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PGD2, a lipid mediator released from mast cells, is known to participate in allergic reactions. However, the mechanism by which PGD2 contributes to such reactions remains unclear. We established a novel experimental model of asthma that permitted direct assessment of the role of PGD2 in airway inflammation. Antigen-sensitized mice were exposed to aerosolized prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) 1 d before challenge with low-dose aerosolized antigen. Not only the numbers of eosinophils, lymphocytes, and macrophages but also the levels of IL-4 and IL-5 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were higher in PGD2-pretreated mice than in control mice. The expression of macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC), a chemoattractant for Th2 cells, was greater in PGD2-pretreated mice than in control. Injection of anti-MDC antibody into PGD2-pretreated mice markedly inhibited inflammatory cell infiltration as well as Th2 cyto-kine production after antigen challenge. These results indicate that PGD2 accelerates Th2 type inflammation by induction of MDC. Our results suggest that this mechanism may play a key role in the development of human asthma and that MDC might be a target molecule for therapeutic intervention.

The helper (Th)2 cell-attracting chemokines thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC)4 and macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC) are ligands for the chemokine receptor CCR4. A number of cellular sources of TARC and MDC have been identified, including not only macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells, but also bronchial epithelial cells. Recent studies report that TARC and MDC may serve as pivotal chemokines for the development of Th2-dominated experimental allergen-induced asthma. This study was designed to assess TARC and MDC production by CD4+ T cells, including naive T cells and memory/effector T cells, purified from peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients with asthma. Asthmatic subjects included in this study had mild asthmatic symptoms, positive skin test responses to house dust mite allergen, and elevated level of Dermatophagoides farinae immunoglobulin E in the sera. CD4+ T cells—CD45RA+CD4+ T cells—as naive T cells and CD45RO+CD4+ T cells—as memory/effector T cells—were purified by negative selection from peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained from asthmatic patients (n = 6) and healthy controls (n = 6). These cells and established Th1/Th2 cell lines were then cultured in the presence of both anti-CD3 and -CD28 antibodies. After 48 hr of incubation, concentrations of TARC, MDC, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and interferon-γ in the supernatants were measured by enzyme-linked immunoadsorbent assay. Reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction was performed to analyze mRNA expression of TARC and MDC. Our results clearly showed that TARC and MDC were produced by activated CD45RA+CD4+ T cells rather than by activated CD45RO+CD4+ T cells, and the levels of these chemokines in the asthmatic patients were higher than those in the healthy controls. Furthermore, these chemokines production by Th2 cell lines were greater than those by Th1 cell lines, but the level were smaller than those by naive T cells. Our studies suggest that TARC and MDC are produced by naive T cells rather than by memory/effector T cells, including Th2 cells, in asthmatic patients, and these chemokines were produced at modest levels in any T-cell populations from healthy controls. Taken together, naive T cells in asthma have a peculiar function to produce TRAC and MDC, which contribute to local migration of Th2 cells into lung and lymphoid tissues, along with a function as precursor for memory/effector T cell. This novel function of naive T cells may be implicated in the development of asthma.

Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies in both animals and patients with asthma have shown that interleukin (IL)-9 is an important inflammatory mediator in asthma. To examine the effects of IL-9 antagonism on airway inflammation, ovalbumin-sensitized BALB/c mice were intravenously given anti-IL-9 antibody or an isotype-matched control antibody 30 minutes before challenge with aerosolized ovalbumin. Airway response to methacholine was measured, and samples of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were obtained 24 hours after the last antigen challenge. Lung tissue was harvested and examined histopathologically. After ovalbumin challenge, there were significant increases in airway hyperreactivity, the numbers of inflammatory cells in lung, and IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 production in BALF. Treatment with anti-IL-9 antibody significantly prevented airway hyperreactivity in response to methacholine inhalation. Blockade of IL-9 reduced the numbers of eosinophils (0.3 +/- 0.1 x 10(5) and 23.6 +/- 0.5 x 10(5)/ml, anti-IL-9 antibody/control immunoglobulin G) and lymphocytes (0.2 +/- 0.2 x 10(5) and 0.8 +/- 0.1 x 10(5)/ml) in BALF. Anti-IL-9 antibody treatment also reduced the concentrations of IL-4 (from 70.6 +/- 4.6 to 30.8 +/- 5.2 pg/ml), IL-5 (from 106.4 +/- 12 to 54.4 +/- 6.6 pg/ml), and IL-13 (from 44.2 +/- 7.6 to 30.1 +/- 5.5 pg/ml) in BALF. Macrophage-derived cytokine expression in the airways was also decreased by IL-9 blockade. Taken together, our findings emphasize the importance of IL-9 in the pathogenesis of asthma and suggest that blockade of IL-9 may be a new therapeutic strategy for bronchial asthma.

The helper (Th)2 cell-attracting chemokines thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC) and macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC) are ligands for the chemokine receptor CCR4. A number of cellular sources of TARC and MDC have been identified, including not only macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells, but also bronchial epithelial cells. Recent studies report that TARC and MDC may serve as pivotal chemokines for the development of Th2-dominated experimental allergen-induced asthma. This study was designed to assess TARC and MDC production by CD4+ T cells, including naive T cells and memory/effector T cells, purified from peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients with asthma. Asthmatic subjects included in this study had mild asthmatic symptoms, positive skin test responses to house dust mite allergen, and elevated level of Dermatophagoides farinae immunoglobulin E in the sera. CD4+ T cells--CD45RA+ CD4+ T cells--as naive T cells and CD45RO+ CD4+ T cells--as memory/effector T cells--were purified by negative selection from peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained from asthmatic patients (n = 6) and healthy controls (n = 6). These cells and established Th1/Th2 cell lines were then cultured in the presence of both anti-CD3 and -CD28 antibodies. After 48 hr of incubation, concentrations of TARC, MDC, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and interferon-gamma in the supernatants were measured by enzyme-linked immunoadsorbent assay. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction was performed to analyze mRNA expression of TARC and MDC. Our results clearly showed that TARC and MDC were produced by activated CD45RA+ CD4+ T cells rather than by activated CD45RO+ CD4+ T cells, and the levels of these chemokines in the asthmatic patients were higher than those in the healthy controls. Furthermore, these chemokines production by Th2 cell lines were greater than those by Th1 cell lines, but the level were smaller than those by naive T cells. Our studies suggest that TARC and MDC are produced by naive T cells rather than by memory/effector T cells, including Th2 cells, in asthmatic patients, and these chemokines were produced at modest levels in any T-cell populations from healthy controls. Taken together, naive T cells in asthma have a peculiar function to produce TRAC and MDC, which contribute to local migration of Th2 cells into lung and lymphoid tissues, along with a function as precursor for memory/effector T cell. This novel function of naive T cells may be implicated in the development of asthma.

Alveolar epithelial cells produce many types of chemokines such as regulated on activation, normal T cells expressed and secreted (RANTES), eotaxin induced by interleukin (IL)-1 beta, or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and may contribute to allergic disease by recruiting eosinophils. However, identification of the eosinophil chemotacic activity (ECA) release from A549 cells, an alveolar type II cell line, has not yet been completed. Recently, IL-16 was also reported to be a potent chemotactic stimulus for CD4(+) T lymphocytes and eosinophils in asthma and other pulmonary diseases. To test the possibility that alveolar epithelial cells produce IL-16, we analyzed RNA and culture supernatant from A549 cells by reverse transcription/ polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The release of ECA from A549 cells was assessed using a blind-well chemotactic chamber. IL-16 release was increased in a concentration-dependent manner by stimulation with IL-1 beta or TNF-alpha. A549 cells also expressed IL-16 messenger RNA. The combination of IL-4 and IL-1 beta or TNF-alpha had an additive effect on IL-16 production. The release of ECA was induced by IL-1 beta or TNF-alpha in a dose-dependent manner. The combination of these cytokines had a greater effect than one alone. The blockade of eotaxin and IL-16 caused 70% inhibition of ECA, but anti-RANTES antibodies only caused 30% inhibition and anti-IL-8 antibodies failed to affect inhibition. These findings suggest a role for chemokines released by alveolar epithelial cells in the recruitment of eosinophils into the lung in pulmonary disorders such as asthma and interstitial lung diseases, and suggested that eotaxin and IL-16 are potent and effective eosinophil chemoattractants.

Tranilast has long been used clinically to treat allergic diseases such as bronchial asthma. To further clarify the antiinflammatory machanism, we examined the ability of tranilast to counteract the prolongation of eosinophil survival induced by interleukin (IL)-5. Tranilast reduced the IL-5 prolonged survival of eosinophils at the concentration range of 30 microg/ml to 100 microg/ml. The DNA extracted from eosinophils cultured with tranilast showed signs of fragmentation that was comparable with apoptosis. Electron-microscopic analysis of activated eosinophils cultured with 100 microg/ml of tranilast also revealed morphologic features of apoptosis. These data suggest that tranilast may act in vivo on activated eosinophils to reduce inflammation in allergic diseases.

Previous studies have suggested that bronchial epithelial cells may perpetuate airway inflammation. We have reported that the bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS-2B can produce interleukin (IL)-16, a potent chemoattractant for CD4+ T cells. IL-16 is thought to regulate airway inflammation in asthmatics. Recent studies showed that IL-4 induces inflammatory cytokines in bronchial epithelial cells and that IL-9 is a candidate gene for development of asthma. The present study demonstrated that BEAS-2B cells produced specifically IL-16 by synergistic effects of IL-4 + IL-16, or IL-9 + IL-16, and that the synthesized IL-16 induced migration of CD4+ T cells. This study is a first report indicating that IL-16 production may be maintained by an autocrine machinery by epithelial cell-derived IL-16 with IL-4 and IL-9 in asthma.