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Bacterial meningitis, an infection of the membranes (meninges) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surrounding the brain and spinal cord, is one of the major causes of death and disability worldwide. Higher case-fatality rates and short survival times have been reported in developing countries. Hence, a quick, straightforward, and low-cost approach is in great demand for the diagnosis of meningitis. In this research, a microfluidic fully paper-based analytical device (μFPAD) integrated with loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and ssDNA-functionalized graphene oxide (GO) nano-biosensors was developed for the first time for a simple, rapid, low-cost, and quantitative detection of the main meningitis-causing bacteria

Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory infection caused by Bordetella pertussis and to minor extent B. parapertussis. Despite high vaccination coverage, epidemics persist worldwide. Laborator...

Concussion is a transitory brain injury resulting from a blow to the head. Concussion is considered a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), which is self-limited. Repetitive mTBI has been associated with chronic, progressive neurological damage. Extreme biochemical changes occur in neuron cells as a result of mTBI. These metabolic disturbances may reflect the symptoms observed in patients who had suffered concussions. However, it has been difficult to correlate clinical signs and symptoms. Currently, there are no laboratory tests to diagnose concussion, though several biomarkers are being investigated. Further studies are needed to elucidate the biochemical details of the metabolic cascade and the associated time frame, which will help determine when an athlete can safely return to the game.

Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory infection caused byThis review will describe the features of the Simplexa™ Bordetella Direct Assay and compare this technology with other existing assays. Unmet needs and future directions will be discussed.Resurgence of pertussis highlights the importance of reliable and accurate diagnosis. The Simplexa™ Bordetella Direct Assay provides an easy workflow, reduced hand-on time, less risk of contamination, and rapid turnaround time. The use of efficient molecular assays in routine clinical laboratory is valuable for increasing demand, improvement of infection control, and surveillance.

Silver (Ag) complexes of drugs and their nanosystems have great potential as antibacterials. Recently, an Ag complex of furosemide (Ag–FSE) has shown to be a promising antimicrobial. However, poor solubility of Ag–FSE could hamper its introduction into clinics. Therefore, the authors developed a nanosuspension of Ag–FSE (Ag–FSE_NS) for its solubility and antibacterial activity enhancement. The aim of this study was to introduce a novel nanoantibiotic with enhanced antibacterial efficacy. Ag–FSE_NS was prepared by precipitation–ultrasonication technique. Size, polydispersity index (PI) and zeta potential (ZP) of prepared Ag–FSE_NS were measured by dynamic light scattering, whereas surface morphology was determined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In vitro antibacterial activity was evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa using broth microdilution method. Size, PI and ZP of optimised Ag–FSE_NS1 were 191.2 ± 19.34 nm, 0.465 ± 0.059 and −55.7 ± 8.18 mV, respectively. SEM revealed that Ag–FSE_NS1 particles were rod or needle‐like with smooth surfaces. Saturation solubility of Ag–FSE in NS increased eight‐fold than pure Ag–FSE. Ag–FSE_NS1 exhibited two‐fold and eight‐fold enhancements in activity against E. coli and S. aureus, respectively. The results obtained showed that developed Ag–FSE_NS1 holds a promise as a topical antibacterial.

Background. The worldwide emergence of multi-drug resistant bacteria has become a health crisis, as fewer or sometimes no antimicrobial agents are effective against these bacteria. The Rio Grande River is the natural boundary between the United States (US) and Mexico. It spans a border region between Texas, New Mexico and Mexico. Underserved populations on the Mexican side use the river for recreational purposes, while on the US side, the river is used for irrigation and as a source of drinking water. Objectives. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the concentration of antibiotic residues, to determine the presence of genetic elements conferring antibiotic resistance and to characterize multi-drug resistant bacteria in the waters of the Rio Grande River. Methods. Water samples were obtained from the Rio Grande River. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted from both isolated bacteria and directly from the water. Amplification of selected genetic elements was accomplished by polymerase chain reaction. Identification and isolation of bacteria was performed through MicroScan autoSCAN-4. Fecal contamination was assessed by IDEXX Colilert. Antibiotic residues were determined by liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Results. Antibiotics were found in 92% of both water and sediment samples. Antibiotic concentrations ranged from 0.38 ng/L - 742.73 ng/L and 0.39 ng/l - 66.3 ng/g dry weight in water and sediment samples, respectively. Genetic elements conferring resistance were recovered from all collection sites. Of the isolated bacteria, 91 (64.08%) were resistant to at least two synergistic antibiotic combinations and 11 (14.79%) were found to be resistant to 20 or more individual antibiotics. Fecal contamination was higher during the months of April and July. Conclusions. The 26 km segment of the Rio Grande River from Sunland Park NM to El Paso, TX and Juarez, Mexico is an area of concern due to poor water quality. The presence of multidrug resistant bacteria, antibiotics and mobile genetic elements may be a health hazard for the surrounding populations of this binational border region. Policies need to be developed for the appropriate management of the environmental natural resources in this border region. Competing Interests. The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Neisseria meningitidis (N. meningitidis), Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae), and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) are three most common pathogens accounting for most bacterial meningitis, a serious global infectious disease with high fatality, especially in developing nations. Because the treatment and antibiotics differ among each type, the identification of the exact bacteria causing the disease is vital. Herein, we report a polymer/paper hybrid microfluidic biochip integrated with loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for multiplexed instrument-free diagnosis of these three major types of bacterial meningitis, with high sensitivity and specificity. Results can be visually observed by the naked eye or imaged by a smartphone camera under a portable UV light source. Without using any specialized laboratory instrument, the limits of detection of a few DNA copies per LAMP zone for N. meningitidis, S. pneumoniae and Hib were achieved within 1 hour. In addition, these three types of microorganisms spiked in artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) were directly detected simultaneously, avoiding cumbersome sample preparation procedures in conventional methods. Compared with the paper-free non-hybrid microfluidic biochip over a period of three months, the hybrid microfluidic biochip was found to have a much longer shelf life. Hence, this rapid, instrument-free and highly sensitive microfluidic approach has great potential for point-of-care (POC) diagnosis of multiple infectious diseases simultaneously, especially in resource-limited settings.

The discovery of antibiotics has been one of the foremost medical advances of the 20th century. Antibiotics are essential components of medical practice used to treat, prevent, and control bacterial pathogens. Unfortunately the misuse and abuse of these “wonder” drugs has led to the development of multidrug-resistant organisms, which are very difficult to treat. Coincident with the increasing development of resistance is the decline in the development of new antibiotics by the pharmaceutical industry. The possibility of a “postantibiotic era” where bacterial infections will be untreatable may become real if international efforts do not come together to combat this complex problem. The present chapter will provide a general overview of antimicrobial resistance including a brief history of antibiotics, main mechanisms of resistance, “superbugs,” the spread of resistant genes in humans and nature, and antibiotics in the environment. New therapeutic approaches and alternatives to antibiotics will also be reviewed briefly.

A portable multiplexed bar-chart SpinChip (MB-SpinChip) integrated with nanoparticle-mediated magnetic aptasensors was developed for visual quantitative instrument-free detection of multiple pathogens. This versatile multiplexed SpinChip combines aptamer-specific recognition and nanoparticle-catalyzed pressure amplification to achieve a sample-to-answer output for sensitive point-of-care testing (POCT). This is the first report of pathogen detection using a volumetric bar-chart chip, and it is also the first bar-chart chip using a "spinning" mechanism to achieve multiplexed bar-chart detection. Additionally, the introduction of the spin unit not only enabled convenient sample introduction from one inlet to multiple separate channels in the multiplexed detection, but also elegantly solved the pressure cross-interference problem in the multiplexed volumetric bar-chart chip. This user-friendly MB-SpinChip allows visual quantitative detection of multiple pathogens simultaneously with high sensitivity but without utilizing any specialized instruments. Using this MB-SpinChip, three major foodborne pathogens including Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes were specifically quantified in apple juice with limits of detection of about 10 CFU/mL. This MB-SpinChip with a bar-chart-based visual quantitative readout has great potential for the rapid simultaneous detection of various pathogens at the point of care and wide applications in food safety, environmental surveillance, and infectious disease diagnosis.

With the continued increase of genomic information and computational analyses during the recent years, the number of newly discovered calcium binding proteins (CaBPs) in prokaryotic organisms has increased dramatically. These proteins contain sequences that closely resemble a variety of eukaryotic calcium (Ca(2+)) binding motifs including the canonical and pseudo EF-hand motifs, Ca(2+)-binding β-roll, Greek key motif and a novel putative Ca(2+)-binding domain, called the Big domain. Prokaryotic CaBPs have been implicated in diverse cellular activities such as division, development, motility, homeostasis, stress response, secretion, transport, signaling and host-pathogen interactions. However, the majority of these proteins are hypothetical, and only few of them have been studied functionally. The finding of many diverse CaBPs in prokaryotic genomes opens an exciting area of research to explore and define the role of Ca(2+) in organisms other than eukaryotes. This review presents the most recent developments in the field of CaBPs and novel advancements in the role of Ca(2+) in prokaryotes.

Concussion is a transitory brain injury resulting from a blow to the head. Concussion is considered a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), which is self-limited. Repetitive mTBI has been associated with chronic, progressive neurologic damage. Extreme biochemical changes occur in neuron cells as a result of mTBI. These metabolic disturbances may reflect the symptoms observed in patients who had concussions. However, it has been difficult to match clinical signs and symptoms. Currently, there is no test to diagnose concussion. Further studies are needed to elucidate the biochemical details of the metabolic cascade and the associated time frame, which will help determine when an athlete can safely return to the game.

Bacterial meningitis is a serious health concern worldwide. Given that meningitis can be fatal and many meningitis cases occurred in high-poverty areas, a simple, low-cost, highly sensitive method is in great need for immediate and early diagnosis of meningitis. Herein, we report a versatile and cost-effective polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)/paper hybrid microfluidic device integrated with loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for the rapid, sensitive, and instrument-free detection of the main meningitis-causing bacteria, Neisseria meningitidis (N. meningitidis). The introduction of paper into the microfluidic device for LAMP reactions enables stable test results over a much longer period of time than a paper-free microfluidic system. This hybrid system also offers versatile functions, by providing not only on-site qualitative diagnostic analysis (i.e., a yes or no answer), but also confirmatory testing and quantitative analysis in laboratory settings. The limit of detection of N. meningitidis is about 3 copies per LAMP zone within 45 min, close to single-bacterium detection sensitivity. In addition, we have achieved simple pathogenic microorganism detection without a laborious sample preparation process and without the use of centrifuges. This low-cost hybrid microfluidic system provides a simple and highly sensitive approach for fast instrument-free diagnosis of N. meningitidis in resource-limited settings. This versatile PDMS/paper microfluidic platform has great potential for the point of care (POC) diagnosis of a wide range of infectious diseases, especially for developing nations.

Background A combination capsule of bismuth, metronidazole, and tetracycline plus omeprazole given as 10-day therapy has an overall effectiveness of 92–93% in per-protocol analysis (Grade B) with eradication of 86–91% of metronidazole-resistant Helicobacter pylori. This study aimed to explore whether extending the duration to 14 days would improve overall effectiveness per protocol to ≥95% (Grade A) in a population in which metronidazole resistance was anticipated to exist. Methods A one-arm, open-label pilot study of H. pylori-infected, asymptomatic/mildly dyspeptic adults, Hispanic residents of El Paso, Texas, received a 14-day course of omeprazole, plus the combination capsule. We cultured and Gram-stained specimens obtained using a minimally invasive orogastric brush. Helicobacter pylori status was determined by 13 C-urea breath test at 4 or more weeks post-therapy. Results Forty-seven subjects (7 men and 40 women, average age 42 years) were entered. The per-protocol effectiveness was 97.1% (33/34) (95% mid-P CI: 86.3, 99.9); 100% of metronidazole-resistant strains were eradicated. Side effects were mild and self-limited but contributed to nonadherence. Therapy taken for

We assessed whether Helicobacter pylori eradication was followed by changes in iron stores among non-iron-deficient children.Double-blind randomized intervention trial on 110 asymptomatic 3- to 10-year-olds with H pylori infection assigned to any of the following 4 arms: both quadruple eradication and iron supplementation, either quadruple sequential eradication or iron supplementation, or placebo only. Hemoglobin, transferrin saturation, and serum ferritin were measured at baseline and 8 months later to assess changes according to study arm, H pylori infection status at ≥45 days, and cytotoxin-associated gene product A status.Intent-to-treat (n = 110) and per-protocol (n = 90) analyses revealed no differences across study arms in changes of iron stores. However, we found that those who had their infection eradicated had a 3-fold increased average change from baseline serum ferritin compared with that of children who remained infected (P0.05). Eradication of infection by cytotoxin-associated gene product A negative strains was associated with a larger ferritin increase.In this double-blind randomized trial, the first among non-iron-deficient, asymptomatic H pylori-infected children living in the contiguous United States, we found no effect of H pylori eradication regarding changes in iron stores. However, those who had their infection eradicated at follow-up had a significantly larger increase in serum ferritin from baseline.

El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico comprise the largest U.S./Mexico border population.Bacterial samples were collected from two hospitals in El Paso and two in Ciudad Juarez and transported to a reference microbiology laboratory in El Paso for microbial identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing according to NCCLS standards. The presence of the MecA gene, and the prevalence of both the SSCmec IV element and the Panton-Valentine leukocidin were investigated by PCR in all MRSA isolates.A total of 201 isolates in El Paso and 128 in Ciudad Juarez of Staphylococcus aureus were identified, of those, MRSA were significantly more prevalent in El Paso than in Ciudad Juarez [89 (44.3%) versus 10 (7.8%) respectively (p0.0001)]. Thirty one (35%) of MRSA strains isolated in El Paso were community associated.Significantly higher prevalence of MRSA infections was documented in El Paso compared to Ciudad Juarez.

Multi drug resistant (MDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Extended- Spectrum-lactamase (ESBL) Enterobacteriaceae are becoming an increasing difficult clinical problem. Immediate resistance to some of the new antimicrobials such as ceftolozane/tazobactam is unusual and is due to a variety of mechanisms such as hyper-production of inactivating enzymes and gene mutation. In addition, previous antimicrobial administration is a well-recognized risk factor to develop resistance. We present a patient with a liver abscess where the organism was resistant to ceftolozane/tazobactam resulting in a poor clinical outcome.

Whereas the importance of calcium as a cell regulator is well established in eukaryotes, the role of calcium in prokaryotes is still elusive. Over the past few years, there has been an increased interest in the role of calcium in bacteria. It has been demonstrated that as in eukaryotic organisms, the intracellular calcium concentration in prokaryotes is tightly regulated ranging from 100 to 300 nM. It has been found that calcium ions are involved in the maintenance of cell structure, motility, transport and cell differentiation processes such as sporulation, heterocyst formation and fruiting body development. In addition, a number of calcium-binding proteins have been isolated in several prokaryotic organisms. The characterization of these proteins and the identification of other factors suggest the possibility that calcium signal transduction exists in bacteria. This review presents recent developments of calcium in bacteria as it relates to signal transduction.

Background Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease, also called histiocytic necrotizing lymphadenitis, is a self-limiting lymphadenopathy of unknown cause. The patient often presents with fever, malaise, and lymphadenopathy primarily involving the cervical lymph nodes. Laboratory findings are nonspecific, and the diagnosis is established by identifying characteristic pathologic features from lymph node biopsy. The etiologic agent has been proposed to be of viral origin; specifically, human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) has been implicated. Methods The clinical, histologic, serologic, and molecular data from 471 cases of Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease reported between 1982 and 2001 and their relationship to HHV-6 were reviewed. Results Thirty-two of the 471 patients in this review were tested for HHV-6 serology; all 32 had elevated titers for HHV-6. One hundred twelve patients with lymphadenopathies, including histiocytic necrotizing lymphadenitis, tested positive for HHV-6 by polymerase chain reaction. In situ hybridization results were positive in 41 cases. Conclusion This review illustrates the necessity for consistent molecular and serologic analysis.

Infectious pathogens often cause serious public health concerns throughout the world. There is an increasing demand for simple, rapid and sensitive approaches for multiplexed pathogen detection. In this paper we have developed a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)/paper/glass hybrid microfluidic system integrated with aptamer-functionalized graphene oxide (GO) nano-biosensors for simple, one-step, multiplexed pathogen detection. The paper substrate used in this hybrid microfluidic system facilitated the integration of aptamer biosensors on the microfluidic biochip, and avoided complicated surface treatment and aptamer probe immobilization in a PDMS or glass-only microfluidic system. Lactobacillus acidophilus was used as a bacterium model to develop the microfluidic platform with a detection limit of 11.0 cfu mL(-1). We have also successfully extended this method to the simultaneous detection of two infectious pathogens - Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enterica. This method is simple and fast. The one-step 'turn on' pathogen assay in a ready-to-use microfluidic device only takes ~10 min to complete on the biochip. Furthermore, this microfluidic device has great potential in rapid detection of a wide variety of different other bacterial and viral pathogens.

We assessed the efficacy of a novel quadruple sequential 10-day eradication therapy, its compliance, and reported adverse events in a sample of asymptomatically Helicobacter pylori-infected children in El Paso, Texas, as part of a study aiming to assess the influence of this infection on the levels of markers of iron stores.Using a double-blind randomized trial design, 110 asymptomatic children ages 3 to 11 with H pylori infection were randomly assigned to receive either a 10-day course of sequential eradication therapy plus 6 weeks of iron supplementation, eradication therapy plus placebo, iron supplementation plus placebo, or placebo only. H pylori infection status was assessed ≥45 days after treatment using the urea breath test. Analyses compared the proportion of subjects cured according to assignment to and completion of the sequential eradication therapy.Intent-to-treat and per-protocol analyses indicated that 44.3% and 52.9%, respectively, of the children receiving the novel quadruple sequential therapy had their infection eradicated compared with 12.2% and 15.4% in the arms receiving iron or placebo only, respectively (P0.001 in both analyses). Study medications were taken with no or only mild adverse events in most children.A quadruple sequential regimen eradicated H pylori in only half the asymptomatic children receiving this treatment. There was no difference in the cure rates of those receiving iron supplementation and those receiving placebo.

Rapid immunochromatographic tests for Helicobacter pylori infection have been developed to allow "near-patient" testing. We therefore performed a pilot study to test a rapid immunochromatographic stool antigen test for the diagnosis of H. pylori infection in asymptomatic children. We tested stool specimens collected from children participating in a cohort study in the United States and Mexico. H. pylori-positive status was defined by positivity on at least 2 tests: a commercial H. pylori stool antigen enzyme immunoassay, an immunoglobulin G antibody enzyme immunoassay, and the C-urea breath test. Negative H. pylori status was defined by negative findings of all of these tests. Of 52 children (22 girls, 30 boys) 25 were H. pylori-positive, 19 H. pylori-negative, and 8 uncertain (eg, presumably negative; positive findings on 1 of the 3 noninvasive tests). The sensitivity and specificity of the new stool antigen test for those with definite H. pylori status were 100% (exact 95% CI 86.3%-100% and 82.4%-100%, respectively). This rapid stool antigen test may prove useful for point-of-care testing and epidemiological field studies. Larger prospective studies are needed in symptomatic and asymptomatic children for more precise estimates.

The word proteomics was coined in 1997 to describe the changes in all proteins expressed by a genome. Several sophisticated techniques including two-dimensional electrophoresis, imaging, mass spectrometry, and bioinformatics are used in proteomics to identify, quantify, and characterize proteins. Clinical proteomics is the application ofproteomics techniques to the medical field. The main aim of this methodology is to identify proteins involved in pathological processes and to understand how illness can lead to altered protein expression. Clinical proteomics offers the opportunity and the potential to develop new diagnostic and prognostic tests, to identify new therapeutic targets, and eventually to allow the design of individualized patient treatment. Here we present an overview of proteomics applications to the study of disease and its potential to improve diagnosis and prognosis.

Technological advances in the field of genomics have given rise to the development of a new area called proteomics. Proteomics involves the analysis of all proteins expressed in a genome and uses a combination of sophisticated technologies such as two-dimensional electrophoresis, mass spectrometry and bioinformatics to identify and characterize proteins. This new area offers the potential to discover new biomarkers, improve diagnosis, and improve the prognosis of disease processes. This article presents an overview of proteomics importance and related technologies.

Proteomics techniques are essential tools for protein detection and characterization. Besides several advances in the proteomics field, the two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) technique is the most important method for protein separation. The combination of 2-DE technique, new advances in mass spectrometry and bioinformatics promises to unveil protein function and pathological mechanisms of disease.

Whereas the importance of calcium as a cell regulator is well established in eukaryotes, the role of calcium in prokaryotes is still elusive. Over the past few years, there has been an increased interest in the role of calcium in bacteria. It has been demonstrated that as in eukaryotic organisms, the intracellular calcium concentration in prokaryotes is tightly regulated ranging from 100 to 300 nM. It has been found that calcium ions are involved in the maintenance of cell structure, motility, transport and cell differentiation processes such as sporulation, heterocyst formation and fruiting body development. In addition, a number of calcium-binding proteins have been isolated in several prokaryotic organisms. The characterization of these proteins and the identification of other factors suggest the possibility that calcium signal transduction exists in bacteria. This review presents recent developments of calcium in bacteria as it relates to signal transduction.

Disseminated fungal infection is an important cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in immunocompromised hosts. Amphotericin B is an important part of the therapy and treatment of invasive and life-threatening mycoses. We present a case of disseminated coccidioidomycosis in a patient who was successfully treated with liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) on steroid therapy. It appears that liposomal amphotericin B may offer an alternative and safe option in the treatment of coccidioidomycosis when conventional amphotericin B cannot be used.

We report the first case in the medical literature of disseminated Cornybacterium propinquum (C propinquum) infection in a patient with extrapulmonary tuberculosis. The microbiology and the treatment of this unusual bacterium is reviewed.