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Autofertility describes the ability of faba bean flowers to self-fertilize thereby ensuring the productivity of this crop in the absence of pollinators or mechanical disturbance. In the legume crop faba bean (Vicia faba L.), lack of autofertility in a context of insufficient pollination can lead to a severe decrease in grain yield. Here we performed the first QTL analysis aimed at identifying the genomic regions controlling autofertility in this crop. We combined pod and seed setting scores from a recombinant inbred population (RIL) segregating for autofertility in different environments and years with measurements of morphological floral traits and pollen production and viability. This approach revealed 19 QTLs co-localizing in six genomic regions. Extensive co-localization was evident for various floral features whose QTLs clustered in chrs. I, II and V, while other QTLs in chrs. III, IV and VI revealed co-localization of flower characteristics and pod and seed set data. The percentage of phenotypic variation explained by the QTLs ranged from 8.9 for style length to 25.7 for stigma angle. In the three QTLs explaining the highest phenotypic variation (R 2 > 20), the marker alleles derived from the autofertile line Vf27. We further inspected positional candidates identified by these QTLs which represent a valuable resource for further validation. Our results advance the understanding of autofertility in faba bean and will aid the identification of responsible genes for genomic-assisted breeding in this crop.

Despite increased focus on elucidating the various reproductive strategies employed by orchids, we still have only a rather limited understanding of deceptive pollination systems that are not bee- or wasp-mediated. In Europe, the orchid Neotinea ustulata has been known to consist of two phenologically divergent varieties, neither of which provide rewards to its pollinators. However, detailed studies of their reproductive biology have been lacking. Our study aimed to characterize and understand the floral traits (i.e., morphology, color, and scent chemistry) and reproductive biology of N. ustulata. We found that the two varieties differ in all their floral traits; furthermore, while Neotinea ustulata var. ustulata appears to be pollinated by both bees (e.g., Anthophora, Bombus) and flies (e.g., Dilophus, Tachina), var. aestivalis is pollinated almost entirely by flies (i.e., Nowickia, Tachina). Tachinids were also found to be much more effective than bees in removing pollinaria, and we show experimentally that they use the characteristic dark inflorescence top as a cue for approaching inflorescences. Our results thus suggest that while both N. ustulata varieties rely on tachinids for pollination, they differ in their degree of specialization. Further studies are, however, needed to fully understand the reproductive strategy of N. ustulata varieties., publishedVersion

Background: Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) is a famous flower with high ornamental value. Flower color and flower morphology are two main factors for flower lotus breeding. Petaloid is a universal phenomenon in lotus flowers. However, the genetic regulation of floral organ petaloid in lotus still remains unclear. Results: In this study, the transcriptomic analysis was performed among five organs, including petal, stamen petaloid, stamen, carpel petaloid, and carpel in lotus. 812 annotated DEGs related to carpel petaloid were identified. Our study showed that DNA methylation may be involved in regulating carpel petaloid. To identify the patterns of gene expression in the petaloid process using WGCNA analysis, 37 candidate genes were found to be related to carpel petaloid. Additionally, one floral homeotic gene encoded by MADS box transcription factor, AGAMOUS (AG), was identified as the candidate gene for petaloid in lotus. Meanwhile, a predicted labile boundary in floral organs of N. nucifera was hypothesized. Conclusions: In summary, the above results explored the candidate genes related to carpel petaloid, setting a theoretical basis for the molecular regulation of petaloid phenotype.

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Wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris Gmel Hegi) is dioecious with male and female plants, whereas domesticated grapevine is mostly hermaphrodite with self-fertile hermaphrodite flowers. The pollen morphology of wild grapevine has been poorly studied. There is no detailed palynological study of V. sylvestris in Croatia and neighboring countries. Here, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to analyze the pollen of V. sylvestris from male and female individuals growing at two natural sites in Croatia. The selective APT3 marker was used to confirm the flower phenotype with the genetic background. SEM analysis showed that the pollen grains of V. sylvestris were isopolar and radially symmetrical, with foveolate perforated ornamentation, regardless of the flower type of the individuals. All male flowers were 3-colporate and prolate in shape, whereas female individuals varied from subprolate to spheroidal and had inaperturate pollen grains. Pollen shape, dimensions and exine ornamentation proved very informative, and here we address the most polymorphic traits in the analyzed V. sylvestris individuals. Principal component analysis (PCA) and clustering based on pollen morphology variables clearly differentiated individuals by their flower type, and no grouping specific to population was observed, pointing to the conserved pollen structure of V. sylvestris. The results indicate the need to continue the palynological study of V. sylvestris and serve as a good phenotypic basis for functional genetic studies on genes involved in pollen morphology and function.

Floral nectar is considered the most important floral reward for attracting pollinators. It contains large amounts of carbohydrates besides variable concentrations of amino acids and thus represents an important food source for many pollinators. Its nutrient content and composition can, however, strongly vary within and between plant species. The factors driving this variation in nectar quality are still largely unclear. We investigated factors underlying interspecific variation in macronutrient composition of floral nectar in 34 different grassland plant species. Specifically, we tested for correlations between the phylogenetic relatedness and morphology of plants and the carbohydrate (C) and total amino acid (AA) composition and C:AA ratios of nectar. We found that compositions of carbohydrates and (essential) amino acids as well as C:AA ratios in nectar varied significantly within and between plant species. They showed no clear phylogenetic signal. Moreover, variation in carbohydrate composition was related to family-specific structural characteristics and combinations of morphological traits. Plants with nectar-exposing flowers, bowl- or parabolic-shaped flowers, as often found in the Apiaceae and Asteraceae, had nectar with higher proportions of hexoses, indicating a selective pressure to decelerate evaporation by increasing nectar osmolality. Our study suggests that variation in nectar nutrient composition is, among others, affected by family-specific combinations of morphological traits. However, even within species, variation in nectar quality is high. As nectar quality can strongly affect visitation patterns of pollinators and thus pollination success, this intra- and interspecific variation requires more studies to fully elucidate the underlying causes and the consequences for pollinator behaviour.

Rubber dandelion (Taraxacum kok-saghyz Rodin; TK) has received attention for its natural rubber content as a strategic biomaterial, and a promising, sustainable, and renewable alternative to synthetic rubber from fossil carbon sources. Extensive research on the domestication and rubber content of TK has demonstrated TK’s potential in industrial applications as a relevant natural rubber and latex-producing alternative crop. However, many aspects of its biology have been neglected in published studies. For example, floral development is still poorly characterized. TK inflorescences were studied by scanning electron microscopy. Nine stages of early inflorescence development are proposed, and floral micromorphology is detailed. Individual flower primordia development starts at the periphery and proceeds centripetally in the newly-formed inflorescence meristem. Floral organogenesis begins in the outermost flowers of the capitulum, with corolla ring and androecium formation. Following, pappus primordium—forming a ring around the base of the corolla tube—and gynoecium are observed. The transition from vegetative to inflorescence meristem was observed 21 days after germination. This description of inflorescence and flower development in TK sheds light on the complex process of flowering, pollination, and reproduction. This study will be useful for genetics, breeding, systematics, and development of agronomical practices for this new rubber-producing crop.

The family Nymphaeaceae includes most of the diversity among the ANA‐grade angiosperms. Among the species of this family, floral structures and pollination strategies are quite varied. The genus Victoria, as well as subgenera Lotos and Hydrocallis in Nymphaea, presents night‐blooming, scented flowers pollinated by scarab beetles. Such similar pollination strategies have led to macromorphological similarities among the flowers of these species, which could be interpreted as homologies or convergences based on different phylogenetic hypotheses about the relationships of these groups. We employed SEM of floral epidermis for seven species of the Nymphaeaceae with contrasting pollination biology to identify the main characters of the floral organs and the potential homologous nature of the structures involved in pollinator attraction. Moreover, we used TEM to observe ultrastructure of papillate‐conical epidermis in the stamen of Victoria cruziana. We then tested the phylogenetic or ecological distribution of these traits using both consensus network approaches and ancestral state reconstruction on fixed phylogenies. Our results show that the night‐blooming flowers present different specializations in their epidermis, with Victoria cruziana presenting the most elaborate floral anatomy. We also identify for the first time the presence of conical‐papillate cells in the order Nymphaeales. The epidermal characters tend to reflect phylogenetic relationships more than convergence due to pollinator selection. These results point to an independent and parallel evolution of scarab pollination in Nymphaeaceae, and show the promise of floral anatomy as a phylogenetic marker. Moreover, they indicate a degree of sophistication in the anatomical basis of cantharophilous flowers in the Nymphaeales that diverges from the most simplistic views of floral evolution in the angiosperms. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

International audience; The variation in the shape of flowers, the reproductive structures of angiosperms, is generally investigated in a qualitative way, or using multivariate statistical analyses of distance data (i.e. traditional morphometrics). In this study, we evaluate the application of geometric morphometric methods to flowers of herbarium specimens, a material that is still being massively overlooked as far as these methods are concerned. Flowers of Delphinieae (Ranunculaceae) are synorganized: the spurred and nectariferous dorsal petals are nested within the spur or hood of the dorsal sepal. The study of synorganized structures is challenging, and geometric morphometric-oriented investigation may provide working hypotheses for an evo-devo exploration of such hyperorgan formation. We analyze here the floral shape of Delphinieae using geometric morphometric methods and demonstrate the effectiveness of these methods on dry and compressed flowers. We also show the diagnostic value of the dorsal half of the perianth of the Delphinieae flower, and suggest some trends to help design future studies on the evolutionary development of spur formation and the co-evolution of Delphinieae flowers with their pollinators.

The transition to reproduction is a crucial step in the life cycle of any organism. In Arabidopsis thaliana the establishment of reproductive growth can be divided into two phases: Firstly, cauline leaves with axillary meristems are formed and internode elongation begins. Secondly, lateral meristems develop into flowers with defined organs. Floral shoots are usually determinate and suppress the development of lateral shoots. Here, we describe a transposon insertion mutant in the Nossen accession with defects in floral development and growth. Most strikingly is the outgrowth of stems from the axillary bracts of the primary flower carrying secondary flowers. Therefore, we named this mutant flower-in-flower (fif). However, the transposon insertion in the annotated gene is not the cause for the fif phenotype. By means of classical and genome sequencing-based mapping, the mutation responsible for the fif phenotype was found to be in the LEAFY gene. The mutation, a G-to-A exchange in the second exon of LEAFY, creates a novel lfy allele and results in a cysteine-to-tyrosine exchange in the α1-helix of LEAFY’s DNA-binding domain. This exchange abolishes target DNA-binding, whereas subcellular localization and homomerization are not affected. To explain the strong fif phenotype against these molecular findings, several hypotheses are discussed.

The transition to reproduction is a crucial step in the life cycle of any organism. In Arabidopsis thaliana the establishment of reproductive growth can be divided into two phases: Firstly, cauline leaves with axillary meristems are formed and internode elongation begins. Secondly, lateral meristems develop into flowers with defined organs. Floral shoots are usually determinate and suppress the development of lateral shoots. Here, we describe a transposon insertion mutant in the Nossen accession with defects in floral development and growth. Most strikingly is the outgrowth of stems from the axillary bracts of the primary flower carrying secondary flowers. Therefore, we named this mutant flower-in-flower (fif). However, the transposon insertion in the annotated gene is not the cause for the fif phenotype. By means of classical and genome sequencing-based mapping, the mutation responsible for the fif phenotype was found to be in the LEAFY gene. The mutation, a G-to-A exchange in the second exon of LEAFY, creates a novel lfy allele and results in a cysteine-to-tyrosine exchange in the &alpha, 1-helix of LEAFY&rsquo, s DNA-binding domain. This exchange abolishes target DNA-binding, whereas subcellular localization and homomerization are not affected. To explain the strong fif phenotype against these molecular findings, several hypotheses are discussed.

Despite intensive research, predicting pairwise species associations in pollination networks remains a challenge. The morphological fit between flowers and pollinators acts as a filter that allows only some species within the network to interact. Previous studies emphasized the depth of floral tubes as a key shape trait that explains the composition of their animal visitors. Yet, additional shape-related parameters, related to the handling difficulty of flowers, may be important as well. We analyzed a dataset of 2288 visits by six bee genera to 53 flowering species in a Mediterranean plant community. We characterized the plant species by five discrete shape parameters, which potentially affect their accessibility to insects: floral shape class, tube depth, symmetry, corolla segmentation and type of reproductive unit. We then trained a random forest machine-learning model to predict visitor identities, based on the shape traits. The model&rsquo, s predictor variables also included the Julian date on which each bee visit was observed and the year of observation, as proxies for within- and between-season variation in flower and bee abundance. The model attained a classification accuracy of 0.86 (AUC = 0.96). Using only shape parameters as predictors reduced its classification accuracy to 0.76 (AUC = 0.86), while using only the date and year variables resulted in a prediction accuracy of 0.69 (AUC = 0.80). Among the shape-related variables considered, flower shape class was the most important predictor of visitor identity in a logistic regression model. Our study demonstrates the power of machine-learning algorithms for understanding pollination interactions in a species-rich plant community, based on multiple features of flower morphology.

In this work, we compare the genetic differentiation and structure of populations of two closely related Centaurium species that display a large variation in floral morphology across two geographic regions in Europe. The populations of both species show opposite patterns of genetic differentiation and structure, and the patterns are reversed between the two regions. For both species, we find a strong link between these patterns and the differences in floral morphology observed in the sampled populations., The genetic diversity and structure of plant populations are determined by the interaction of three distinct processes: gene flow, genetic drift and natural selection. These processes are to some extent dependent on the mating system of plants, which in turn is largely determined by floral morphology and the level of herkogamy in particular. In this study, we used molecular markers to investigate the impact of floral morphology on genetic differentiation and structure in two closely related Centaurium species that display large variation in floral morphology across two distinct geographic regions in Europe (mainland Europe and the UK). Our results showed that genetic differences between regions and populations within regions were similar for both species, but that patterns of genetic structure largely depended on the observed variation in floral morphology. Populations of Centaurium erythraea showed higher genetic differentiation and clear isolation by distance (IBD) in mainland Europe, but limited IBD in the UK. Opposite patterns were found in Centaurium littorale, with higher genetic differentiation and significant IBD in populations sampled in the UK and lower genetic differentiation in Continental populations with no pattern of IBD. Overall, these results indicate that variation in floral morphology has a profound impact on structuring of genetic diversity, with populations displaying low levels of herkogamy showing the strongest patterns of genetic structuring and the reverse pattern in populations showing high levels of herkogamy.

The aim of the current study was to determine the floral phenology, nectar secretion dynamics, and honey production potentials of two naturally growing lavender species (L. dentata and L. pubescens), in southwestern Saudi Arabia. In both species, flowering is continuous. This means that, when open flowers on a spike are shaded, new flowers emerge. Such a flowering pattern might be advantageous to the plant to minimise competition for pollinators and promote efficient resource allocation. The flowering periods of the two species overlap. Both species secreted increasing amounts of nectar from early morning to late afternoon. The mean maximum volumes of accumulated nectar from bagged flowers occurred at 15:00 for L. pubescens (0.50 ± 0.24 μL/flower) and at 18:00 for L. dentata (0.68 ± 0.19 μL/flower). The volume of the nectar that became available between two successive measurements (three-h intervals) varied from 0.04 μL/flower to 0.28 μL/flower for L. pubescens and from 0.04 μL/flower to 0.35 μL/ flower for L. dentata, This variation reflects the differences in the dynamics of nectar secretion by these species, and indicates the size of the nectar that may be available for flower visitors at given time intervals. The distribution of nectar secretions appears to be an adaptation of the species to reward pollinators for longer duration. Based on the mean amount of nectar sugar secreted by the plants, the honey production potentials of the species are estimated to be 4973.34 mg and 3463.41 mg honey/plant for L. dentata and L. pubescens, respectively.

The staggering diversity of angiosperms and their flowers has fascinated scientists for centuries. However, the quantitative distribution of floral morphological diversity (disparity) among lineages and the relative contribution of functional modules (perianth, androecium and gynoecium) to total floral disparity have rarely been addressed. Focusing on a major angiosperm order (Ericales), we compiled a dataset of 37 floral traits scored for 381 extant species and nine fossils. We conducted morphospace analyses to explore phylogenetic, temporal and functional patterns of disparity. We found that the floral morphospace is organized as a continuous cloud in which most clades occupy distinct regions in a mosaic pattern, that disparity increases with clade size rather than age, and that fossils fall in a narrow portion of the space. Surprisingly, our study also revealed that among functional modules, it is the androecium that contributes most to total floral disparity in Ericales. We discuss our findings in the light of clade history, selective regimes as well as developmental and functional constraints acting on the evolution of the flower and thereby demonstrate that quantitative analyses such as the ones used here are a powerful tool to gain novel insights into the evolution and diversity of flowers.

Introduced entomophilous non-native plants usually become well integrated into the diet of generalist pollinators. This integration can affect the entire recipient plant–pollinator network. Effects vary from facilitative to competitive, and understanding the factors that govern such variability is one of the fundamental goals in invasion ecology. Species traits determine the linking patterns between plant and pollinator species. Therefore, trait similarity among plants or among pollinators might modulate how they affect each other. We conducted a flower removal experiment to investigate the effects of the non-native entomophilous legume Hedysarum coronarium on the pollination patterns of a Mediterranean shrubland plant–pollinator network. Specifically, we explored whether effects were influenced by similarity with the resident plant species in flower morphology (papilionate vs. non-papilionate), and whether effects on the pollinator community were influenced by similarity in functional group with its main visitor species (bees vs. non-bees). In addition, we explored whether Hedysarum had an effect on the identity of interactions. For this purpose, we calculated the interaction rewiring, that is the number of plant–pollinator interactions that were gained or lost after invasion. Hedysarum was well integrated into the diet of 15 generalist pollinators having the honeybee as its main visitor species. Such integration did not affect visitation rates, normalized degree (i.e. proportion of pollinators they are visited by) nor niche overlap (i.e. proportion of plant species they share pollinators with) of plants, irrespective of their flower morphology. Only the proportion of honeybee visits to resident plants decreased with invasion. On the other hand, Hedysarum reduced visitation rates and niche overlap of pollinators, mainly those of bee species. Finally, we observed that changes in the foraging behaviour of the honeybee were positively associated with the interaction rewiring involving the rest (92 taxa) of pollinators. In conclusion, pollinators show a plastic use of floral resources, responding to the presence of non-native plants. When the non-native attracts highly competitive pollinators such as the honeybee, plasticity is especially significant in pollinators that are functionally close to that competitive pollinator. The result is an interaction rewiring, probably due to pollinators avoiding competition with the honeybee. Though this plasticity might not quantitatively affect the pollination of plants, consequences on their reproduction and the functioning of the network can derive from the interaction rewiring.

Flowers and seeds of Landsberg erecta (Ler) ecotype and NW4 mutant were studied by light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy to reveal characteristic features of their structure. The NW4 mutant flowers differ from Ler mainly in presence of two bract-like sepals with complicated vasculature and a variable number of secondary flowers. In the two outer whorls of NW4 flower, variable number of transformed stamen-, petal-, sepal- and style-like elements also occur. The NW4 mutant seeds are characterized by the absence of mucilage around the surface and a deviating seed coat morphology.

Changes in flower morphology may influence the frequency and specificity of animal visitors. In Petunia (Solanaceae), adaptation to different pollinators is one of the factors leading to species diversification within the genus. This study provides evidence that differential expression patterns of MAWEWEST (MAW) homologs in different Petunia species may be associated with adaptive changes in floral morphology. The Petunia × hybrida MAW gene belongs to the WOX (WUSCHEL-related homeobox) transcription factor family and has been identified as a controller of petal fusion during corolla formation. We analyzed the expression patterns of P. inflata and P. axillaris MAW orthologs (PiMAW and PaMAW, respectively) by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) and in situ hybridization in different tissues and different developmental stages of flowers in both species. The spatial expression patterns of PiMAW and PaMAW were similar in P. inflata and P. axillaris. Nevertheless, PaMAW expression level in P. axillaris was higher during the late bud development stage as compared to PiMAW in P. inflata. This work represents an expansion of petunia developmental research to wild accessions.

Background With some 700 species, the pantropical Crotalaria is among the angiosperm’s largest genera. We sampled 48% of the species from all sections (and representatives of the 15 remaining Crotalarieae genera) for nuclear and plastid DNA markers to infer changes in climate niches, flower morphology, leaf type, and chromosome numbers. Results Crotalaria is monophyletic and most closely related to African Bolusia (five species) from which it diverged 23 to 30 Ma ago. Ancestral state reconstructions reveal that leaf and flower types are conserved in large clades and that leaf type is uncorrelated to climate as assessed with phylogenetically-informed analyses that related compound vs. simple leaves to the mean values of four Bioclim parameters for 183 species with good occurrence data. Most species occur in open habitats

Terminalia australis Cambess (Combretaceae), known as palo amarillo, is an arboreal species, less frequently shrubby, and native of Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. Antimicrobial activity was verified through investigations carried out with aqueous extracts from leaves. The purpose of the current work is to study the exo-endomorphology of the aerial organs (primary stem, flower, fruit, and seed) of the mentioned species in order to establish micrographic parameters for a future pharmacopeic monograph. Fresh and dry materials were studied. Sections and macerations were obtained. Designs were obtained with light microscope equipped with a drawing tube, and photomicrographs were generated with scanning electron microscope. Numerical values were determined: lineal magnitude for the species that are presented together with the data typical of the histoanatomy of the aerial organs., Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Laboratorio de Referencia de Análisis Micrográficos de Plantas Medicinales, Alimenticias y Tóxicas

By analysing patterns of phenotypic integration and multivariate covariance structure of five metric floral traits in nine Iberian populations of bumblebee- pollinated Helleborus foetidus (Ranunculaceae), this paper attempts to test the general hypothesis that pollinators enhance floral integration and selectively modify phenotypic correlations between functionally linked floral traits. The five floral traits examined exhibited significant phenotypic integration at all populations, and both the magnitude and the pattern of integration differed widely among populations. Variation in extent and pattern of integration was neither distance-dependent nor significantly related to between-population variation in taxonomical composition and morphological diversity of the pollinator assemblage. Patterns of floral integration were closer to expectations derived from consideration of developmental affinities between floral whorls than to expectations based on a pollinator-mediated adaptive hypothesis. Taken together, results of this study suggest that between-population differences in magnitude and pattern of floral integration in H. foetidus are probably best explained as a consequence of random genetic sampling in the characteristically small and ephemeral populations of this species, rather than reflecting the selective action of current pollinators

O estudo morfológico das flores de Aspidosperma foi efetuado através do exame de 234 exsicatas, 67 das quais originaram-se de coletas próprias. Através dos exames em material herborizado, em flores preservadas em álcool 70% e das observações efetuadas no campo, efetuou-se a análise morfológica de nove espécies: A. cylindrocarpon Müll. Arg., A. discolor A. DC., A. macrocarpon Mart., A. nobile Müll. Arg., A. parvifolium A. DC., A. pyrifolium Mart., A. spruceanum Benth. ex Müll. Arg., A. subincanum Mart. e A. tomentosum Mart. et Zucc. Constatou-se a relevância de diversos caracteres florais, tais como tipo de indumento, consistência da corola e aspectos do tubo floral e dos lobos da flor em antese. Investigou-se a relação entre calosidade do tubo floral na região da fauce e presença de anel na fauce da corola. Identificaram-se novos caracteres, destacando-se a disposição dos óvulos no interior do ovário como de importância taxonômica para a distinção das espécies. The morphologic study of Aspidosperma flowers was performed through the exam of 234 exsiccates, 67 of which originated from own collections. Through the analysis of dried material, flowers preserved in ethanol 70% and field observations, the morphological parameters of nine species was presented: A. cylindrocarpon Müll. Arg., A. discolor A. DC., A. macrocarpon Mart., A. nobile Müll. Arg., A. parvifolium A. DC., A. pyrifolium Mart., A. spruceanum Benth. ex Müll. Arg., A. subincanum Mart. e A. tomentosum Mart. et Zucc. The importance of several floral characters was verified, such as indument type, corolla consistency and floral tube and lobes aspects in anthesis flowers. The relationship between callosity and ring presence in the corolla fauce was investigated. New characters were identified, standing out the disposition of ovules inside the ovary as of taxonomical value to species level.

The generic circumscription and infrageneric phylogeny of Gentianella was analysed based on matK and ITS sequence variation. Our results suggested that Gentianella is polyphyletic and should be limited to species with only one nectary per petal lobe. Gentianella in such a circumscription is most closely related to one part of a highly polyphyletic Swertia. within uninectariate Gentianella two major groups could be recognized: 1) northern hemispheric species with vascularized fimbriae at the base of the corolla lobes, and 2) northern hemispheric, South American, and Austrlia/New Zealand species without vascularized fimbriae. When fimbriae are present in this latter group, they are non-vascularized. whereas ITS data suggested a sister group relationship between the fimbriate and efimbriate group, the matK data suggested paraphyly of the efimbriate group with Eurasian efimbriate species as sister to the remainder of the clade. Based on the phylogeny and using geological and fossil evidence and a molecular clock approach, it is postulated that the efimbriate lineage originated in East Asia near the end of the Tertiary. From East Asia it spread via North america to south America, and from there it reached Australia/New Zealand only once by a single long-distance dispersal event. The place of origin of the fimbriate lineage remained doubtful. The high specific diversity of Gentianella in South America probably resulted mainly from the availability of a very large alpine area open to colonization rather than from particularly high speciation rates in comparison to other taxa.

In Polygala myrtifolia and probably other South African Polygala species with asymmetrical flowers, pollen is first presented in a very unusual manner; eight sausage-like pollen masses are attached by their ends to the crook-shaped tip of the style (secondary pollen presentation). Floral morphology suggests that when the asymmetrical keel of the flower is pressed down by a sufficiently strong bee, the pollen presenter springs out and the stigma and pollen hit the visitor dorsally on the right flank pleuro-nototribic. When the keel returns to its original position, the remaining pollen is moved into the rostrum of the keel. In subsequent visits pollen is squeezed out of there by a pocket at the tip of the style. This tertiary pollen presentation follows the piston mechanism and dusts the ventral side of the visitor (sternotribic).

Floral morphology, stages in floral development and insect visitation in Z . aethiopica are reported. Floral development can be divided into five phases: pre-female, female, male, fruit development and fruit ripening. Plants are self-incompatible and separation of sexes is achieved by marked protogyny. Z . aethiopica is the only member of the genus in which the basal part of the spathe turns green during fruit maturation while the apical part withers away. This species is further unique in that the berries turn orange, soft and mucilaginous on ripening. Both Z. aethiopica and Z . odorata have staminodes present amongst the ovaries and a faint scent is evident. Several insects, especially beetles, were seen visiting the inflorescence. Observations on Z . aethiopica are compared with other members of the genus, notably Z. albomaculata subsp. albomaculata.

The floral biology and attractiveness of five Lamiaceae species, namely Hyssopus officinalis, Lavandula officinalis, Melissa officinalis, Salvia officinalis and Salvia sclarea, were studied by correlating morphological characteristics of flower and nectar production with pollinator visits, especially with reference to honey bee forage preferences. Although these species are cultivated for medicinal purposes, they also represent a significant source of pollen and nectar for honey production, so the investigation aimed to estimate their melliferousness and significance for bee pasture. Pollinator observation indicated the visitation of seven species of Hymenoptera, three species of Diptera and two species of day flying Lepidoptera. The honey bee (Apis mellifera) was the most abundant pollinator, and the major elements of attractiveness were flower scent and colour, followed by the shape and size of the corolla and to a lesser extent nectar abundance. Corolla tube length and number of open flowers per whorl were of little significance. According to all analyzed flower characteristics and observation of pollinator behaviour and visits, the most attractive plants were H. officinalis, S. officinalis and L. officinalis, whilst M. officinalis was the least attractive and S. sclarea completely unattractive to all recorded pollinators except for Xylocopa violacea.

Flower morphology in 24 apricot cultivars during three-year period was studied in order to determine the variation of individual properties, their value and possibility of use for cultivars identification. Flower diameter varied from 21 mm (Stella) to 33.5 mm (Selena). Six cultivars were found to have small flowers (below 25 mm), 15 medium (25 - 30 mm), and three large (above 30 mm). The shape of petals ranged from roundish-flat in cvs Precoce de Tytinthe, Polonais and Selena to elliptic in cv Stella. The shortest pistil was in cv Precoce de Tytinthe - 13.4 mm, and the longest one in cv Roxana - 19.9 mm. The average number of stamens was 30.3 with the variation among cultivars from 25.7 to 33.7. The position of stigma in the majority of cultivars is at the same level with anthers, whereas only in three cultivars (Polonais, Sulmona and Selena) it is above anthers. The biggest percentage of defective pistils was found in cvs Stella (37.8%) and Stark Early Orange (36.3%). Degree of anomalies of pistil was higher in auto incompatible cultivars. The frequency of double pistils was minor (1.4% in average). Among studied characteristics the lowest variation was found in stamen number, and the highest one in pistil length. Morfološke osobine cveta proučavane su kod 24 sorte kajsije u periodu od tri godine (2001 - 2003. god.). Dužina tučka, dužina i širina kruničnih listića su pokazale veću varijabilnost, dok su broj prašnika, prečnik cveta i indeks oblika kruničnih listića stabilnije osobine, tako da imaju veći značaj za determinaciju sorti. Autoinkompatibilne sorte odlikuju se većim brojem defektnih tučkova.

An experimental field study was undertaken to assess whether correlational selection generated by pollinators can account for observed phenotypic integration of the two corolla lips in the zygomorphic flowers of the insect- pollinated Mediterranean shrub, Lavandula latifolia (Labiatae). The experiment consisted of manipulating the upper and lower corolla lips according to a two- way factorial design with interaction, and involved the complete (lower lip) or extensive (distal two thirds of upper lip) excision of one or the two lips. Per- flower male (proportion of pollen grains removed) and female (number of pollen tubes down the style) pollination success, and maternal fecundity (seed set), of experimental flowers were evaluated after exposure to natural pollination in the field. Artificially induced corolla variation had no significant effects on either male or female pollination success, and two aberrant floral morphologies, characterized by lack of corolla integration, had a maternal fecundity advantage over normal two-lipped phenotypes. These results do not support a predominant role of correlational selection by pollinators in maintaining corolla integration in L. latifolia, but are instead consistent with the alternative view that integration is mainly the consequence of genetic and/or developmental factors

International audience; Introduction - The water lilies Nymphaea spp. show a wide range of morphological features obtained through the horticultural breeding performed over 100 years, and diverse cultivars were created in the breeding history, such as those drawn by Claude Monet. We aim to understand how the floral morphologies have evolved to enhance their ornamental value. We propose a 3D morphological theoretical model to represent the floral structure of water lily. We will present a model to enable realistic representations from real data, such as the shape of the contour of a floral organ, and applications for our goal. Model overview The theoretical morphological model of the water lily is an algebraic operator that allows composing morphological models of floral organs using a model of phyllotaxis to generate a 3D flower architecture. Each floral organ is generated from a function that computes a three-dimensional C-spline surface from the size and lateral and longitudinal curvature. The ovary was represented by a curved surface obtained by rotating a twodimensional C-spline curve around the vertical axis. The spiral phyllotaxis operator was designed for the arrangement of floral organs on the ovary surface. Here, as the expression of the spiral phyllotaxis, intervals between adjacent organs are assigned based on the ratio of those sizes, and each floral organ is arranged with rotation by the golden angle (137.5°). These settings on the phyllotactic pattern is based on previous studies (eg. Prusinkiewicz et al. 2001 [1]). We adopted linear interpolation between angles of the outermost floral organ and the innermost floral organ for the expression of the series of elevation angles. A 3D morphological model is obtained by combining all these parametric operators. Result - Book of Abstract FSPM2020 Spline surfaces enabled flexible control of the theoretical morphological model. By extracting and applying parameters from image data of the floral organs, we were able to represent the morphology of water lilies as a three-dimensional form on a computer. Thus, even if it is challenging to acquire a three-dimensional morphology directly, it is possible to reproduce a morphology of the flower from the scanned two-dimensional image of each organ. The morphological model of the water lily flower can also be used to evaluate the three-dimensional morphological characteristics with geometrical indices, for example, using the convex hull, and these indices can be used to define an ideotype quantitatively. This information provides us the structural and qualitative understanding of morphological changes under the breeder's perspective. Discussion and conclusion - Diverse horticultural varieties of water lilies are commercially distributed, and they display a wide range of morphological characteristics to enhance ornamental values. In horticultural catalogs of water lily, There are some types of qualitative descriptions of flower shape, like the “stellate“ or the “cup-like“. The relationship between geometrical indices and qualitative descriptions can display occupation patterns indicating quantitative correspondence in the morphospace. This model can be applied to evaluate the characteristics of existing varieties and facilitating the breeding process of new cultivars by linking genotypic information and developmental mechanism. The Nymphaea spp. are expected to be used as "model clades" in recent years (Chanderbali et al. 2016 [2]), and this study, which enables comparison of morphological characteristics between different varieties, may be applicable to the study of flower evolution and development, and for ideotype design.

Some flower morphophysiological and pollinator-luring features as well as co-adaptive traits, including nectar production, nectaries and pollen of five Lamiaceae species, namely Hyssopus officinalis, Lavandula officinalis, Melissa officinalis, Salvia officinalis and Salvia sclarea, were studied, with reference to the pollinator visits, especially considering honey bee forage preferences. Although these species are cultivated in plantation for medicinal purposes, at the same time they represent a significant source of pollen and nectar for honey production, therefore the research aimed to estimate their melliferous potential, attractiveness and significance for bee pasture. The pollen grains are isopolar, radially symmetric, predominantly hexacolpate in all species, but often mixed together with tetracolpate and octacolpate in S. sclarea. They are mostly medium-sized to large. The smallest grain was found in L. officinalis and the largest one in Salvia sclarea. The exine sculpturing is bireticulate (H. officinalis, M. officinalis, S. officinalis), reticulate (to foveolate) (S. sclarea) and foveolate (to perforate) (L. officinalis). The shape of pollen grains in equatorial view varies among different species, and within the same species. In the majority of studied species, shape is most frequently prolate (L. officinalis - type a, M. officinalis, S. officinalis and S. sclarea -Class I), except in H. officinalis and S. sclarea - Class II, in which they are sub-prolate and L. officinalis - type b in which they are oblatespheroidal Floral nectaries are located on the receptacle, surrounding the ovary base in the shape of an asymmetrical annular disc with four lobes. Unevenly distributed modified stomata were observed on the upper part or the entire surface of the functional, and generally, the most developed nectary lobe facing the lower corolla lip. The nectariferous tissue is composed of the uniseriate epidermis overlying several layers of polygonal cells forming subepidermal secretory tissue. Epidermal cells are lined with very thin cuticle. Xylem elements alone, separating from the vasculature of the flower receptacle, were noticeable nearby or inside the nectariferous tissue. The highest total daily and summary diurnal nectar amount per flower, as well as the nectar secretion rate were found in S. sclarea, and the lowest in the M. officinalis respectively. Pattern of diurnal dynamics of nectar secretion with one secretion peak was observed: in the morning, in both Salvia species, H. officinalis and L. officinalis, and early in the afternoon in M officinalis. Pollinator observation indicated the visitation of seven species of Hymenoptera, three species belonging to Diptera and two species of daily-active Lepidoptera. The honey bee (Apis mellifera) was the most abundant pollinator. The major elements of attractiveness were flower scent and colour, followed by the shape and size of the corolla and to a lesser extent the nectar amount. According to all analyzed flower characteristics and observation of pollinator behaviour and visits, the most attractive plants were H. officinalis, S. officinalis and L. officinalis, whereas M. officinalis was the least attractive. S. sclarea was completely unattractive to all recorded pollinators, except Xylocopa violacea.