosphorus (P)/ha.year] or high (mean 25 kg P/ha.year) fertiliser rates, or rotationally grazed with high fertiliser (mean 25 kg P/ha.year). Rotational grazing was implemented as either a simple '4-paddock' system (fixed rotation length), or a more intensive system where rotation length varied with pasture growth rate. Unreplicated paddocks of volunteer pasture (dominated by onion grass and annual grass weeds) receiving an average of 8 kg P/ha.year were also monitored. All treatments were stocked with spring-lambing Merino ewes. Stocking rate was an emergent property of each treatment, and was driven by pasture quality and availability. Total pasture herbage accumulation ranged from 7150 to 9750 kg DM/ha.year and was significantly lower on the set-stocked, low-fertility treatment than on all other treatments. A significant treatment.day effect in the spline analysis of herbage mass was explained by a trend toward higher pasture mass in the rotationally grazed treatments than set-stocked treatments from the break of season until mid-spring. Rotational grazing led to significantly higher phalaris herbage accumulation than set stocking (mean 3680 v. 2120 kg DM/ha.year), but significantly lower subterranean clover herbage accumulation (1440 v. 2490 kg DM/ha.year). Despite the stronger growth of deep-rooted phalaris in the rotationally grazed treatments, maximum soil water deficits at the end of summer differed only slightly between treatments, with the difference between driest and wettest treatments amounting to only 14 mm. Summer growth of phalaris was apparently insufficient to generate significant differences in soil water extraction at depth, even when phalaris content was increased by rotational grazing, and re-wetting of the soil profile occurred at a similar rate for all treatments. Rotationally grazed treatments supported higher stocking rates than set-stocked treatments at high fertiliser rates (mean 14.9 v. 13.7 ewes/ha), but apparent losses in pasture feeding value due to lower legume content under rotational grazing meant that there were few significant differences between treatments in lamb production per hectare. The experiment showed that grazing method can have a substantial and rapid effect on pasture botanical composition. There are clear opportunities for producers to use temporal and spatial combinations of set stocking and rotational grazing to manipulate herbage mass and pasture composition within broad target ranges for achieving both animal production (e.g. high per-head animal performance) and sustainability (e.g. persistence of perennial grasses) objectives. Rigid application of either set stocking or rotational grazing imposes limitations on both pasture and animal production, and neither grazing method will optimise system performance under all conditions. The experiment also demonstrated that management and land-use changes that have much greater potential to increase water use than those examined here will be needed to ensure the sustainability of pasture systems in the high rainfall zone of western Victoria.

Dryland salinity is a serious problem in Australia. While some introduced perennial grasses such as tall wheat grass (TWG) Thinopyrum ponticum (Podp. Z.W. Liu & R.R.C. Wang) are adapted to saline soils, there are few pasture legumes that are productive and persistent under saline conditions. Melilotus albus (Medik.) has the potential to be 1 such legume in southern Australia. To test the potential of this species, we conducted 2 experiments over a 3-year period on saline soils at Woorndoo and Glenthompson in south-western Victoria. The soil electrical conductivities (1 : 5 water) of the sites, in autumn before sowing, were 1–3 dS/m at Woorndoo and 3–5 dS/m at Glenthompson (0–10 cm depth).At both sites the herbage yields of 2 Melilotus lines were greater than 10 t/ha of dry matter for the whole season between autumn and late summer. The best commercial control species at Woorndoo, white clover cv. Haifa, produced less than 1/6 of the yield of the best Melilotus line during the summer months. At Glenthompson, during the whole second season the herbage yield of the best Melilotus was 40% greater than that of the best commercial control, Persian clover cv. Nitro plus. In the second season, regeneration of Melilotus at both sites was excellent, averaging 3500 seedlings/m2 at Woorndoo, and 1100 and 3400 seedlings/m2 in mixtures with TWG and in monoculture, respectively at Glenthompson. In the third season, however, regeneration averaged only 400 plants/m2 at Woorndoo and 640 plants/m2 at Glenthompson, both with and without grass. It appears that, when there is limited competition, Melilotus albus dominates in the first 2 years. However, as fertility and water use increase, other pasture species, which initially have a low rate of survival and are unproductive, begin to increase their presence in the sward at the expense of M. albus. These annual species germinate after the autumn rains dilute the salt on the surface of the soil and senesce in early summer as soil water deficits and/or evaporation increase the electrical conductivity again. We suggest that Melilotus albus is an excellent pasture legume to revegetate saline soils in southern Australia and represents an opportunity to obtain high levels of out-of-season pasture production from areas that are currently unproductive.

Genetic variation for seed mass and components of early vigour were measured on 120 seedlings of each of 18 diploid and 27 tetraploid perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) cultivars. Seeds of tetraploid cultivars were on average heavier (3.8 mg) than seed of diploid cultivars (2.4 mg). However, there was variation for mean seed mass both within and between ploidy classes and within cultivars. The components of early vigour measured on each of the seedlings were: date of emergence, leaf appearance rate, seedling height (10 days after germination), leaf length and width and dry matter at 33 days after emergence. Mean seed mass of a cultivar was significantly (P

Changes in soil pH from a long-term experiment at Hamilton, Vic., associated with time, fertiliser application, and stocking rate were assessed. The pH was measured in a 1 :5 suspension of soil in water (pHW) from 1980 onwards and in a 1:5 suspension of soil in 0.01 M CaCl2 (pHCa) from 1984 onwards. Topsoils (0–10 cm) were sampled regularly from 1980 to 1999, and the soil profile to a depth of 80 cm in 1994. The site was sown to perennial ryegrass, phalaris, and subterranean clover in 1977. Treatments fertilised with different amounts of superphosphate were grazed by sheep at stocking rates of 7–19 dry sheep equivalents (DSE)/ha. Average applications of phosphorus (P) ranged from 0.5 to 38.7 kg P/ha.year. The pHCa of the topsoil in 1984 was 4.9. It decreased at an average rate of 0.005 pHCa or 0.008 pHW units/year, with little variation due to fertiliser or stocking rate. Measurements in 1994 revealed subtle but statistically significant (P < 0.01) trends in soil pHCa that were associated with grazing pressure, inputs of fertiliser, and whether or not areas sampled were used by the sheep for camping. The top 0–5 cm of soil was slightly less acidic (+0.07 pHCa units) in the camp areas compared with non-camp areas. Below 5 cm to a depth of 80 cm, camp areas were more acidic (–0.19 pHCa units). At the highest stocking rates, heavier applications of superphosphate were associated with greater subsoil acidity: –0.06 pHCa units per 100 kg phosphorus (P) applied. There was no relationship at medium stocking rates. At low stocking rates, higher P applications were associated with more alkaline subsoils. Net removal of product from 1979 to 1994 (wool and meat removed from plots and excreta transferred to camps) was estimated to be equivalent to 140–380 kg/ha of lime over this 15-year period. The organic carbon (OC) content of the topsoil did not change over 20 years of records from 1979, and was unaffected by inputs of P. In 1994, the OC content of the 0–5 cm layer of topsoil was greater than the 5–10 cm layer (mean values 5.5% and 3.8% respectively; P < 0.001). The OC content of camp areas was higher than that of non-camp areas, this difference being more pronounced in the 0–5 cm layer (P < 0.01). It was concluded that the rate of change of pH was slow because of the high pH buffering capacity of the soil, the small amount of alkalinity removed in product, and the generally high perennial grass content of the pastures. Soils shown to be at greatest risk of acidification from this study were those under camp areas, and where high fertiliser rates were applied to pastures with a low perennial grass content. Rotational grazing should diminish these problems by reducing the concentration of excreta in camp areas, and favouring perennials over annuals in both camp and non-camp areas. Inputs of lime may eventually be needed to compensate for the acidifying effect of product removal.

A review of 7 recently published perennial ryegrass cultivar trials (from 6 contrasting environments) with data expressed as an aggregate of seasonal harvests (autumn, winter, spring, and summer) revealed that the l.s.d. (P = 0.05) varied between 4 and 255% of the mean herbage yield of the trial in a given season, with 56 of 72 data points having an l.s.d. (P = 0.05) >10% of the trial mean. Power analysis of a perennial ryegrass trial that was conducted at Heywood (Vic.) from 1997 to 1998, with a 16% apparent difference in the total yield of a new synthetic and commercial cultivars, demonstrated that this difference would have only been detected 45% of the time. However, if the number of replications in the trial was increased from 4 to 8, then it was predicted that this difference would have been detected 70% of the time. In response to the data from this experiment, a trial was sown in 1999 that compared 4, 6, and 8 replicates to detect differences in the herbage yield of perennial ryegrass cultivars. In this trial, differences that were detected (P < 0.05) with 8 replicates would have routinely gone undetected when 4 or 6 replicate combinations were used. The use of a row–column design on the 8 replicates of the trial reduced the error variance of the trial by 5–12%, depending on the harvest. It was concluded that current pasture cultivar trials are routinely failing to detect differences between cultivars at an adequate level, given the rates of genetic gain in pasture species. In order to increase this precision, the number of replicates in a trial should be optimised on the basis of past data and the likely difference between control and test cultivars. Once the number of replications in a trial has been optimised then the use of row–column, or nearest neighbour designs, and analysis, will further increase precision for little extra cost.

Relationships between amounts of superphosphate applied to pasture and stocking rate on available nutrient status were assessed from 1979 to 2000 on a chromosol derived from basalt at Hamilton, Victoria. The pastures were stocked with sheep at low, medium, or high grazing pressures in factorial combination with 6 levels of superphosphate. Overall annual amounts of single superphosphate (8.8% P, 11% S, 19% Ca) applied ranged from 0.4 to 36 kg P/ha. Potassium chloride (KCl) was applied to all plots periodically. Average stocking rates ranged from 7 to 19 dry sheep equivalents (DSE)/ha. The nutrient status of plots was monitored by sampling the soil to a depth of 10 cm, avoiding the areas used by the sheep for camping. In 1994, samples of topsoil (0–5 cm and 5–10 cm) were taken from the camp areas and non-camp areas in each plot in order to assess 'plant-available' P, S, and extractable cations. Changes in P and S with depth to 80 cm in high and low grazing pressure treatments were also assessed. The influence of cumulative P applied on Olsen P varied with time and grazing pressure. During the first 12–15 years, the Olsen P of high grazing pressure plots was greater than that of low grazing pressure plots, but subsequently the reverse has been the case. Plant-available S also increased where more superphosphate had been applied. Levels were greater than 7 mg S/kg soil except at the lowest level of superphosphate, indicating that forms of P fertiliser with less S could be used here. After initial applications of KCl, this fertiliser was not applied for 8 years. During this time the K status fell from 270 to 120 mg K/kg soil, just above where plant responses to K are likely, emphasising the need to monitor the K status of productive pastures on these soils. Levels of exchangeable Mg2+ fell as more superphosphate was used, whereas levels of Ca2+ rose. The Olsen P of soil deeper than 10 cm was always less than 5 mg P/kg soil. P supply to deep-rooted pasture plants may thus be limiting when the topsoil is dry. These results, together with published assessments of animal production at this site, show that for pastures fertilised annually, the Olsen P associated with the most profit varied from 7 mg P/kg soil at 7 ewes/ha (10.5 DSE/ha), to 14 mg P/kg soil at 18 ewes/ha.

The effects of 2 tree windbreaks on pasture production in adjoining paddocks were assessed over 4 years in a cool-temperate climate, perennial pasture area in south-western Victoria, Australia. The Willandra windbreak was 2 rows of direct-sown black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) aligned south-east–north-west. The Helm View windbreak was 4 rows of mixed Eucalyptus, Casuarina and Acacia spp., aligned east–west. Pastures at both sites had been sown to perennial ryegrass and subterranean clover. Wind direction data indicated that the north-eastern and south-western paddocks at Willandra were sheltered 39 and 28% of the time, respectively. The northern and southern paddocks at Helm View were sheltered 34 and 42% of the time, respectively. The relationship of rainfall with wind speed and direction was examined to indicate the potential of windbreaks of various orientations to protect livestock. The windbreaks had clear effects on pasture production in the competition zone along the margins of the windbreak. Average pasture production at Willandra in the zone 0.5–0.75 H (where H is the windbreak height) was 69% of open yield; production in the 0.9–1.5 H zone was 96%. At Helm View, production in the zone 0.7–1.0 H was 74% of open yield, with 81% in the zone 1.1–1.5 H. Averaged over all years, both windbreaks had no effect on pasture growth in the 2–10 H sheltered zone, although in some years there were small significant growth increases at parts of that zone in certain paddocks. Periodic soil moisture measurements at Willandra showed that water use was greater in the competition zone near the windbreak, with a difference in summer water content of the 1.2 m profile of at least 20 mm between soil 4.6 m from the windbreak and further away. The difference was due to greater water use from the deepest part of the profile. No other effects of the windbreak on soil water content were observed.