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The concept of resilience has been increasingly adopted on the European Union's (EU) policy agenda as a principle for agro-food policy-making. However, resilience is an ambiguous concept, allowing for different understandings and uses in the context of agro-food policy-making. This study analyses whether and how resilience is framed and contributes to framing in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) post-2020 reform process by policymakers and stakeholders. Combining deductive and inductive coding, we analysed 123 policy documents of EU institutions and stakeholders related to the CAP post-2020 reform debate and the associated Farm-to-Fork Strategy. Five distinct resilience frames were identified: (1) income resilience frame, (2) farmers’ supply chain position resilience frame, (3) climate change impact resilience frame, (4) disease resilience frame and (5) ecological resilience frame. Whereas the resilience concept has been deployed by various actors, they differ in their preferred policy actions towards greater resilience.

Rubber-based farming has been introduced mainly in the non-yielding phase of rubber to generate farm income. However, the effectiveness of rubber-based farming is not at an acceptable level in smallholder rubber lands due to the poor adoption of technologies. The farming community is heterogeneous and the adoption of technologies is determined by the socioeconomic setting of farmers. This study aims to categorise the adoption of food crops or dairy cattle farming in immature rubber lands using the socioeconomic characteristics of farm households and to identify constraints for the adoption of rubber-based farming. Farm households with different socioeconomic characteristics were categorised into groups based on their homogeneity using a multivariate statistical technique. The results indicated the heterogeneous nature of rubber-based farming and revealed six predominant rubber-based farm types. Six groups were disassociated from each other due to significant differences among the variables, including credit access, market access, non-farm income, farm extent, investment in rubber intercropping, use of machines in cultivation, household size, and age of rubber trees. Six groups were termed as medium resource endowed moderate financing farmers, intensive urbanized farmers, low return on intercropping aged farmers, diversifiers into non-rubber farm income, extensive farmers, and high resource endowed farmers with the small size of households. While the mixed-method approach demonstrating the categorisation of rubber-based farming, it facilitates identifying enabling factors and barriers in technology adoption and further development of rubber-based farming. The outcome of this study assists in evidence-based technology transfer in rubber expansion in non-traditional rubber growing areas. The mixed data analysis approach used in this study can be useful in other similar farm typology studies.

This research aims to find out the income of sugar cane farming and to analyze the technical efficiency of sugar cane farming and the factors affecting the technical inefficiency of sugar cane farming in North Lampung Regency. The location was determined purposely (purposive method), considering that North Lampung Regency has been the center of sugar cane production in Lampung Province. The number of the respondents in this study were 35 respondents for plant cane (PC) criteria and 50 respondents for ratoon cane (RC) criteria, respectively, taken by the simple random sampling methods. Data were collected from February to March 2020, taken by interview techniques. The analytical methods used were farm income analysis, stochastic frontier production function and t-test. The study showed that the average income for total cost of sugar cane farming PC and RC criteria were Rp15.308.073,04/hectare and Rp22.310.477,77/hectare. Sugar cane farming in North Lampung Regency was technically efficient with a percentage of 96 percent and 91 percent for PC criteria and RC criteria. For PC criteria, the factors that influence technical inefficiency in sugar cane farming was the level of farmer education and farmer participation in extension activities. For RC criteria, the factors were age and education level of the farmers. Keywords: efficiency, income, sugar cane farming.

Penelitian ini dilakukan guna mengetahui pola kemitraan usahatani tomat beef, struktur biaya, pendapatan usahatani tomat beef, dan kontribusi pendapatan usahatani tomat beef terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga petani tomat beef.Penelitian ini dilakukan di Serenity Farm yang terletak di Desa Cibodas, Kecamatan Lembang, Kabupaten Bandung Barat. Penentuan lokasi penelitian dilakukan secara sengaja (purposive). Metode penelitian yang digunakan yaitu metode sensus. Waktu pengumpulan data pendukung penelitian dilakukan pada Maret 2020. Jenis data yang dikumpulkan pada penelitian ini meliputi data primer dan data sekunder. Pola kemitraan dianalisis menggunakan metode analisis deskriptif. Struktur biaya di analisis dengan membagi masing-masing komponen biaya dengan biaya total untuk melihat persentase biaya terbesar. Pendapatan dihitung dengan mengurangkan penerimaan usahatani dengan biaya total. Kontribusi pendapatan usahatani tomat beef adalah persentase pendapatan usahatani tomat beef dengan pendapatan rumah tangga secara keseluruhan. Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa pola kemitraan antara Serenity Farm dengan petani tomat beef menggunakan pola inti-plasma, dimana Serenity Farm bertindak sebagai inti dan petani tomat beef bertindak sebagai plasma.Struktur biaya pada usahatani tomat beef pada musim tanam I terdiri dari biaya tetap dengan persentase sebesar 9,21% dan biaya variabel dengan persentase sebesar 90,79%, sedangkan pada musim tanam II biaya tetap memiliki persentase 8,92% dan biaya variabel memiliki persentase 91,08%. Pendapatan usahatani tomat beef pada musim tanam I sebesar Rp.20.821.875 dan pada musim tanam II sebesar Rp.20.891.319,44. Dengan nilai R/C>1. Kontribusi pendapatan usahatani tomat beef terhadap pendapatan rumah tangga petani yaitu sebesar 59,46% (Rp.41.713.194,44/tahun). Kata kunci: pendapatan, pola kemitraan, struktur biaya, tomat beef.

Drained agricultural peatlands emit significantly higher amounts of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per hectare than mineral soils. GHG abatement costs for representative cereals (CF) and dairy (DF) farms in southwestern Finland were estimated by integrating an emission-based tax together with an option to invest in a subsidized adjustable drainage system on peat soils in a farm-level dynamic optimization model. With an average 10% share of peat soils from overall farm area, emissions tax rates over 15 (CF) and 19 (DF) €/tCO2e triggered adjustable drainage investments with a significant reduction in GHG emissions per ha, when assuming no crop-yield effect from the adjustable drainage. Abatement costs for emissions tax rates €12–50/tCO2e/ha were €16–44/tCO2e (CF) and €26–51/tCO2e (DF) for whole farm-soil emissions, depending on the share of peatlands on the farm, on the yield effects of adjustable drainage, and on crop prices. High emissions tax rates imply higher abatement costs since farms have a limited capability to adjust their production and land use. Thus, emissions reductions from peatlands can be achieved at reasonable costs when investing in adjustable drainage on peatlands. The income losses due to emissions tax, however, are high, but they can be compensated for farmers by lumpsum payments independent of their production decisions. Since existing agricultural policies such as the EU CAP system may have limited effectiveness on GHG emissions, the emissions tax and adjustable drainage on peatlands could promote GHG abatement significantly on farms and areas with abundant peatlands.

This study aims to analyze the income of the BUMDes “Mandiri” layer chicken farm and partner farms, as well as the size of the income earned by BUMDes “Mandiri” and breeder partners from the profit-sharing system carried out together. The research respondents were the BUMDes “Mandiri” farm manager and two breeder partners. Operating income is calculated by finding the difference between business revenues and total business costs incurred. The share received by BUMDes “Mandiri” and partner farmers from partner farm income is determined based on the percentage agreed in the partnership agreement, namely 51% for BUMDes “Mandiri” and 49% for breeder partners. The results showed that the income of the BUMDes “Mandiri” livestock business in one month was Rp. 3,668,890.00 or Rp. 3,668.89/head, while the partner's husbandry business income was Rp. 6,404,505.00 or Rp. 12,809.00/head. The portion of the partner's husbandry business income that belongs to BUMDes “Mandiri” is Rp. 3,266,295.00/month and that which belongs to breeder partners is Rp. 3,138,210.00/month.

The overuse of nitrogen (N) fertilizer for wheat is a serious problem in China, and previous studies seldom distinguish between the use of basal and topdressing N fertilizer. Data from 225 households in Jiangsu Province, China (a wheat planting area), were collected through face-to-face interviews with each head of the household. Regression models were used to study factors affecting farmers' application of basal and topdressing N fertilizers separately. Fertilizer retailers proposed fertilizer application levels that were in opposition to their concern for the environment. Farmers' concern for the environment only affected their application of topdressing N fertilizer and had no significant influence for use of total N fertilizer. The farmland area and amount of experience planting wheat had negative effects on basal N fertilizer use, but not on topdressing fertilizer. In the study area, the optimal strategy for decreasing N fertilizer application is designing policies to rent more farmlands to farmers with the most experience first. These farmers with their higher farm income would decrease basal N fertilizer use and the basal-topdressing ratio to improve N fertilizer use efficiency and then decrease the N fertilizer leaching into the environment.

Agroforestry system has been considered as an efficient solution to reconcile land use conflicts by tree-crop interaction and supplement. However, the water productivity, tradeoffs, and water-use portfolios of farm diversification in agroforestry combination with tree and/or crop monocultures are still missing, especially in arid water shortage regions. Based on portfolio theory and farmer perception, this study integrates experimental data, meteorological parameters, farmers questionnaire, and yields and prices to assess water use efficiencies, economic return-risk tradeoffs, and portfolio optimizations of diversification farm systems in Moyu oasis of Northwest China. Results show that all the planting layouts of agroforestry systems provide a better economic income than the combination in mixing agroforestry and monocultures in water-use tradeoffs using Sharp ratio. Moreover, allocating part farm area to the nut/fruit trees can increase economic water-use return compared to more crop cultivations, providing a good complement to farm income. The Sharpe ratios of the walnut/wheat, walnut/maize, and walnut/alfalfa intercropping for 23.70%, 15.71%, and 60.60% give the highest economic water-use return compared to the other planting layouts. Nevertheless, according to the minimum risk portfolio and risk-averse farmers’ preference, the combination of the walnut/wheat, walnut/maize, and walnut/alfalfa intercropping and monocultures of jujube and apricot (the ratios of 32.01%, 27.63%, 8.11%, 9.81 and 22.45%) is recommended to use for planting layout in the study area. It is concluded that the combination with nut/fruit-crop agroforestry and sole nut/fruit tree is a financially efficient diversification strategy to improve the water use efficiency and economic tradeoffs in arid water shortage regions.

To improve the performance of agricultural water resources and food production against a background of China's agricultural water price reform, an interval two-stage stochastic programming model is established and applied to account for impacts of agricultural water price reform and a water-saving technology subsidy in Heilongjiang Province, China. A water price affordability constraint and a water-saving technology subsidy to support uptake of water-saving irrigation technology are both introduced. Results of model runs show that when the current agricultural water price is increased to reflect national water price reform without a technology subsidy, the total income of irrigation farming is reduced by 2%-8%, with potential negative impacts on food production. However when an irrigation water-saving technology subsidy is introduced to accompany the increased water price, farm income can be protected and overall food production can be maintained. The two part mechanism of increased water price and water-saving technology subsidy can be used to encourage farmer to reduce water application rates as well as reduce land in production of high-water-consuming crops. Such a two part program offers considerable hope for protecting unsustainable use of water in water scarce regions while protecting farm income and food security in the face of unknown future water supply fluctuations.

This study was conducted to estimate the factors influencing the viability of small and marginal farms in Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh. Multistage sampling technique was employed for selection of samples at different levels (districts, mandals and villages) in the present study. A sample of 120 farmers was selected from two districts, six mandals and six villages. The farmers were categorized according to their land holding size into marginal (

Determinants of adoption decision have been studied by many researchers for a long time. This systematic review applied weight analysis method to summarize and synthesize the most common factors from twenty-one studies that determine the farmers’ adoption decision of improved crop varieties in a regular pattern in Ethiopia. Hence, the result revealed that factors like Access to credit, Participation in social organization, hired labour, Participation in field day, farm income, farm size and extension contact were marked as best determinants. While training, oxen, fertilizer and access to input market were identified as promising determinants. This review recommends that adoption studies are still in need of fully conceptualization of the studies and methodological improvements. Key words: Determinants, adoption, crop-varieties, weight- analysis, Ethiopia.

There exists gender imbalance in resource access and utilization in agricultural enterprises which predisposes women to frustration and marginalization. This study examined gender differences in leafy vegetable production in Lagelu Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria.Primary data were collected from 120 male and female leafy vegetable farmers with the aid of structured questionnaire using multi-stage sampling technique. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. The findings revealed that half (50.0%) of the male farmers had post-primary school education while less than one-third (31.0%) of the female farmers had post-primary school education.More than half (65.4%) and52.4% of the male and female farmers, respectively, had no contact with extension agents. More than half (66.7%) and majority (73.8%) of the male and female farmers, respectively financed their farm enterprise with their personal savings.It was found that labour utilization by male farmers differs significantly from the use of labour by female farmers (t=3.79, P≤0.001), while there was no significant difference in farm income among the male and female leafy vegetable farmers.It was concluded that leafy vegetable farmers differ in the modalities of their production on gender basis even though they acquire fairly the same income from the enterprise. This study recommends that the government should assist the farmers with credit of low interest rate and credit institution too should be encouraged to do so. Government should revitalize extension services and regular training of the farmers by the extension agents is crucial for farmers’ productivity.

Forest regeneration at large-scales is one of the main paths to achieving the ongoing ambitious restoration commitments. Thus, the identification of the main drivers of this process in agricultural landscapes is critical to understand the drivers determining restoration success. A growing number of studies have explored the biophysical and, less often, the socioeconomic drivers of forest regeneration using remote sensing approaches, but have not directly considered the influence of farmers’ decisions in spatial prediction models of forest regeneration. We explored the influence of biophysical and socioeconomic drivers on forest regeneration in a rural landscape of Southeastern Brazil, where native forest cover increased by 7.7%. We evaluated forest regeneration through the analysis of time series of multi-temporal satellite images and socioeconomic information obtained through a Social Survey with 47 landowners, using each farm as the study unit. Natural forest regeneration was mainly favored by lower land suitability for agriculture and higher proximity (lower distances) to forest remnants, as well by higher numbers of land-uses types in the farm and lower economic dependence of landowners from the farm income. Our results emphasize the importance of considering farmers’ decisions on predictive models of natural forest regeneration, which are critically needed to guide the implementation of large-scale forest restoration initiatives in agricultural landscapes.

The study on economic analysis of fluted pumpkin production by women in Awka South Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria was designed to investigate the socioeconomic characteristics of women in fluted pumpkin production, the profitability of the enterprise, exogenous variables affecting the women’s profit, and the challenges facing women fluted pumpkin farmers in the area. The study applied a multistage sampling technique using a well-structured questionnaire to collect data from a cross-section of 150 women fluted pumpkin farmers in the study area. The study utilized a combination of analytical tools such as descriptive statistics, budgetary method, least square regression model, and 3 points Likert type scale to operationalize the study objectives. The study revealed that the average age, household size, farm size, farming experience, and monthly income were approximately 45 years, 11 persons, 1.3 ha, 13 years, and N31,500.00 respectively. The net farm income from fluted pumpkin production was N42,870.0, the return on investment was 1.66 to show that for every N1 investment, the women will make N1.66. The socioeconomic variables that influence women’s profit were age, level of education, farm size, farming experience, source of labour, and monthly income. They are further challenged by a high cost of labour, poor storage facility, inadequate funding, and problems of land acquisition, high cost of seed, poor yield, pest, and disease among other variables in the study area.

Credit is a crucial factor for tea growers to pay for physical farm inputs mainly input fertilizers, research and development of high yielding tea clones and labour in order to improve the production of green tea leaf and to meet factories’ demand for raw materials. However, mismanagement of accessed credits by farmers has been reported among the snags affecting the sector development. The study analyzed the determinants and impact of credit utilization on farm income among smallholder tea growers in Nyaruguru District, Rwanda. Crosssectional tea household level data were collected from 358 farmers randomly selected from tea cooperatives. The credit utilization and causal effect were estimated using the Endogenous Switching Regression model. Results showed a positive and significant relationship between credit utilization and tea farm income. Precisely, the causal effect of credit is a 7% increase in tea income for farmers who utilised credit for tea production, while its potential effect is up to a 55% decrease in tea income for those who divert credit for out-off tea production uses. Furthermore, training on good agricultural practices and credit management, cost of farm inputs, labour and access to group credit significantly influence utilization of credit for tea production. However, the size of credit (cash) and off-farm businesses significantly increase the diversion of credit and level of tea farm income. Tea farmers are encouraged to use tea credits for planned projects. Sensitizing farmers to procure farm input fertilizers in bulk through cooperatives should be vigorously pursued to discourage credit diversion. Key words: tea credits, tea farming households, farm income, endogenous switching regression

This research identified the sources of credit available and utilized by the respondents, evaluated the socioeconomic factors determining farmers’ access to credit, constraints encountered by respondents and the influence of access to credit on management practices of poultry farmers in Obafemi Owode Local Government of Ogun State. The data collected from 90 poultry farmers were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the logit regression model, to evaluate the socio-economic factors determining the respondents’ access to creditand also to analyze the influence of access to credit on faecal management practices in the study area. The descriptive result showed the farmers earned less than N100, 000 monthly (mean = 61,402±12,127.17, ca. $290) and up to 48% still lacked access to credit. The major use of credit among the farmers was for operational activities (53%) which included waste management. Only 48% of the farmers had access to quality extension service and 46% do not participate in any cooperative. Despite the fact that most of the farmers were aware of impact of farming activities on climate change, about 80% still practiced open dumping of faecal waste without proper treatment because of credit constraint. The logit result (all at p < 0.05) showed that farming experience, farm size, awareness of credit source, cooperative participation, access to extension service and farm income were associated with both access to credit and farmers’ use of appropriate waste management practice. Based on the findings, it is recommended that better waste management practices among poultry farmers should be enhanced by facilitating increased access to credit and this is sine qua non to mitigating climate change. Key words: climate change, credit access, faecal management, Nigeria, poultry

There are few studies on the influence of agroforestry intervention in the farming and food system. We thus conducted this study to assess farm production diversity and household dietary diversity in the coffee-based agroforestry in Deusa village, Solukhumbu district, Nepal. This study collected data through questionnaire survey, food diary checklist for 24 hours diet recall, transect walk, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. We compared farm production diversity and household dietary diversity scores between two agroforestry types - traditional and coffee-based. We used Pearson’s Chi-Square and Fisher’s Exact tests to assess the association between agroforestry type and 16 food groups wise consumption. Results showed that the farm production diversity is positively associated with the household dietary diversity. Among 16 food groups, households under coffee-based agroforestry system were more likely to consume dark green leafy vegetables (Chi square- 5.385; df=1; p

Purpose The relationship between farm size and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has not been clearly defined. This paper aims to assess and compare the impact of farm size on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions derived from wheat and maize production in the North China Plain (NCP), one of the most important agricultural regions in China. Design/methodology/approach A field survey through face-to-face interviews was conducted to collect the primary data, and life cycle assessment method, a worldwide comparable framework, was then adopted to characterize the farm-size effect on greenhouse gas (GHG) wheat and maize production in NCP. Findings It was confirmed that GHG emissions from N fertilizer production and use were the primary contributor to total carbon footprint (CF). As farm size increased, maize yield increased but wheat yield barely changed, while area-scaled and yield-scaled CF declined for both crops. These results were supposed to relate to utilize the inputs more efficiently resulting from increased application of modern agriculture methods on larger operations. It was also found maize not only had higher grain yields, but possessed much smaller CFs. More notably, the reduction of CF with farm size seemed to be more sensitive for maize as compared to wheat. To further mitigate GHG emissions, farm size should better be larger for wheat than for maize. Originality/value This study provides useful information guide for Chinese agriculture in increasing crop production, raising farm income and relieving environmental burdens caused by the misuse of agricultural resources.

PurposeThis study investigates implications of crop and income diversifications on consumption expenditure (welfare) of rice-producing households in Ghana. It further compares diversification by three rice production systems: two-season rain-fed, two-season irrigated and one-season rain-fed rice production.Design/methodology/approachPrimary data were sourced from 225 rice farmers. Margalef index and three-stage least-squares were employed.FindingsMajority of rice-farming households in Ghana diversify livelihoods. The extent of livelihood diversification differs among two-season rain-fed, two-season irrigated and one-season rain-fed rice-producing households. Credit, distance to district capitals, production purpose and number of farming seasons influence crop and income diversifications, and consumption expenditure of rice-producing households. While crop diversification reduces consumption expenditure, income diversification increases it. Crop and income diversifications positively influence each other. Consumption expenditure reduces crop diversification but increases income diversification.Practical implicationsPolicy should be directed towards the promotion of more livelihood activities to boost rice farmers' welfare. There should be awareness creation and training programmes to enable rice farmers realize different economic activities within and outside the agricultural value chain.Originality/valueCrop and income diversifications were measured as continuous response variables, unlike previous studies that used a binary response variable. The authors established a synergy among crop and income diversifications, and consumption expenditure (welfare). The authors further compared crop and income diversifications by three rice production systems: two-season rain-fed, two-season irrigated and one-season rain-fed rice production systems.

International audience; In Mali, lack of access to agricultural credit becomes a factor behind low farmer income and even rural poverty. However, agricultural credit is seen as a tool to increase production as well as farm income. The objective of this research is to evaluate the effect of equipment credit on the income of cotton producers in Mali. To this end, a survey was carried out among 400 producers in 2019, 127 of whom had had their equipment credit applications accepted, compared to 273 who had not had their equipment credit applications accepted. The survey was carried out in the areas of the Compagnie Malienne de Développement de Textiles (CMDT) of Fana and Koutiala in Mali. The method of analysis is the estimation of the instrumental variables multiple regression model of credit, implementing the estimation method of Heckman (1979) to account for the zero profit for 16% of the producers. The results of the econometric model estimates show that the variables that lead to an increase in income at the 5% threshold are: access to credit, quantity sold of cotton, costs of material goods used on the farm, total area sown, quantity sold of other crops, selling price of other crops. In other words, access to equipment credit could enable cotton producers to improve their income by 35%. Equipment credit entitles farmers to use more capital goods on the farm. This use of equipment increases agricultural productivity and yields, and in turn increases farm income.Based on these results, we can make some policy recommendations to boost cotton production, make other crops more beneficial to producers andgrant more equipment credit.

This study empirically tests the benefit of the smallholders from organic farming in Bangladesh through their improved food security which is realised from their increased productivity and farm income. The respondent smallholders were picked up from two districts of Bangladesh namely Mymensingh and Bogra. The respondents (80) were the beneficiaries of the organic agriculture promotion project of Bangladesh Agricultural University. Three years data were collected by the project staff and were crosschecked with the base line. Findings of the study explored that before joining with the project extreme majority (93%) of the small farmers were involved in rice mono-culture and more than half (67%) of them were food deficit. The study also revealed that at the initial year of joining organic agriculture project their farm productivity was 10–12% lesser and it increased continually in the successive years. In some cases, it crossed the yield compared to conventional farming. The findings of the study showed that 100% of the farmers have followed crop diversification with high value vegetables and spices along with rice. Due to adoption of organic practices, the cost of production of the smallholders has declined from 27% to 36% and additionally they enjoy 10% to 15% premium prices which have enhanced their farm income significantly. The study shows that 62.5% of the smallholder farmers had attained household food security due to adoption of organic agriculture. Thus, adoption of organic agriculture effectively increased smallholders’ access to surplus safe food. However, the study also explored that farm size, extension media contact, access to assured market and access to institutional support are the most important factors in improving smallholders’ household food security through participation in organic agriculture programme. Thus, it can be concluded that organic agriculture can feed the smallholders in a better way.

PURPOSE: Agricultural support programmes most commonly aim at attaining higher production of raw food materials or supporting processes resulting in agricultural yield. One of the most important challenges is to increase labour productivity, thanks to which working in the agricultural sector may be attractive in comparison with working in the nonagricultural sector. In literature, in the scope of agricultural economy, there is a lack of consistent results concerning the relation between the level of subsidies for operational activity and labour productivity in agriculture. The question arises whether or not subsidies for agriculture help achieve the intended results in the form of an increase in labour productivity. This reasoning gave rise to this study, which aimed at indicating the directions and strength of association between subsidies for operational activity on farms expressed per one employed and the attained labour productivity., DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: The study was carried out for EU countries divided into quartile groups defined according to labour productivity. Data from the Farm Accountancy Data Network for the period 2013-2018 were applied, and for analysis the panel regression method (with random effects) was used., FINDINGS: It was found that together with an increase in labour productivity, the direction and the strength of impact of direct subsidies also altered. On farms of countries with a lower labour productivity, no significant relation was found. However, for the quantile groups Q2 and Q3, an increase in the level of labour productivity resulted in a positive, yet decreasing impact of subsidies. On farms of countries with the lowest labour productivity, a negative impact of subsidies was observed., PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: The conducted analysis gives reason to state that farms that have attained a high level of development, subsidies do not lead to a further growth of productivity, but only support the maintenance of the same level of farm income., ORIGINALITY/VALUE: The assessment of whether and under what conditions the subsidies bring the intended effects allows for a change in the directions of support in order to obtain better effects from spending public funds. The research was conducted for a long period of time for a group of all EU countries., peer-reviewed

This article investigates the impact of improved agricultural technology use on farm household income in eastern Ethiopia. Primary data for the study were obtained from a random sample of 248 rural households, 119 of which are improved technology users and the rest are non-users. The research employed the propensity score matching procedure to establish the causal relationship between adoption of improved crop and livestock technologies and changes in farm income. Results from the econometric analysis show that households using improved agricultural technologies had, on average, 23,031.28 Birr 1 higher annual farm income compared to those households not using such technologies. Our findings highlight the importance of promoting multiple and complementary agricultural technologies among rural smallholders. Therefore, we suggest that rural technology generation, dissemination and adoption interventions be strengthened. Moreover, the linkage among research, extension, universities and farmers needs to be enhanced through facilitating multistakeholder innovation platforms.

The efficiency of farm of KVK adopted and non-adopted farmers (Rewa District) was estimated with 90 samples by Using non-parametric approach Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). To find of the study revealed that in kharif season the technical efficiency (under VRS and CRS) was non-significant different, while In Rabi season the technical efficiency (under VRS) was significant different, but the technical efficiency (under CRS) was non-significant different. In both season the scale and allocative efficiency was not significantly different. In kharif season economic efficiency was non-significant, while in Rabi season economics efficiency was significant different of KVK adopted and non-adopted farm. It is observed from the farm profitability data that as the size of farms increases from small to large the farm income and input-output ratio decreases in cultivation of rice and wheat. Hence, small size of farmers used the available resources more economically as compared to medium and large farmers.

The study broadly examined the socio-economic factors affecting training and visit system of extension among yam farmers in Eket Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria The study had three specific objectives, namely: to: describe the socio-economic characteristics of the yam farmer; 2 determine the socio-economic factors affecting training and visit system of extension among yam farmers and describe the problems militating against yam production in the study area. The study adopted a purposive/judgmental sampling technique to select two hundred respondents for the study. Both primary and secondary data were collected and analyzed using descriptive statistics, multiple regression and Likert scale. Data was collected through the use of a set of questionnaires administered to selected respondents. The findings of the socio-economic characteristics of the yam farmers revealed that majority 77.5% were males, with 37% of them being matured adults in the age range of 51 years and above and 66.5% of the yam farmers were married with household size of 4-7 members per family. Majority of the farmers had secondary education (55%), 46.5% had farming experience of 10 years and above with monthly farm income between N20,000 - N50,000 (46.5%). Majority 88.5% of the farmers were Christians and had monthly contact with extension agents (47%). Gender, age, religion, level of education, farm income and maritalstatus statistically and significantly affect training and visit system at 1% and 5% respectively. The major constraints faced by farmers in yam production in the study area were found to include low soil fertility (3.12), low income (2.64) and land tenure system (2.52). It is recommended that in order to improve yam production, the government of Nigeria should provide favourable environment and invest heavily in yam cultivation by providing farm inputs such as fertilizers to smallholder farmers at subsidized rates. In addition, the government should provide more loans to farmers at zero or low-interest rate. Improved extension services should be provided to farmers with new technologies in order to increase their gross margins income. Social amenities and infrastructural facilities such as; good roads network, electricity as well clean sources of water should be provided in rural areas to encourage young and educated men and women to take up yam production. Keywords: Agricultural Extension; Training and Visit , Communication, Farmers, Production, Demonstration

Sustainable agriculture has been recognized in the literature as one of the important pathways to ensuring food systems and livelihoods among rural households in Africa. Using data from the ‘Intensification of Food Crops Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa (Afrint)’ project, we examine the impact of adoption of multiple sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) - zero-tillage, intercropping, residue incorporation and animal manure - on farm incomes and food security (captures as self-sufficiency in food production-SSF) among African rural households. Multinomial endogenous treatment effect (METE) method is applied to control potential selection bias. In addition, the multivalued treatment effects (MTE) model and dose-response-functions (DRFs) are also used to examine the treatment effects heterogeneity associated with SAPs adoption. The study reveals that joint adoption of SAPs is increased farm income and food security relative to the adoption of a single practice. Households obtain significantly higher farm income (FI) and food security (FS) via adoption of at least three practices relative to households adopting less than three practices. These findings reaffirm the benefits of adopting SAPs as a package rather than single practice, to enable farm households to derive significant welfare benefits.

The present study was conducted in Umaria and Anuppur districts of Madhya Pradesh with the specific objective viz. to examine the factors influencing farm income of the respondents. The study confined to two locations of AICRP on IFS, JNKVV, Jabalpur. Total 240 respondents, consisted of 120 beneficiaries under IFS and 120 non-beneficiaries with similar socio economic, were involved in this work. The log linear form of Cobb-Douglas production function was applied to determine the effects of socio-economic variables on farm income. Apart from this, some descriptive statistical analyses were carried out to examine the socio-economic characteristics of the households. The estimated results of the regression models revealed that land holding, irrigation intensity, cost of farm inputs and employment generation had a significant positive effect on farm income among beneficiary’s respondents. On the other hand, age, education, cost of farm inputs and employment generation had a significant positive effect on farm income among non-beneficiary’s respondents. The results of the present study help in increasing the farm income by the enhancement of the factors which found significant during the study period and the policy makers can also plan accordingly for the betterment of both the respondents.

Infrastructure development is needed to encourage economic growth. However, infrastructure development requires land acquisition, which may adversely impact the community. This study aims to analyze the impact of Kertajati International Airport construction on the farm households’ income and welfare level. This research data used primary data with a simple random sampling method to select 76 farm households in the most affected village. The analysis techniques were income analysis and paired sample t-test. The results showed that farm income was significantly higher before the airport construction. Nevertheless, off-farm income increased after the airport construction, leading to an insignificant household income difference before and after the land acquisition. As for the prosperity level, on average, the farm households lived below the decent living standard. The results imply the importance of increasing farmers’ capacity so that that compensation funds can be utilized to increase household income.

Population growth and natural resources are intricately linked and play role in climate disruption and farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change especially in developing countries with rapid demographic changes and economies mostly dependent on natural resources. Although literature exists on population issues, emphasis was given to positive roles of population growth providing only incomplete picture for stakeholders and policy makers. This constrained climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies, improving food security and attaining sustainable development goals. We reviewed publications on low-income countries with emphasis on sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. This review will bring forth often sidelined issue of population growth for decision-makers and future research in the context of achieving sustainable development goals of the United Nations for 2015–2030. Therefore, this review was initiated to reveal the impacts of population growth on natural resources and to uncover farmers’ capacity to adapt to climate change in low-income countries. Rapid population growth continues to be a major underlying force of environmental degradation and a threat to sustainable use of natural resources. It reduces the quality and quantity of natural resources through overexploitation, intensive farming and land fragmentation. Regions with high population pressure face scarcity of arable land, which leads to shortened/removed fallow period, declining soil fertility and farm income due to farm subdivision. Furthermore, landless individuals or those who operate small farms resettle or cultivate marginal lands, encroach on natural forests in search of more vacant land, which alters carbon source sink dynamics of the environment. Low farm income from small farms not only exacerbates food insecurity of farmers but also constrains their ability to adopt certain climate change adaptation technologies. All stakeholders should take swift actions to address challenges of rapid population growth and alter the dynamics between population, natural resources and climate change and its adaptation.

Soil salinity is a major threat to the sustainability of agricultural production and rural livelihoods in the Mirzachul area in Uzbekistan. Leaching, a traditional practice to cope with salinity through flushing of soils with fresh water in order to remove excess salts from the topsoil, is no longer feasible due to disrepair and inefficient operation of the drainage networks. As a result, salinized lands are either giving very low yields and income or are abandoned, which is negatively affecting rural livelihoods. As an intermediate solution, the cultivation of licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) is proposed as a viable alternative, as it rehabilitates salinized soils and improves their fertility - so that major crops can be again grown profitably in these abandoned or highly saline lands. In addition to its positive impact on the sustainability of agricultural production in irrigated areas, licorice cultivation can also increase farm income thanks to the high economic value and marketability of its roots and the value of its biomass as livestock feed.

This study analyzed net farm income and non-farm income of broiler farmers across different scale of production in Imo State, Nigeria. Capital accumulation for reinvestment and expansion remains a challenge among broiler farmers in the study area. A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted, and a total of 9 LGAs were purposively selected from the 3 zones (Orlu, Owerri and Okigwe zone). Stratified random sampling was used in selecting 26 small-scale and 9 medium-scale farmers from Owerri Agricultural zone for the study. In Orlu, 15 small-scale, 15 medium-scale and 6 large-scale of broiler farmers were selected, while 15 small-scale, 11 medium-scale and 3 large-scale broiler farmers were selected from Okigwe Zone. This gave a total of 113 broiler farmers selected from the chosen LGA's in the state. Out of 113 broiler farmers selected only a total of 100 responses were found useful for the study. Descriptive statistics, profitability ratio and net income model tools were employed for analyses in this study. The profitability result revealed that the large-scale broiler production has the highest return on naira used with 174% followed by medium-scale production with 47% return on naira used and the least was small-scale production with 33% return on naira expended. The result reveals that broiler farming in the study area is profitable and has the ability to offset its own cost, and still generate substantial return on naira used from every additional N1 spent no matter the scale of operation. The study also shows that net farm income of broiler farmers (N7,690,429.50 for small-scale, N 17,615,997.00 for medium-scale and N 142,674,200.00 for large-scale) is significantly greater than their non-farm income irrespective of scale ofoperation. In an attempt to raise the net-income of broiler farmers vis-a-vis more capital to scale-up broiler production, small and medium-scale operators are encouraged to diversify their productions with other livestock enterprises like layer production enterprise, turkey production enterprise and goat production enterprise.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to identify the factors associated with the adoption of agro-processing methods and to estimate their impact on farm income and farm diversification.Design/methodology/approachUsing a large-scale sample of 12,122 special crop farm households drawn from the 2015 Agricultural Census Survey in Taiwan, the semiparametric multivalued treatment effect model was estimated.FindingsThe authors found that agro-processing farm households obtain higher farm incomes than non-agro-processing farm households. Among the agro-processing methods, self-processing generates higher farm income than outsourced-processing. Moreover, farm households that adopt either agro-processing method are more likely to diversify into agritourism and other agribusinesses than non-agro-processing farms.Research limitations/implicationsThe authors could only access data on farm income and not on agro-processing costs. Future studies may address the impact of agro-processing on farm profitability if relevant data are available.Originality/valueVery few studies have examined the relationship between agro-processing, farm income and farm diversification. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is one of the first papers to examine the impact of different agro-processing practices on farm income and farm diversification.

Compared to all other branches of Swiss agriculture, milk production has the largest economic significance. The price pressure on Swiss dairy farms is growing even though the market is heavily protected by tariff barriers in relation to Europe and the rest of the world. Against this background, the question arises for dairy farms as to which strategic orientation for their own farm is most profitable. The options are specialization in milk production, diversification such as with direct marketing or agritourism or an exit from milk production. However, the latter is not possible for farms with a high capital lockup in the dairy industry. Diversification into a complementary branch of farming such as direct marketing or agritourism can, in contrast, be linked to existing milk production. The present study examines three different strategies for dairy farms – highly specialized milk production, diversification into direct marketing and diversification into agritourism. Based on the analysis of a Kruskal–Wallis Tests on accounting data from over 3500 specialized dairy farms and those with direct marketing and agritourism in Switzerland, a pattern can be identified of the biggest competitive advantage for the group of diversified dairy farms with agritourism. For Switzerland as a whole, the farm income as well as the labour productivity of dairy farms with agritourism perform best in this comparison. Because it is a niche market, however, only a small percentage of farms will be able to go into agritourism; most will have to resort to other options to meet the challenges of the dairy market.

Reducing the usage of fossil fuels is a central issue in ongoing policy debates. This in particular holds for Dutch horticulture, given its energy-intensive production. We analyse differences in energy usage and price responsiveness of horticultural firms by estimating energy demand functions using a Bayesian random coefficient model. Beyond, the effects of a proposed energy tax are assessed. Allowing for firm-specific energy price coefficients gives a better model fit compared to conventional models with fixed slope parameters. This confirms that firms respond differently to energy prices, which is taken into account in simulating the effects of more restrictive energy policies. The results show that larger-sized firms use less gas per square meter yet also point at a considerable spread in additional energy expenses between firms.

The study is conveyed to compare the profitability of chickpea and boro rice in Rajshahi district, which is one of the most drought-prone areas of Bangladesh. In this study, a total of 180 farmers (90 chickpea growers and 90 boro rice growers) are used as sample respondents, and data were collected by using a structured questionnaire in 2019. A probit regression model is used to find out the determinants that affect the cultivation of chickpea and boro rice. The important finding of this study is that the Benefit-Cost Ratio for chickpea and boro rice production is 1.88 and 1.05, respectively. The results indicate that chickpea cultivation is more profitable than boro rice cultivation. Besides, the study reveals that occupation, farm size, and seed have a positive impact while family size, human labor, and irrigation have negative effects on farmer’s decision to cultivate chickpea cultivation rather than boro rice. It is, therefore, concluded that the farmers should be encouraged to grow more chickpea rather than boro rice as a means of increasing farm income through crop diversification program. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 10(2): 21-28, December 2020

Beekeeping has the potential to diversify the income of farmers in addition to regular farm income. This can lead to a wealthier farmer and also a respectable source of income to unemployed youth. ...

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of different levels of water consumption reduction in different growing stages as deficit-irrigation scenarios based on economic, social, and environmental criteria in line with agricultural sustainability of the Qazvin irrigation network. In order to maximize farm income, the positive mathematical programming (PMP) method along with the maximum entropy (ME) were used on the basis of crop yield response functions comparing to water in the space of other constraints. Then, the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) method was hired to calculate the weight of the major indices and their sub-indices, and in the final stage, the best-ranked scenarios were selected using Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) approach. The information required for this study was obtained via two-stage cluster sampling method by completing 144 questionnaires. The results showed that applying different deficit-irrigation scenarios on crop growth stages that yield formation was of less susceptibility to water stress, leads to a cropping pattern in favor of crops that generate more revenue (such as Alfalfa) for less water use. Also, the results of weights for the economic (43.4), social (18.1), and environmental (38.5) indices showed that economic indicator is of great importance. Five scenarios used in this study. The scenario ranking process showed that the S1 scenario (5% reduction of deficit-irrigation at ripening stage for wheat, barley, fodder maize, grain corn and beet, and 5% decrease at vegetative growth stage of Alfalfa) was selected as the best and also the most desirable state of sustainability in agriculture scenarios.

Value addition in agriculture predominantly offers a means to increase, rejuvenate and stabilize farm income. Value-added agriculture is fundamentally market-driven. It needs trained and skilled manpower to cope with the demand of rapidly changing markets. The present study was conducted in Haryana state and two districts Hisar from southwest and Sonipat from northeast were selected, purposively. From each district, three blocks were selected randomly. Further, three villages were selected from each block making a total of 18 villages. From each village, ten farmers were selected randomly, making a total sample of 180 farmers. It was found that majority of the respondents were interested in taking training of ‘Farm level packaging and storage’, ‘Development of commercial horticultural nursery for fruit trees and vegetables crops’, ‘Processing and value addition’ and ‘Packaging of nursery plants’. DAE (Directorate of Agriculture Extension) should arrange training programmes based on the necessity of the farmers. Otherwise, it will not bring any positive outcome in the crop production systems of Haryana.

The continuous decrease and irrational use of water resources is the key issue for the proper application of water resources in tribal areas of Jabalpur district. This study attempts to propose a new aspect of optimum allocation of land & water resources in Jabalpur District. The minimum cultivated area that ensures food requirement and land constraint have a direct impact on water resources allocation. To conduct an accurate program for land and water resource allocation for water deficit area a multi- constraint linear programming model (LPM) was developed by implanting land resource as a constraint on water resources allocation which has to be considered by the demand of water resources in the agriculture sector. The result shows that increase in major crops area like rice, wheat, gram, maize and oilseeds crop areas against the reduction in sorghum, lentil, and sugarcane. Existing cropping intensity of the district was 150 %. To achieve the maximum profit per unit of land i.e. cropping intensity more than 200% for district, therefore an extensive measures was made for district to fix out the water demand supply gap for agriculture. In this study a user friendly Linear programming software was used to develop a model for optimum allocation of resources under seasonal and multi-crop condition for Jabalpur district. The net annual profit is increased by 9.1% under optimal allocation conditions. The sensitivity analysis of model parameter shows that the superior price of crop is the most sensitive parameter followed by the crop area. The results obtained from this study will definitely help policy makers to decide how to properly utilize and promote the water and land resources for the available area.

This study aims to estimate the knowledge about sustainable agriculture and its implementation as part of farm practice, depending on a subjective evaluation of farm income status. Moreover, an attempt has been made to determine the importance of benefits for the environment, community, and farmers resulting from the implementation of this concept, in the opinion of farmers declaring a varying income status. The research carried out in 2019 for a sample of 291 farms using an interview questionnaire states that a more favourable subjective evaluation of own income status was connected with a more significant share of farmers formally declaring to know the concept of sustainable agriculture and the methods of this agricultural system. The research shows the following ranking of environmental benefits: water protection against pollution, reduced emission of greenhouse gases, reduced consumption of energy from non-renewable sources, and increased biodiversity in the natural environment. No distinct diversification was observed regarding presented groups according to age and declaration of income status evaluation. As regards benefits for the community in general, the succession was as follows: the production of safer foods, improvement of working conditions in a farm, improvement of farm animal welfare and better attractiveness of rural areas. However, this hierarchy differed depending on income status evaluation. As regards farmer benefits, the developed ranking showed minor diversification of the average position (rank) of individual advantages (ease sale of products, better farm productivity, improved soil condition, acquired knowledge and experience), which primarily resulted from different preferences of respondents depending on their income status.

The rise in population amidst climate change has exerted undue pressure on food production and security. Rice production has also been adversely affected by rising temperature and varying rainfall resulting in reduced productivity. In order to cope with the negative impact of climate change events on rice production, farmers need strengthen and improve their adaptive capacity. Therefore, a study was conducted to empirically estimate the factors affecting the adoption of Climate Smart Agricultural ( CSA) practices in rice production. Multistage sampling procedure was employed to select the representative rice farmers for the study. With the aid of oral interview and questionnaires, information were elicited from 90 farmers. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools and univariate probit model. Results revealed that majority ( 62.5 percent) of rice farmers were women, 75 percent were married, 67.5 percent were within economically active age and 85 percent had post primary education. Findings further showed that education level of farmers, family size, farm income and access to information on climate change were positively and directly related to rice farmers willingness to adopt climate smart agricultural practices at 1 percent and 5 percent levels of significance respectively. Result also showed that about 55.85 percent of rice farmers in the study location received information on climate change from village meetings, friends, relatives and other farmers. Agricultural policies that aimed at increasing incomes of rice farmers and creating awareness on climate change will be rational decision.

The study on integrated farming system (IFS) was conducted during 2011–2017 at Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti, to find out economic viability of IFS model by changing in crop(s) or cropping system and integrating different livestock enterprises. The IFS model consisted of five crops or cropping systems, viz. sorghum (K-8) + cowpea (Co-7) (1:1) (0.40 ha), maize [CoH (m)-6] + greengram (Co-6) (1:1) (0.15 ha), cotton (KC-3) + blackgram (UBN-6) (1:1) (0.60 ha), clusterbean (local variety) (0.15), fodder crops [sorghum (COFS 29), Deshmanthus (local variety)] (0.30 ha) with dairy (1 cow + 1 calf of Sindi breed) and goatery (10 does + 1 buck of kanni breed) components in 1.60 ha total area. The results indicated that the IFS model is good enough to provide sustained average net income of ` 137,712/ha and employment of 389 man days/year as compared to conventional cropping systems (CCS) which gave average negative net income of ` 644/ha during 6 years of investigation due to deficit of rainfall. Thus, it is concluded that farm productivity and profitability as well as employment generation could be sustained by integrating different enterprises, i.e. dairy and goatery along with modified cropping systems in Southern Zone of Tamil Nadu.

Kosovo is one of the poorest countries in Europe, despite the various poverty alleviation programs implemented by the authorities and the international funding community. This study aims to analyze income distribution inequality and factors behind rural households' poverty in Kosovo. Data on farm income, nonfarm income, unearned income, and socio-economic characteristics were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire from 203 randomly selected households in Kosovo. Linear regression, one-way ANOVA, and different versions of poverty indexes were used to examine the data. One-quarter of households' income comes from nonfarm activities. The middle-income households had the highest potential to find alternative employment in the nonfarm sector. Years of education, household size, number of family members above the age of 18, and total income had a positive impact on nonfarm revenues. The poorest rural households had the highest share of income from farm activities (77.52%). Nonfarm revenues have a positive impact on poverty alleviation; thus, the study suggests adopting suitable rural policies to enhance nonfarm employment for vulnerable rural households. The agro-tourism sector and circular economy approaches in agriculture with the focus on renewable energy can be considered as potential sources of nonfarm income, which could lead to sustainable poverty reduction.

Low dietary diversity in the rural household is a major problem in developing countries due to different factors. The aim of this study is to assess dietary diversity level and its associated factors among indigenous and nonindigenous households in Bambasi district, Western Ethiopia. A cross sectional data which covered a sample of 260 households collected using a semi structured interview schedule. A multi stage sampling procedure was used. A household dietary diversity score based on 12 food groups was created using seven days recalls. A descriptive statistics analysis was applied. An order logistic regression model was used to determine the factors that influence both indigenous and nonindigenous household dietary diversity. The result of the study revealed that indigenous household had better dietary diversity status than nonindigenous household heads. Age of the household heads, access to extension and access to nearest markets are the major determinants of rural households in the area. Despite of this, access to credit, farm income, farm size and dependency ratio are the major determinants for nonindigenous household heads whereas participation in small scale irrigation and education are major factors of dietary diversity of the indigenous household heads. Therefore, we recommended that food and nutrition interventions focusing on improving dietary diversity and quality should due attention to develop community specific interventions instead of generalized interventions. However, further investigation focused on seasonal dietary diversity and individual level dietary diversity of the study area

The paper compares the income conditions of farm and nonfarm households in the whole EU and within three geographical groups of countries for the period 2008–2016. Overcoming the simple comparison of raw means of the groups, we estimate the farm/nonfarm income differentials by using Regression Adjusted and Covariate Matching techniques, which allow to control for observable characteristics among groups. Three innovative features of our analysis are that we account for the whole income of farm households (i.e. not only farm income), for the presence of in‐kind incomes from self‐consumption of produced goods and imputed rents from properties, and for the complex survey design. We find that an income differential still exists but with relevant differences across countries and along the period. Most of it is due to differences in the households’ characteristics. Hence, comparing raw means of the two groups can be misleading. Nonmonetary sources of income play a not negligible role, improving the relative position of farm households. The role of agricultural and rural policy is discussed in the light of results.

Many rural households in low and middle income countries continue to rely on small-scale agriculture as their primary source of income. In the absence of irrigation, income arrives only once or twice per year, and has to cover consumption and input needs until the subsequent harvest. We develop a model to show that seasonal liquidity constraints not only undermine households’ ability to smooth consumption over the cropping cycle, but also affect labor markets if liquidity-constrained farmers sell family labor off-farm to meet short-run cash needs. To identify the impact of seasonal constraints on labor allocation and agricultural production, we conducted a two-year randomized controlled trial with small-scale farmers in rural Zambia. Our results indicate that lowering the cost of accessing liquidity at the time of the year when farmers are most constrained (the lean season) reduces aggregate labor supply, drives up wages and leads to a reallocation of labor from less to more liquidity-constrained farms. This reallocation reduces consumption and income inequality among treated farmers and increases average agricultural output.