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To achieve reproduction, male solitary mammals need to locate females using chemical communication with high levels of precision. In the case of giant pandas, the total estrus period of females was usually 15 days each year, however, successful mating activity is finished within 3 days from respective home range. The mating pattern of giant pandas, where multiple males compete for each female requires females employ efficient systems to communicate their estrus phases. To verifying whether the scent secretions of giant pandas changes by gender and estrus progression, the microbiota and compounds in 29 anogenital gland samples from 14 individuals during estrus were analyzed by 16S rRNA sequencing and GC-MS. We show that the microbiota communities covary by gender with 4 particular compounds of scent secretions. Among 597 genera, 34 were identified as biomarkers that could be used to distinguish between different estrus phases. By bacterial-compounds co-analysis, 3 fatty ester acids and squalene compounds covaried with the development of estrus in the bacterial communities of female giant pandas. This study helps clarify how a large, solitary mammal expresses accurate information to improve the likelihood of successful reproduction by changing the composition of microbiota and odor compounds of anogenital glands during estrus.

Background Ticks and tick-borne diseases have negative impacts on the health of wild animals including endangered and vulnerable species. The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), one of the iconic flagship species, is threatened by tick infestation as well. Ticks can not only cause anemia and immunosuppression, but also bacterial and viral disease of giant pandas. However, many previous studies about ticks on giant pandas were only limited in scope as case reports of ill or dead animals. Methods In this study, an investigation about ticks on a reintroduced giant panda at Daxiangling Reintroduction Base in Sichuan of China was conducted. Ticks were collected daily and identified from the ears of the giant panda from March to September in 2021. A linear model was used to test the correlation between daily tick abundance and climate factors. Result All ticks were identified as Ixodes ovatus. The daily average of tick population was 6.78 (95% CI: 6.17–7.39) including 1.79 daily males (95% CI: 1.61–1.98) and 4.99 for females (95% CI: 4.53–5.44). Tick abundance was significantly different among months. Tick abundance increased from March and reached the highest point in June and July, then it decreased until September. Results from linear model showed that the temperature positively correlated to tick abundance while air pressure had a negative correlation with tick abundance. Conclusions This study investigated tick species and abundance on a giant panda living in the natural environment for the first time, which provided important information for the conservation of giant pandas and other species sharing the same environment.

Tick infestations have been reported as one of the factors threatening the health of giant pandas, but studies of viral pathogens carried by ticks feeding on the blood of giant pandas are limited. To assess whether blood-sucking ticks of giant pandas can carry viral pathogens and if so, whether the viruses in ticks are associated with those previously detected in giant panda hosts, we determined the viromes of ticks detached from giant pandas in a field stocking area in Sichuan Province, southwest China. Using viral metagenomics we identified 32 viral species in ticks, half of which (including anellovirus [

Historically, giant panda conservation in China has been compromised by disparate management of protected areas. It is thus crucial to address how giant panda populations can be managed cohesively on a landscape scale, an opportunity offered by China’s newly established Giant Panda National Park. Here, we evaluated giant panda populations in a metapopulation context, based on range-wide data from the Fourth National Giant Panda Survey. We delineated metapopulations by geographic range, relative abundance, and relative density and assessed the extent of human disturbance each metapopulation faced. We found density-dependent and disturbance-influenced effects on habitat selection across metapopulations. We determined the main effects faced by each metapopulation regarding area sensitivity, population size, intraspecific competition, and disturbance. To enhance the landscape-scale conservation of giant pandas and various other wildlife across China’s national park system, we propose that metapopulation management incorporates population status along with density-dependent and disturbance-related effects on habitat selection.

Ecosystem modelling based on membrane computing is emerging as a powerful way to study the dynamics of (real) ecological populations. *ese models, providing distributed parallel devices, have shown a great potential to imitate the rich features observed in the behaviour of species and their interactions and key elements to understand and model ecosystems. Compared with differential equations, membrane computing models, also known as P systems, can model more complex biological phenomena due to their modularity and their ability to enclose the evolution of different environments and simulate, in parallel, different interrelated processes. In this paper, a comprehensive survey of membrane computing models for ecosystems is given, taking a giant panda ecosystem as an example to assess the model performance. *is work aims at modelling a number of species using P systems with different membrane structure types to predict the number of individuals depending on parameters such as reproductive rate, mortality rate, and involving processes as rescue or release. Firstly, the computing models are introduced conceptually, describing the main elements constituting the syntax of these systems and explaining the semantics of the rules involved. Next, various modelled species (including endangered animals, plants, and bacteria) are summarized, and some computer tools are presented. *en, a discussion follows on the use of P systems for ecosystem modelling. Finally, a case study on giant pandas in Chengdu Base is analysed, concluding that the study in this field by using PDP systems can provide a valuable tool to deepen into the knowledge about the evolution of the population. *is could ultimately help in the decision-making processes of the managers of the ecosystem to increase the species diversity and modify the adaptability. Besides, the impacts of natural disasters on the population dynamics of the species should also be considered. *e analysis performed throughout the paper has taken into consideration this fact in order to increase the reliability of the prospects making use of the models designed. Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad TIN2017-89842-P (MABICAP)

Cross-species transmission events were commonplace, with numerous cases of host-switching during the viral evolutionary history, but relatively little evidence for onward transmission in different species living in the same ecosystem. For understanding the communications of viruses in giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and their associated organisms, based on a large size of samples (N = 2305) collected between 2015 and 2020 from giant panda (N = 776) and other four giant panda-associated organisms in the same ecosystem, red pandas (N = 700), stray cats (N = 32), wild rats (N = 42), and mosquitoes (N = 755), viromics was used for the virus identification and subsequent virus traceability. The results showed that a feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) was found in giant pandas with clinical signs of vomiting and mild diarrhea. Meanwhile, the same FPV strain was also prevalent in the healthy red panda (Ailurus fulgens) population. From the viromes of the five different organisms, 250 virus genomes were determined. Our data revealed that besides FPV, other putative pathogenic viruses, such as red panda amdoparvoviruses (RPAVs) and Getah viruses (GETVs) were responsible for previous disease or death of some red pandas. We also demonstrated that a number of viruses were involved in potential interspecies jumping events between giant pandas and their associated species. Collectively, our results shed light on the genetic diversity and relationship of diverse viral pathogens in 'Giant pandas-Associated animals-Arthropods' and report some cases of possible viral host-switching among these host species living in the same ecosystem.

Background Flavonoids are important plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) that have been widely used for their health-promoting effects. However, little is known about overall flavonoid metabolism and the interactive effects between flavonoids and the gut microbiota. The flavonoid-rich bamboo and the giant panda provide an ideal system to bridge this gap. Results Here, integrating metabolomic and metagenomic approaches, and in vitro culture experiment, we identified 97 flavonoids in bamboo and most of them have not been identified previously; the utilization of more than 70% flavonoid monomers was attributed to gut microbiota; the variation of flavonoid in bamboo leaves and shoots shaped the seasonal microbial fluctuation. The greater the flavonoid content in the diet was, the lower microbial diversity and virulence factor, but the more cellulose-degrading species. Conclusions Our study shows an unprecedented landscape of beneficial PSMs in a non-model mammal and reveals that PSMs remodel the gut microbiota conferring host adaptation to diet transition in an ecological context, providing a novel insight into host-microbe interaction.

Background Parasitic infections are among the important causes of death of giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) that hamper their survival in the wild. There are about 35 species of parasites which have been identified in giant pandas, but no information is currently available regarding the infection of Babesia in giant pandas. Babesia spp. are common intraerythrocytic parasite in wildlife, transmitted by ixodid ticks, which cause babesiosis. Clinical signs of babesiosis include fever, hemolysis, anemia, jaundice and death. Methods A species of Babesia was detected in the blood of a giant panda based on morphology and PCR amplification of the 18S rRNA gene. The phylogenetic relationship of Babesia sp. infecting giant panda was assessed by gene sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis. Results Our analysis revealed that the Babesia isolate detected was most similar to an unidentified species of Babesia identified in black bears (Ursus thibetanus japonicus) from Japan (Babesia sp. Iwate, AB586027.1) with a 99.56% sequence similarity, followed by Babesia sp. EBB (AB566229.1, 99.50%) and Babesia sp. Akita (AB566229.1, 99.07%). Conclusions To our knowledge, this is the first report of Babesia detected in the giant panda. The results indicate that this Babesia sp. may be a novel species, currently named Babesia sp. strain EBP01.

Mammalian chemosignals—or scent marks—are characterized by astounding chemical diversity, reflecting both complex biochemical pathways that produce them and rich information exchange with conspecifics. The microbiome of scent glands was thought to play prominent role in the chemical signal synthesis, with diverse microbiota metabolizing glandular products to produce odorants that may be used as chemosignals. Here, we use gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and metagenomic shotgun sequencing to explore this phenomenon in the anogenital gland secretions (AGS) of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). We find that this gland contains a diverse community of fermentative bacteria with enzymes that support metabolic pathways (e.g., lipid degradation) for the productions of volatile odorants specialized for chemical communication. We found quantitative and qualitative differences in the microbiota between AGS and digestive tract, a finding which was mirrored by differences among chemical compounds that could be used for olfactory communication. Volatile chemical compounds were more diverse and abundant in AGS than fecal samples, and our evidence suggests that metabolic pathways have been specialized for the synthesis of chemosignals for communication. The panda’s microbiome is rich with genes coding for enzymes that participate in the fermentation pathways producing chemical compounds commonly deployed in mammalian chemosignals. These findings illuminate the poorly understood phenomena involved in the role of symbiotic bacteria in the production of chemosignals.

Giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) were historically hunted using dogs and are currently threatened by free-roaming dogs and their associated diseases. To better understand the spatial magnitude of this threat, we used a GIS approach to investigate edge effects of dogs on giant panda habitat. We first examined two nature reserves with contrasting free-roaming dog populations: Liziping, with many dogs (~0.44/km2), and Daxiangling, with few dogs (~0.14/km2). Spatial analysis indicated that giant pandas at Liziping (but not Daxiangling) showed a shift in habitat use away from populated areas consistent with a risk response to the foray distance of free-roaming dogs (10.9 km path-distance). Most giant panda locations (86%) from the 2014 census in Liziping were clustered around remote “dog-free zones.” Expanding this analysis across the entire giant panda range revealed that 40% of panda habitat is within the foray distance of dogs. Our assessment will inform dog control programs including monitoring, education, veterinary care, and other measures. We recommend that reserves designated for the release of translocated pandas receive priority consideration for dog control efforts. Only by understanding and managing complex interactions between humans, domestic animals, and wild animals can we sustain natural systems in a world increasingly dominated by humans.

The mammal gut is a rich reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and the relationship between bacterial communities and ARGs has been widely studied. Despite ecological significance of microeukaryotes (fungi and protists), our understanding of their roles in the mammal gut microbiome and antibiotic resistome is still limited. Here, we used amplicon sequencing, metagenomic sequencing and high-throughput quantitative PCR to examine microbiomes and antibiotic resistomes of 41 giant panda fecal samples from individuals with different genders, ages, sampling sites and diet. Our results show that diverse protists inhabit in the giant panda gut ecosystem, dominated by consumers. Higher abundance of protistan consumers was detected in the elder compared to sub-adult and adult giant pandas. Diet is the main driving factor of variation in ARGs in the giant panda gut microbiome. Weighted correlation network analysis identified two key microbial modules from multitrophic communities, which all contributed to the variation in ARGs in the giant panda gut. Protists occupied an important position in the two modules which were dominated by fungal taxa. Deterministic processes made a more important contribution to microbial community assembly of the two modules than to bacterial, fungal and protistan communities. This study sheds new light on how key microbial modules contribute to the variation in ARGs, which is crucial in understanding dynamics of antibiotic resistome in the mammal gut, particularly endangered species.

To explore the relationship between the development of feeding behaviour and energy intake for captive giant pandas, food intake, feeding rate, and discrimination time were analysed for 26 pandas grouped by sex and age (cub, sub-adult, adult, and elderly). Feeding rates were significantly different between all age groups, except between elderly and adults. In addition, significant differences were found in discrimination time among the female age groups, and all male age groups except between the adults and sub-adults. Among adults in the same age groups, significant differences between the sexes existed in their feeding rate and discrimination time. Differences in discrimination time existed among elderly, adult and sub-adult females. This study of the dynamic characteristics of the feeding behaviour of captive pandas could provide a theoretical basis for feeding recommendations to improve the success of giant panda breeding programmes.

One strategy to protect endangered species, and improve the quality of habitat to meet the needs of both the wildlife and human communities that rely on large protected areas (such as national park), is by zoning its management for multiple uses. We assessed whether multi-use zoning of the Giant Panda National Park (GPNP) could achieve the goal of protecting the panda population and its habitat, while also promoting community development. We integrate panda presence data, human disturbance distribution, and environmental factors to evaluate panda habitat suitability, the effectiveness of zoning designations, and the impact of human disturbance on panda habitat. Our results show that panda habitat suitability has been partially improved, as certain areas of increased in suitability or stabilized (maintained suitability) across the research region between 2001–2003 and 2011–2013, based on the 3rd and 4th national surveys of the giant panda. Most of the optimum and suitable habitat for panda were located in the core protection area of the GPNP. However, the optimum habitat in the general control area is often located at the junction with the core protection area, indicating a particular need to strengthen management in these areas. Meanwhile, the encounter rates of livestock grazing were highest in optimum habitat and unsuitable habitat. As such, particular attention needs to be paid to the pressures on wildlife caused by human disturbances, such as livestock grazing, in the general control area. Our analyses and these findings have important implications for giant panda conservation and GPNP construction.

Habitat degradation is a major threat to the survival of chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii). Detailed knowledge for habitat conservation in this steppe-dwelling ungulate is needed if effective conservation and management strategies are to be developed. The distribution of potential habitat and the relative value of habitat to chiru on a regional scale remains unknown, hindering landscape conservation planning. Our aim was to identify and rank chiru habitat across the Chang Tang region of the Tibetan Plateau. We assessed overall habitat suitability using geographical data, field surveys, and information contained within previous studies. We identified 10194 km2 of optimal habitat (1.71 % of the region), 256816 km2 of suitable habitat (43.17 % of the region), and 213799 km2 of marginal habitat (35.94 % of the region). Our habitat model shows that suitable habitat is located primarily in the central (Nyingma county and Shuanghu county) and western (Geze county) regions of the study area. When we looked specifically at a chiru reserve (Chang Tang Nature Reserve) located within the study area, we found that over half of the reserve could be classified as suitable habitat. This highlights the regional importance of this reserve to chiru conservation. Our findings further indicate that the protection of suitable habitat and improvement of habitat linkages will be important features of any regional chiru conservation plan.

Vocal signals are a common communication tool used to recognize different individuals, advertise fertile phases or discriminate amongst potential mates. Therefore, a thorough understanding of vocal repertoires forms the basis for investigating the role of acoustic signaling in the sexual and social behavior of any animal. Red pandas (Ailurus fulgens) are classified as a vulnerable species and have declined by as much as 40% over the past 50 years in China. Adult red pandas are known to call frequently during mating and aggressive encounters; however, no quantitative description of their vocalizations has been attempted. Here, the vocal repertoire of captive red pandas was investigated. Acoustical and statistical analyses indicated seven vocalization types during the breeding season: “growl”, “bark”, “squeal”, “bleat”, “hoot”, “grunt” and “twitter”; the spectrogram for each vocalization type was extracted. The type of vocalizations produced varied with behavioral state and implies different functional contexts. Future studies are needed to uncover the functions of red panda vocalizations in individual recognition, sexual selection and social interaction.

The red-crowned crane is one of the rarest crane species, and its population is decreasing due to loss of habitat, poisoning, and infections. Using a viral metagenomics approach, we analyzed the virome of feces from wild and captive red-crowned cranes, which were pooled separately. Vertebrate viruses belonging to the families Picornaviridae, Parvoviridae, Circoviridae, and Caliciviridae were detected. Among the members of the family Picornaviridae, we found three that appear to represent new genera. Six nearly complete genomes from members of the family Parvoviridae were also obtained, including four new members of the proposed genus “Chapparvovirus”, and two members of the genus Aveparvovirus. Six small circular DNA genomes were also characterized. One nearly complete genome showing a low level of sequence identity to caliciviruses was also characterized. Numerous viruses believed to infect insects, plants, and crustaceans were also identified, which were probably derived from the diet of red-crowned cranes. This study increases our understanding of the enteric virome of red-crowned cranes and provides a baseline for comparison to those of other birds or following disease outbreaks. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00705-018-4037-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The red panda is listed on the 2016 IUCN red list as Endangered. It is now distributed only in China, Myanmar, India, Bhutan and Nepal. Human activities such as poaching and large-scale deforestation have caused serious declines in this forest-dwelling species. Although its ecological research has made much progress in the past decades, only recently witnessed the population genetic research advances of this species. This chapter reviews the advances in wild red panda conservation genetics from non-invasive genetics, genetic diversity, phylogeographic structure, population genetic structure, demographic history, subspecies differentiation, to its conservation and management. It presents detailed estimates of genetic diversity, assesses the role of paleo-climate changes, human activities and landscape features in shaping the genetic structure and demographic history of red pandas, and discusses the implications of conservation genetics findings for effective genetic monitoring and conservation management.

Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) conservation is a possible success story in the making. If extinction of this iconic endangered species can be avoided, the species will become a showcase program for the Chinese government and its collaborators. We reviewed the major advancements in ecological science for the giant panda, examining how these advancements have contributed to panda conservation. Pandas' morphological and behavioral adaptations to a diet of bamboo, which bear strong influence on movement ecology, have been well studied, providing knowledge to guide management actions ranging from reserve design to climate change mitigation. Foraging ecology has also provided essential information used in the creation of landscape models of panda habitat. Because habitat loss and fragmentation are major drivers of the panda population decline, efforts have been made to help identify core habitat areas, establish where habitat corridors are needed, and prioritize areas for protection and restoration. Thus, habitat models have provided guidance for the Chinese governments' creation of 67 protected areas. Behavioral research has revealed a complex and efficient communication system and documented the need for protection of habitat that serves as a communication platform for bringing the sexes together for mating. Further research shows that den sites in old-growth forests may be a limiting resource, indicating potential value in providing alternative den sites for rearing offspring. Advancements in molecular ecology have been revolutionary and have been applied to population census, determining population structure and genetic diversity, evaluating connectivity following habitat fragmentation, and understanding dispersal patterns. These advancements form a foundation for increasing the application of adaptive management approaches to move panda conservation forward more rapidly. Although the Chinese government has made great progress in setting aside protected areas, future emphasis will be improved management of pandas and their habitat.

Food resources are patchily distributed in the environment and carnivores and herbivores have adopted different foraging strategies to maximize feeding efficiency. One interesting strategy is that of the giant panda, a member of the Carnivora that has evolved into a bamboo specialist. Giant pandas forage discriminately, but it remains unknown how nutritional hierarchical levels and landscape configuration heterogeneity affect foraging patch selection. Here, we used global positioning system collars to track wild giant pandas at high resolution (

Giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) are now confined to fragmented habitats in western China, with more than 60 % of individuals inhabiting 63 protected areas. Knowledge of the environmental features required by giant pandas is critically important for protected area spatial arrangement and subsequent assessments. Here we developed a distribution model for giant pandas in the Tangjiahe Nature Reserve using Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA) model. We found that less than 40 % of this key reserve is of high suitability for giant pandas, highly suitable habitat being primarily characterized as coniferous forests away from roads within the reserve. Although there was a clear core zone occupied by giant pandas, which included the vast majority of known giant panda locations, only about 45 % of this zone was classified as highly suitable habitat (suitable and optimal). Therefore, the spatial arrangement within the reserve may need to be modified to effectively manage the remaining population of giant pandas. Of particular concern are several tourism proposals being considered by local government, which, if implemented, will increase the isolation of the local population from those in the surrounding area. Our analysis identifies Caijiaba and Baixiongping as areas that should become conservation priorities. Our approach provides valuable data to advise conservation policy and could be easily replicated across other protected areas.

Understanding how population density relates to habitat underlies basic ecological theory and is pertinent to conservation issues. Chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii) are an endangered steppe-dwelling ungulate endemic to the Tibetan plateau. To prepare effective conservation and management strategies for this species, we require detailed knowledge of the relationship between group size and habitat conditions. We surveyed the Chang Tang region of Tibet and used data collected along vehicular line transects to record the presence and group size of chiru. Using ecological niche factor analysis, we inferred the ecological requirements of chiru in relation to a large number of topographic, vegetation, and anthropogenic variables. We used these analyses to estimate habitat suitability models and describe their optimum range. Areas favored by chiru had moderate grazing by domestic animals, gentle slopes, and villages present only at lower altitudes. Chiru showed a high level of specialization regarding the presence of villages and gentle slopes, and were negatively associated with areas of those easily accessed by people. We suggest new management measures for the long-term conservation of chiru. Specifically, we focus on the rehabilitation of natural plains for grazing by chiru, recognizing that conservation of large groups may require special efforts. For smaller groups and solitary chiru, the large tracts of unsuitable or marginal areas may expose them to different threats that could pose greater challenges for conservation management. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

Background Polyomaviruses infect a wide variety of mammalian and avian hosts with a broad spectrum of outcomes including asymptomatic infection, acute systemic disease, and tumor induction. Methods Viral metagenomics and general PCR methods were used to detected viral nucleic acid in the samples from a diseased and healthy giant pandas. Results A novel polyomavirus, the giant panda polyomavirus 1 (GPPyV1) from the nasal cavity of a dead giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) was characterized. The GPPyV1 genome is 5144 bp in size and reveals five putative open-reading frames coding for the classic small and large T antigens in the early region, and the VP1, VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins in the late region. Phylogenetic analyses of the large T antigen of the GPPyV1 indicated GPPyV1 belonged to a putative new species within genus Deltapolyomavirus, clustering with four human polyomavirus species. The GPPyV1 VP1 and VP2 clustered with genus Alphapolyomavirus. Our epidemiologic study indicated that this novel polyomavirus was also detected in nasal swabs and fecal samples collected from captive healthy giant pandas. Conclusion A novel polyomavirus was detected in giant pandas and its complete genome was characterized, which may cause latency infection in giant pandas.

Background The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a vulnerable mammal herbivore living wild in central China. Viral infections have become a potential threat to the health of these endangered animals, but limited information related to these infections is available. Methods Using a viral metagenomic approach, we surveyed viruses in the feces, nasopharyngeal secretions, blood, and different tissues from a wild giant panda that died from an unknown disease, a healthy wild giant panda, and 46 healthy captive animals. Results The previously uncharacterized complete or near complete genomes of four viruses from three genera in Papillomaviridae family, six viruses in a proposed new Picornaviridae genus (Aimelvirus), two unclassified viruses related to posaviruses in Picornavirales order, 19 anelloviruses in four different clades of Anelloviridae family, four putative circoviruses, and 15 viruses belonging to the recently described Genomoviridae family were sequenced. Reflecting the diet of giant pandas, numerous insect virus sequences related to the families Iflaviridae, Dicistroviridae, Iridoviridae, Baculoviridae, Polydnaviridae, and subfamily Densovirinae and plant viruses sequences related to the families Tombusviridae, Partitiviridae, Secoviridae, Geminiviridae, Luteoviridae, Virgaviridae, and Rhabdoviridae; genus Umbravirus, Alphaflexiviridae, and Phycodnaviridae were also detected in fecal samples. A small number of insect virus sequences were also detected in the nasopharyngeal secretions of healthy giant pandas and lung tissues from the dead wild giant panda. Although the viral families present in the sick giant panda were also detected in the healthy ones, a higher proportion of papillomaviruses, picornaviruses, and anelloviruses reads were detected in the diseased panda. Conclusion This viral survey increases our understanding of eukaryotic viruses in giant pandas and provides a baseline for comparison to viruses detected in future infectious disease outbreaks. The similar viral families detected in sick and healthy giant pandas indicate that these viruses result in commensal infections in most immuno-competent animals. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40168-017-0308-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Since 2005, 12 captive pandas have been translocated into the wild. Of these, three were killed by conditional pathogen infections after release. Given that the gut microbiome is important to host health and environmental adaptation, increasing the “wildness” of the gut microbiomes of captive pandas might improve translocation success. Here, we analyzed the long-term monitoring data (16S MISEQ data about 700 samples) of two wild giant panda populations (Xiaoxiangling and Minshan Mountains populations), five GPS-collared translocated giant pandas (TPs), and their living environment (dietary bamboos and soils) in the Liziping Reserve, China. We found that panda gut microbiome composition shifted dramatically after translocation: in the captive panda gut microbiome, Enterobacteriaceae dominated, while in the wild panda gut microbiome, Pseudomonadaceae dominated. More “wild” gut microbes were identified in the wild and semi-wild translocated panda guts than in the panda guts prior to release. However, under the current translocation strategy, the semi-wild stage lasts only 2–3 months, which might not be long enough to establish a stable “wild” gut microbial community. The observed changes in the translocated panda gut microbial communities (i.e., the proportional increase in Pseudomonadaceae abundance) and metagenomic function (i.e., the higher proportion of essential amino acid metabolic activity) might reflect a putative evolutionary adaptation to the local environment at the translocation site. We suggest that candidate pandas live with their mothers in a fenced area at the translocation site for an additional year prior to release. This is also more similar to the typical life cycle of the local wild giant pandas. Keywords: Biodiversity, Giant panda, Small population, Wildness, Gut microbes, Translocation

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) was taken to the brink of extinction in the 1980s through a combination of deforestation, large-scale loss of bamboo in the core of its range, poaching, and zoo collection, causing over 1000 deaths from the 1950s. It was thought that the drastic population decline was likely to impose a severe impact on population viability. Here, based on temporal genotyping of individuals, we show that this rapid decline did not significantly reduce the overall effective population size and genetic variation of this species, or of the two focal populations (Minshan and Qionglai) that declined the most. These results are contrary to previously assumptions, probably because the population decline has not produced the expected negative impact due to the short time scale involved (at most 10 generations), or because previous surveys underestimated the population size at the time of decline. However, if present-day habitat fragmentation and limited migration of giant pandas remains, we predict a loss of genetic diversity across the giant pandas' range in the near future. Thus, our findings highlight the substantial resilience of this species when facing demographic and environmental stochasticity, but key conservation strategies, such as enhancing habitat connectivity and habitat restoration should be immediately implemented to retain the extant genetic variation and maintain long-term evolutionary potential of this endangered species.

The giant panda is an icon of conservation and survived a large-scale bamboo die off in the 1980s in China. Captive breeding programs have produced a large population in zoos and efforts continue to reintroduce those animals into the wild. However, we lack sufficient knowledge of their physiological ecology to determine requirements for survival now and in the face of climate change. We measured resting and active metabolic rates of giant pandas in order to determine if current bamboo resources were sufficient for adding additional animals to populations in natural reserves. Resting metabolic rates were somewhat below average for a panda sized mammal and active metabolic rates were in the normal range. Pandas do not have exceptionally low metabolic rates. Nevertheless, there is enough bamboo in natural reserves to support both natural populations and large numbers of reintroduced pandas. Bamboo will not be the limiting factor in successful reintroduction.

Scientific Reports 6: Article number: 27248; published online: 06 June 2016; updated: 21 September 2016

Examining ecological processes across spatial scales is crucial as animals select and use resources at different scales. We carried out field surveys in September 2005, March–September 2006, and April 2007, and used ecological niche factor analysis to determine habitat preferences for the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) across 4 spatial scales: daily movement, core range, home range, and seasonal elevational migration. We found that giant pandas prefer conifer forest and mixed forest at higher than average elevation (2,157 m) of study area in the 4 scale models. However, we also observed significant scale differences in habitat selection. The strength of habitat preference increased with scale for the 2 disturbed forests (sparse forest and fragmented forest), and decreased with scale for 0–30° gentle slope and south- and north-facing aspect. Furthermore, habitat suitability patterns were scale-dependent. These findings highlight the need to determine species–environment associations across multiple scales for habitat management and species conservation. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.

The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is an endangered species distributed in the Himalaya and Hengduan Mountains and extremely difficult to monitor because it is elusive, wary and nocturnal. However, recent advances in noninvasive genetics are allowing conservationists to indirectly estimate population size of this animal. Here, we present a pilot study of individual identification of wild red pandas using DNA extracted from faeces. A chain of optimal steps in noninvasive studies were used to maximize genotyping success and minimize error rate across sampling, selection of microsatellite loci, DNA extraction and amplification and data checking. As a result, 18 individual red pandas were identified successfully from 33 faecal samples collected in the field using nine red panda-specific microsatellite loci with a low probability of identity of 1.249 × 10−3 for full siblings. Multiple methods of tracking genotyping error showed that the faecal genetic profiles possessed very few genotyping errors, with an overall error rate of 1.12 × 10−5. Our findings demonstrate the feasibility and reliability of using faeces as an effective source of DNA for estimating and monitoring wild red panda populations.

Clarification of the genetic structure and population history of a species can shed light on the impacts of landscapes, historical climate change and contemporary human activities and thus enables evidence-based conservation decisions for endangered organisms. The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is an endangered species distributing at the edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and is currently subject to habitat loss, fragmentation and population decline, thus representing a good model to test the influences of the above-mentioned factors on a plateau edge species. We combined nine microsatellite loci and 551 bp of mitochondrial control region (mtDNA CR) to explore the genetic structure and demographic history of this species. A total of 123 individuals were sampled from 23 locations across five populations. High levels of genetic variation were identified for both mtDNA and microsatellites. Phylogeographic analyses indicated little geographic structure, suggesting historically wide gene flow. However, microsatellite-based Bayesian clustering clearly identified three groups (Qionglai-Liangshan, Xiaoxiangling and Gaoligong-Tibet). A significant isolation-by-distance pattern was detected only after removing Xiaoxiangling. For mtDNA data, there was no statistical support for a historical population expansion or contraction for the whole sample or any population except Xiaoxiangling where a signal of contraction was detected. However, Bayesian simulations of population history using microsatellite data did pinpoint population declines for Qionglai, Xiaoxiangling and Gaoligong, demonstrating significant influences of human activity on demography. The unique history of the Xiaoxiangling population plays a critical role in shaping the genetic structure of this species, and large-scale habitat loss and fragmentation is hampering gene flow among populations. The implications of our findings for the biogeography of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, subspecies classification and conservation of red pandas are discussed.

Earthquakes not only result in a great loss of human life and property, but also have profound effects on the Earth's biodiversity. The Lushan earthquake occurred on 20 Apr 2013, with a magnitude of 7.0 and an intensity of 9.0 degrees. A distance of 17.0 km from its epicenter to the nearest distribution site of giant pandas recorded in the Third National Survey was determined. Making use of research on the Wenchuan earthquake (with a magnitude of 8.0), which occurred approximately 5 years ago, we briefly analyze the impacts of the Lushan earthquake on giant pandas and their habitat. An earthquake may interrupt ongoing behaviors of giant pandas and may also cause injury or death. In addition, an earthquake can damage conservation facilities for pandas, and result in further habitat fragmentation and degradation. However, from a historical point of view, the impacts of human activities on giant pandas and their habitat may, in fact, far outweigh those of natural disasters such as earthquakes. Measures taken to promote habitat restoration and conservation network reconstruction in earthquake-affected areas should be based on requirements of giant pandas, not those of humans.

Survival, especially the youth, is critical for the reproduction of a species. Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) cubs are not well developed and are vulnerable at birth, and they have developed many survival strategy to assist with survival until adulthood, including rapid growth of their young. By analysing the changes in the daily milk intake and weight gain during the early stages of cub growth for 11 years (2004–2014) over 42 healthy giant panda cubs, we found that milk intake by the cubs increased rapidly during the first 10 days. After 10 days, the daily milk intake decreased gradually and stabilized beginning at 35 days. In addition, the cubs with lower birth weight exhibited higher daily milk intake, while those with higher birth weight consumed less milk per unit of body weight. This study explored the characteristics of daily milk intake during the early growth stage of giant panda cubs, offering insight into adaptations strategy of newborns in this species and providing valuable information for artificial rearing to improve the survival rate of captive panda cubs.

Anthropogenic habitat loss and fragmentation have been implicated in the endangerment and extinction of many species. Here we assess genetic variation and demographic history in the southernmost population of giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) that continues to be threatened by habitat degradation and fragmentation, using noninvasive genetic sampling, mitochondrial control region sequence and 12 microsatellite loci. Compared to other giant panda populations, this population has medium-level genetic diversity based on the measure of both mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Mitochondrial DNA-based demographic analyses revealed that no historical population expansion or contraction has occurred, indicating a relatively stable population size. However, a Bayesian-coalescent method based on the observed allele distribution and allele frequencies of microsatellite clearly did detect, quantify and date a recent decrease in population size. Overall, the results indicate that a population contraction in the order of 95-96% has taken place over the last 910-999 years and is most likely due to anthropogenic habitat loss. These findings highlight the need for a greater focus on habitat protection and restoration for the long-term survival of this giant panda population.

Understanding the spatial genetic structure of populations can provide insight into the ecological or evolutionary processes of the species, and enable wise conservation decisions. We examined the spatial genetic structure of a giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) population in a heterogeneous mountainous landscape using noninvasive genetic sampling and 12 microsatellite loci. Nonrandom genetic structure was detected through spatial autocorrelation analysis, demonstrating a significantly positive autocorrelation over closer distances. Additional spatial analyses showed significantly positive genetic correlation among spatially-proximate males, and no correlation among females and among male–female pairs. These findings suggest a female-biased dispersal pattern and cryptic family grouping among giant pandas on a large mountain-range scale. The spatial extent of genetic structure occurred within 12.5 km, measured by a least-cost path distance model integrating information of habitat quality and habitat preferences of this species. Using the bearing analysis of PASSAGE, we found that directional genetic autocorrelations were in agreement with habitat structure, and habitat heterogeneity may affect the direction of giant panda dispersal. The characterization of spatial genetic structure can provide potentially valuable information for the conservation and management of giant pandas and their habitat.

Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) is essential for sunflower hybridproduction. CMS-GIG2, a new sunflower CMS type, was furtherconfirmed by crossing with the maintainer and restorer lines for theCMS-PET1, both of which maintain the male sterility of CMS-GIG2.Meiotic division in CMS-GIG2 was observed with 4¢6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride staining, indicating that microsporeformation was disrupted before the meiotic cytokinesis was com-pleted. Light microscopy observation showed that both middle layerand tapetal cells expand radially rather than degrade over time,followed by failure to form tetrads and normal microspores. Thismorphological defect leading to male sterility in CMS-GIG2 differsfrom that observed in the PET1 CMS type. CMS-GIG2 will certainlyprovide additional genetic diversity for sunflower hybrid breedingprogrammes. Key words: Helianthus annuus L. — cytoplasmic male sterility— microsporogenesis — meiotic divisionCytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) is a maternally inheritedtrait that has been described in more than 150 plant species,and is characterized by the inability to produce functionalpollen grains, but both vegetative and female development areunaffected (Kaul 1988). The FAO Technical Consultation ofthe European Cooperative Research Network on Sunflowerreported 72 male-sterile sunflower sources of different origins(Serieys 2005), including (i) mutants spontaneously occurringin nature, such as ANN1, ANN2, ANN3 and ANN4(Serieys 1984); (ii) interspecific cross progeny such as ARG3(Christov 1992), CMG1, CMG2 and CMG3 (Whelan andDedio 1980); (iii) intraspecific crosses progeny such as ANT1(Vranceanu et al. 1986), ANL2 (Heiser 1982) and ANL1(Anashchenko et al. 1974) and (iv) MUT1 and MUT2 frommutagenesis of two maintainer lines for the PET1 cytoplasm(Christov 1993). SunflowerCMS-PET1wasfirstidentifiedintheprogeny of the interspecific cross Helianthus petiolaris ·Helianthus annuus (Leclercq 1969), which is the only sourceextensively used in oilseed hybrid production. In addition toidentifying new sources of CMS and corresponding fertilityrestorers to broaden the genetic diversity of hybrid seedproduction, more research work has been focused on theabortionmechanismaswellasthechimericgenesrelatedtoCMS.The observation of microsporogenesis development inCMS-PET1, with the cytoplasm of H. petiolaris and nucleusof H. annuus, indicates that the anther abortion is due totapetum degeneration and disintegration after meiosis II(Horner 1977, Laveau et al. 1989). In some crops, such asPennisetum glaucum L., Triticum aestivum L., Brassica napus L.and Zea mays L., different CMS cytoplasm genotypes with thesame nuclear genotype display various abortion stages,abortion process of microspore development or abnormaltapetum (Li and Sun 1996, Chhabra et al. 1997, Zhou et al.1997, Long et al. 2005). Therefore, the observation ofmicrospore development in different sunflower CMS typeswill extend our knowledge of the important cytoplasmic effectsoccurring during pollen production.The objectives of this study were to compare the antherdevelopment of CMS-GIG2 with HA 89, a public oilseedsunflower inbred maintainer line to confirm the abortion stageof the new CMS, meanwhile, we can primarily identify a newCMS type different from PETl (H. petiolaris cytoplasm andH. annuus nucleus) based on its different reflects in themicrospore abortion as well as cross with some identified linesfor PET1.

Habitat use and separation between the two sympatric species, the giant panda and the red panda, have been primary causes of coexistence at the fine scale. In this paper, we addressed the question of coexistence between species in space. By Ecological Niche Factor Analysis, we calculated species-specific habitat requirements, built habitat suitability maps and examined interspecific differences in spatial niche parameters. According to the ENFA scores, suitable habitats in the giant and red panda are surrounded by high-altitude, and are rich in conifer forest. Compared with the giant panda, however, the red panda rather preferred sparse forests, and normally colonized far from village and road. Despite similar narrow niche breadth for both pandas, difference of niche overlap indices implied that the width of environmental niche of red pandas almost completely encompasses that of the giant panda. We, therefore, suggest that differences in use of ecological niche variables may contribute to coexistence of the sympatric species in space. Based on highly suitable locations of the sympatric species maps, most official reserves appear to be poorly located or are too small, and new reserves are recommended to be established in the central part of core habitats in the Liangshan Mountains.

Abstract Human activities have been a main cause of floral and faunal species extinction and loss of local and global biodiversity. Habitat and population can become fragmented and isolated under anthropogenic disturbances. In this study, we focus on the effect of human activities on the habitat and population of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in the north slopes of Daxiangling Mountains, Sichuan province, China. Based on eight months of field investigation in 2004, we found that the distribution of the giant panda population has been limited to remnants of habitat due to human activities such as road construction, mining and hydropower stations. There is 100.60 km2 area suitable for the giant panda (including moderately suitable, suitable and most suitable), which only accounts for 21.33% of the bamboo area. Based on a dispersal model COST, there were 79.94 km2 areas (17.12%) (including moderately suitable, suitable and most suitable) for giant panda utilization in reality. Only 16.35 km2 areas (3.5%) of total bamboo area were most suitable. The areas that suitable for panda had decreased 20.66 km2 from 2000 in total due to people activities. The results of this study can be used to provide basic information to build nature reserve for protecting giant panda in Daxiangling Mountains.

The giant panda is an icon of conservation and survived a large-scale bamboo die off in the 1980s in China. Captive breeding programs have produced a large population in zoos and efforts continue to reintroduce those animals into the wild. However, we lack sufficient knowledge of their physiological ecology to determine requirements for survival now and in the face of climate change. We measured resting and active metabolic rates of giant pandas in order to determine if current bamboo resources were sufficient for adding additional animals to populations in natural reserves. Resting metabolic rates were somewhat below average for a panda sized mammal and active metabolic rates were in the normal range. Pandas do not have exceptionally low metabolic rates. Nevertheless, there is enough bamboo in natural reserves to support both natural populations and large numbers of reintroduced pandas. Bamboo will not be the limiting factor in successful reintroduction.

Habitat fragmentation can reduce population viability, especially for area-sensitive species. The Minimum Area Requirements (MAR) of a population is the area required for the population’s long-term persistence. In this study, the response of occupancy probability of giant pandas against habitat patch size was studied in five of the six mountain ranges inhabited by giant panda, which cover over 78% of the global distribution of giant panda habitat. The probability of giant panda occurrence was positively associated with habitat patch area, and the observed increase in occupancy probability with patch size was higher than that due to passive sampling alone. These results suggest that the giant panda is an area-sensitive species. The MAR for giant panda was estimated to be 114.7 km2 based on analysis of its occupancy probability. Giant panda habitats appear more fragmented in the three southern mountain ranges, while they are large and more continuous in the other two. Establishing corridors among habitat patches can mitigate habitat fragmentation, but expanding habitat patch sizes is necessary in mountain ranges where fragmentation is most intensive.

Chinese leymus is a perennial grass in the Gramineae family, which is widely distributed in Northern China and Mongolia. The breeding cycle in Chinese leymus is time-consuming because of its high level of seed dormancy. To improve the breeding process, we established a simple technique that shortens the breeding cycle by culturing immature embryos in vitro to produce plantlets immediately. This technique can potentially save 1 yr in each sexual breeding cycle. Factors affecting germination of immature embryos were evaluated. Immature embryos at different developmental stages were cultured on Murashige and Skoog basic medium. The immature embryos collected 11–16 d after pollination expressed the maximum germination rate (100%), but the maximum efficiency of recovery was observed at 15–16 d after pollination. The germination time of embryos increased and length of the germinated shoots decreased as the age of the embryos increased. All plantlets survived transplantation to the field. Two generations were obtained within 2 yr starting from immature embryo cultures, as compared to one generation using conventional breeding techniques.

Chinese leymus (Leymus chinensis Trin.) is a perennial grass of the Gramineae, which is widely distributed in China, Mongolia and in Russian-Siberian. In order to explore the potential of biotechnology for genetic improvement of this forage grass, an efficient tissue culture system was established and the factors affecting plant regeneration were evaluated. Immature inflorescence segments 3–5 mm in length from eight accessions were cultured on N6 medium supplemented with 2.26–22.60 µM 2,4-D. The callus induction frequency ranged from 72.11 to 82.19%. Shoots were differentiated from the calli on N6 medium containing 4.65 µM kinetin and 4.44 µM BA. Viable regenerants were developed on hormone-free medium. Normal plants were obtained after natural vernalization in the field. The plant regeneration frequency in Chinese leymus was associated with different genotypes and different combinations of growth regulators in medium. The concentration of 2,4-D in the callus induction medium had a strong effect on successive plant regeneration. Relatively higher concentrations of 2,4-D (i.e., 9.04 and 22.60 µM) were more favorable to the plant regeneration than lower ones (i.e., 2.26 and 4.52 µM). This is the first report on plant regeneration in vitro in L. chinensis.

Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) conservation is a possible success story in the making. If extinction of this iconic endangered species can be avoided, the species will become a showcase program for the Chinese government and its collaborators. We reviewed the major advancements in ecological science for the giant panda, examining how these advancements have contributed to panda conservation. Pandas' morphological and behavioral adaptations to a diet of bamboo, which bear strong influence on movement ecology, have been well studied, providing knowledge to guide management actions ranging from reserve design to climate change mitigation. Foraging ecology has also provided essential information used in the creation of landscape models of panda habitat. Because habitat loss and fragmentation are major drivers of the panda population decline, efforts have been made to help identify core habitat areas, establish where habitat corridors are needed, and prioritize areas for protection and restoration. Thus, habitat models have provided guidance for the Chinese governments' creation of 67 protected areas. Behavioral research has revealed a complex and efficient communication system and documented the need for protection of habitat that serves as a communication platform for bringing the sexes together for mating. Further research shows that den sites in old-growth forests may be a limiting resource, indicating potential value in providing alternative den sites for rearing offspring. Advancements in molecular ecology have been revolutionary and have been applied to population census, determining population structure and genetic diversity, evaluating connectivity following habitat fragmentation, and understanding dispersal patterns. These advancements form a foundation for increasing the application of adaptive management approaches to move panda conservation forward more rapidly. Although the Chinese government has made great progress in setting aside protected areas, future emphasis will be improved management of pandas and their habitat.

Understanding habitat requirements and identifying landscape linkages are essential for the survival of isolated populations of endangered species. Currently, some of the giant panda populations are isolated, which threatens their long-term survival, particularly in the Xiaoxiangling mountains. In the present study, we quantified niche requirements and then identified potential linkages of giant panda subpopulations in the most isolated region, using ecological niche factor analysis and a least-cost path model. Giant pandas preferred habitat with conifer forest and gentle slopes (>20 to ≤30°). Based on spatial distribution of suitable habitat, linkages were identified for the Yele subpopulation to 4 other subpopulations (Liziping, Matou, Xinmin and Wanba). Their lengths ranged from 15 to 54 km. The accumulated cost ranged from 693 to 3166 and conifer forest covered over 31%. However, a variety of features (e.g. major roads, human settlements and large unforested areas) might act as barriers along the linkages for giant panda dispersal. Our analysis quantified giant panda subpopulation connectivity to ensure long-term survival.

Clarification of the genetic structure and population history of a species can shed light on the impacts of landscapes, historical climate change and contemporary human activities and thus enables evidence-based conservation decisions for endangered organisms. The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is an endangered species distributing at the edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and is currently subject to habitat loss, fragmentation and population decline, thus representing a good model to test the influences of the above-mentioned factors on a plateau edge species. We combined nine microsatellite loci and 551 bp of mitochondrial control region (mtDNA CR) to explore the genetic structure and demographic history of this species. A total of 123 individuals were sampled from 23 locations across five populations. High levels of genetic variation were identified for both mtDNA and microsatellites. Phylogeographic analyses indicated little geographic structure, suggesting historically wide gene flow. However, microsatellite-based Bayesian clustering clearly identified three groups (Qionglai-Liangshan, Xiaoxiangling and Gaoligong-Tibet). A significant isolation-by-distance pattern was detected only after removing Xiaoxiangling. For mtDNA data, there was no statistical support for a historical population expansion or contraction for the whole sample or any population except Xiaoxiangling where a signal of contraction was detected. However, Bayesian simulations of population history using microsatellite data did pinpoint population declines for Qionglai, Xiaoxiangling and Gaoligong, demonstrating significant influences of human activity on demography. The unique history of the Xiaoxiangling population plays a critical role in shaping the genetic structure of this species, and large-scale habitat loss and fragmentation is hampering gene flow among populations. The implications of our findings for the biogeography of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, subspecies classification and conservation of red pandas are discussed.