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(1) To investigate sex differences in molar wear in known-age Cayo Santiago rhesus macaques (Data set I comprises wear scores, ages and body weights of 212 living monkeys included in the 1985 roundup. Data set II consists of molar wear measurements taken on 2D images of 103 of these monkeys' dental remains. Ordinal logistic regression was used to analyze the first data set. General linear models were used to analyze the second.Males generally exhibited more wear than females at equivalent chronological ages, though results varied by tooth type for the second data set. Male body weight in the full 1985 living sample was significantly related to dental wear, when age was taken into account; however, when males less than eight years of age were eliminated from the sample, the association between dental wear and weight became statistically insignificant. Analysis of the second data set suggested no statistically significant sex difference in dental wear for third molars, despite the approximately two year sex difference in eruption age for this tooth type.This study suggests that body weight in males might be a predictor of dental wear and that if it is, body weight might also influence sex differences in dental wear. Sex differences in dental eruption timing do not appear to explain sex differences in dental wear in this sample.

Objectives Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) is a common skeletal marker of physiological stress (e.g., malnutrition or illness) that is studied within and across populations, without reference to familial risk. We examine LEH prevalence in a population with known genealogical relationships to determine the potential influence of genetic heritability and shared environment. Methods LEH data of 239 individuals from a single population were recorded from the Ohio State University Menegaz-Bock collection dental casts. All individuals were of known age, sex, and genealogy. Narrow-sense heritability estimates were obtained for LEH presence and count data from all unworn, fully erupted teeth (excluding third molars) using SOLAR (v.8.1.1). Age, sex, and age-sex interaction were included as covariates. Models were re-run with a household effect variable. Results LEH persists across generations in this study population with moderate, significant heritability estimates for presence in four teeth, and count in four teeth (three teeth were significant for both). When a household effect variable was added, no residual heritability remained for LEH count on any tooth. There was no significant household effect for three of the four teeth that had significant heritability estimates for LEH presence. Age was a significant covariate. Further analyses with birth year data revealed a secular trend toward less LEH. Conclusions This study provides evidence for familial risk of LEH (genetic and environmental) that has consequences for the broad use of this skeletal marker of stress. These results have repercussions for archaeological assemblages, or population health studies, where genetic relatives and household groups might be heavily represented.

Primate models are important for understanding human conditions, especially in studies of ageing, pathology, adaptation, and evolution. However, how to integrate data from multiple disciplines and render them compatible with each other for datamining and in-depth study is always challenging. In a long-term project, we have started a collaborative research endeavor to examine the health history of a free-ranging rhesus macaque colony at Cayo Santiago, and build a knowledge model for anthropological and biomedical/translational studies of the effects of environment and genetics on bone development, aging, and pathologies. This paper discusses the conceptual design as well as the prototyping of this model and related graphical user interfaces, and how these will help future scientific queries and studies.

Background Evidence of a long-period biological rhythm present in mammalian hard tissue relates to species average body mass. Studies have just begun to investigate the role of this biorhythm in human physiology. Methods The biorhythm is calculated from naturally exfoliated primary molars for 61 adolescents. We determine if the timing relates to longitudinal measures of their weight, height, lower leg length and body mass collected over 14 months between September 2019 to October 2020. We use univariate and multivariate statistical analyses to isolate and identify relationships with the biorhythm. Results Participants with a faster biorhythm typically weigh less each month and gain significantly less weight and mass over 14-months, relative to those with a slower biorhythm. The biorhythm relates to sex differences in weight gain. Conclusions We identify a previously unknown factor that associates with the rapid change in body size that accompanies human adolescence. Our findings provide a basis from which to explore novel relationships between the biorhythm and weight-related health risks.

Objective: To investigate and describe the variation in enamel daily secretion rates (DSRs) of naturally exfoliated deciduous molars (n = 345) from five modern-day populations (Aotearoa New Zealand, Britain, Canada, France, and Sweden). \ud \ud Design: Each tooth was thin sectioned and examined using a high-powered Olympus BX51 microscope and DP25 digital microscope camera. Mean DSRs were recorded for the inner, mid, and outer regions of cuspal and lateral enamel, excluding enamel nearest the enamel-dentin junction and at the outermost crown surface.\ud \ud Results: Mean DSRs did not vary significantly between populations, or by sex. Cuspal enamel grew slightly faster than lateral enamel (mean difference 0.16 µm per day; p < 0.001). The trajectory of DSRs remained relatively constant from inner to outer cuspal enamel and increased slightly in lateral enamel (p = 0.003). \ud \ud Conclusions: The DSRs of deciduous molars from modern-day children are remarkably consistent when compared among populations. While growth rates are faster in cuspal than lateral enamel, the trajectory of enamel formation changes only slightly from inner to outer regions. The trajectory of DSRs for deciduous molars differs to that of permanent molar enamel, which typically display a steep increase in matrix deposition from inner to outer enamel.

Linear enamel hypoplasias are developmental defects ranging in appearance from microscopic to macroscopic furrows in enamel that encircle the tooth crown. Environmental stressors, including lack of food and infectious diseases during early periods of development, are known to induce hypoplasias in human and nonhuman primates. Social correlates of hypoplasias have not been extensively studied, however. Here, we examined the relationship between matriline dominance rank and linear enamel hypoplasia prevalence (i.e., absence or presence) and count (the total number of hypoplasias observed) in free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macacca mulatta) in Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico. We sampled 86 female offspring from low-, mid-, and high-ranking matrilines. Our results show that although hypoplasia prevalence and count were numerically higher in the combined group of low-and mid-ranking matrilines than in high-ranking matrilines, this effect was not statistically significant. There was, however, a significant negative relationship between age and hypoplasia prevalence, as well as between age and mean number of enamel defects, likely due to the attrition and abrasion of enamel that wear away shallow defects as individuals age. Future studies would benefit from using large sample sizes and collecting detailed behavioral data to determine if and when social status mediates enamel defect formation.

OBJECTIVES This article presents estimates of narrow-sense heritability and bivariate genetic correlation for 14 tooth crown morphological variants scored on permanent premolars, first molars, and second molars. The objective is to inform data collection and analytical practices in dental biodistance and to provide insights on the development of molar crowns as integrated structures. MATERIALS AND METHODS African American dental casts from the Menegaz-Bock collection were recorded for the Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System. Estimates of narrow-sense heritability and genetic correlation were generated using SOLAR v.8.1.1, which included assessment of age, sex, and birth year as covariates. Both continuous scale and dichotomized estimates are provided. RESULTS Heritability estimates were nonsignificant for the majority of variables; however, for variables yielding significant estimates, values were moderate to high in magnitude and comparable to previous studies. Comparing left and right-side heritability estimates suggests directional asymmetry in the expression of environmental variance, something not seen in anterior tooth traits. Genetic correlations were moderate among antimeres and metameres and low for different traits scored on the same tooth crown. Although several negative correlations were noted, few reached statistical significance. Results affirm some of the current data cleaning and analytical practices in dental biodistance, but others are called into question. These include the pooling of males and females and combining left and right-side data into a single dataset. CONCLUSIONS In comparison to anterior tooth crown traits, postcanine heritabilities were more often non-significant; however, those traits with significant heritability also tended to produce higher estimates. Genetic correlations were unremarkable, in part, because they were underpowered. However, M1 results may provide insight into the complex relationship between genes, environment, and development in determining ultimate crown form.

Studies of enamel growth and thickness, whether in paleoanthropology, bioarchaeology, or primatology, require measurements of crown height (CH), cuspal enamel thickness (CET), average (AET), and/or regional enamel thickness (RegAET) on complete, unworn crowns. Yet because fully unworn crowns are uncommon, three methods to bolster sample sizes by reconstructing slightly worn teeth have been developed: Profile, Polynomial, and Pen Tool. Although these methods have been tested for accuracy, no study has yet directly compared the three methods to assess their performance across CH, CET, AET, and RegAET measurements. Moreover, it is currently unclear how accurate the methods are when reconstructing crowns with varying degrees of wear. The present study addresses this gap in our understanding of how these methods perform on four key dental measurements, evaluates the degree of wear for which accurate crown reconstructions can be completed, and offers recommendations for applying these methods. Here, the methods are compared on Paranthropus robustus mandibular molars, a sample chosen because it exhibits variable morphology, presenting a challenge for reconstruction methods. For minimally worn teeth, Profile, Polynomial, and Pen Tool methods can be employed (in that order) for all measurements except CET, which cannot be reliably measured on reconstructions. For teeth with wear that obliterates the nadir of the occlusal basin or dentin horns, CH and AET can be measured using Profile and Polynomial reconstructions; however, no other measurements or methods were reliable. Recommendations provided here will make it possible to increase sample sizes and replicability, enhancing studies of enamel thickness and growth.

Objectives: Human tooth enamel retains evidence of growth in the form of Retzius lines. The number of daily growth increments between the regularly occurring lines defines their repeat interval, or periodicity. Retzius periodicity is often incorporated into enamel formation times, age-at-death reconstructions, or used to provide a basis from which to explore an underlying biorhythm. Biological anthropologists typically assume that RP remains constant within an individual and does not vary along the tooth-row. Here, we test that assumption. Materials and methods: RP was calculated from n = 223 thin sections of human permanent teeth from individuals of British and southern African origin. Forty individuals provided multiple teeth (n = 102 teeth) and a further 121 individuals each provided a single tooth. Results: We report first evidence that RP of permanent teeth does not always remain constant within an individual. Of those individuals that provided multiple teeth, 42% (n = 17/40) demonstrated a decrease in RP along the tooth row, with most shifting by two or more days (n = 11). Across the entire sample, mean RP of anterior teeth was significantly higher than molars. Mean premolar RP tended to be intermediate between anterior teeth and molars.Discussion: Our data do not support the assumption that RP invariably remains constant within the permanent teeth of an individual. Transferring RP from molars to incisors within an individual can result in a miscalculation of formation time and age-at-death by up to one year. Implications for biological anthropologists and the source of the underlying long period biorhythm are discussed.

Life on earth is regulated by biological rhythms, some of which oscillate with a circadian, monthly or lunar cycle. Recent research suggests that there is a near weekly biorhythm that may exert an influence on human skeletal growth. Evidence for the timing of this biorhythm is retained in tooth enamel as the periodicity of Retzius lines. Studies report that Retzius periodicity (RP) relates to adult human stature and enamel thickness. Adult human stature is sexually dimorphic, and so is enamel thickness of maxillary third molars (M3) but not mandibular M3. Yet, previous studies report sex differences in RP are apparent in some populations but not others, and it is unknown if dimorphism in enamel thickness relates to RP. To further our understanding of this biorhythm we analysed sex-related variation in RP and its relationship with enamel thickness in a sample of M3′s (n = 94) from adults in Northern Britain. Results reveal RP was significantly higher in our sample of female molars compared to those of males, which is consistent with the previously reported correlation between the biorhythm and adult stature. The RP of maxillary M3 related to sex differences in enamel thickness, but this relationship was not present in mandibular M3. Our results support previous findings suggesting that this biorhythm is sexually dimorphic and provide the first evidence that RP may be one factor influencing sex differences in enamel thickness. Our study also shows that correlations between RP and enamel thickness appear to be most readily detected for tooth types with sufficiently wide ranges of enamel thickness variation, as is the case for maxillary but not mandibular M3. Achieving a sufficient sample size was critical for detecting a sex difference in periodicity.

Two similarly-sized colobine species living sympatrically in the Ivory Coast's Taï Forest that differ in both diet and oral processing behavior provide an opportunity to explore the strength of associations between feeding behavior and dental wear patterns. Here we test the hypothesis that vigorous processing of tough, hard Pentaclethra macrophylla pods by Colobus polykomos manifests in greater anterior tooth wear relative to that observed in Piliocolobus badius, which does not exploit this resource. We assessed levels of anterior tooth wear in a sample of 160 upper incisors and 131 lower incisors from 18 adult Colobus polykomos and 62 adult Piliocolobus badius naturally deceased individuals from Taï National Park. We operationalized tooth wear by dividing the area of exposed dentin by total occlusal crown area. To assess relative degrees of incisor wear, we regressed incisor wear against molar wear (sample = 105 upper molars, 135 lower molars) for the pooled Colobus polykomos and Piliocolobus badius wear data and compared the number of individuals from each species that fell above and below the pooled regression curve for each model using Chi-square tests of independence and odds ratios. Under our hypothesis, we would expect more Colobus polykomos points above the pooled regression curve than Piliocolobus badius, indicating higher incisor wear relative to molar wear in Colobus polykomos. Nine of sixteen interspecific comparisons demonstrated this predicted pattern; however, none of the Chi-square tests or odds ratios were significant, indicating no difference between Colobus polykomos and Piliocolobusbadius incisor wear relative to molar wear. The absence of significant differences in incisor wear relative to molar wear highlights the challenge of identifying idiosyncratic feeding behavior in fossil taxa and the necessity for continued exploration of the relationship between diet and macrowear.

A new species of Homo, Homo naledi, was described in 2015 based on the hominin skeletal remains from the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star cave system, South Africa. Subsequent craniodental comparative analyses, both phenetic and cladistic, served to support its taxonomic distinctiveness. Here we provide a new quantitative analysis, where up to 78 nonmetric crown and root traits of the permanent dentition were compared among samples of H. naledi (including remains from the recently discovered Lesedi Chamber) and eight other species from Africa: Australopithecus afarensis, Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus boisei, Paranthropus robustus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Middle Pleistocene Homo sp., and Pleistocene and Holocene Homo sapiens. By using the mean measure of divergence distance statistic, phenetic affinities were calculated among samples to evaluate interspecific relatedness. The objective was to compare the results with those previously obtained, to assess further the taxonomic validity of the Rising Star hominin species. In accordance with earlier findings, H. naledi appears most similar dentally to the other African Homo samples. However, the former species is characterized by its retention and full expression of features relating to the main cusps, as well as the root numbers, with a near absence of accessory traits-including many that, based on various cladistic studies, are plesiomorphic in both extinct and extant African hominins. As such, the present findings provide additional support for the taxonomic validity of H. naledi as a distinct species of Homo.

OBJECTIVE Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) is a condition marked by localized reductions in enamel thickness, resulting from growth disruptions during dental development. We use quantitative criteria to characterize the depth of LEH defects and "normal" perikymata in great apes. We test the hypothesis that mountain gorillas have shallow defects compared to other taxa, which may have led to their underestimation in previous studies. MATERIALS AND METHODS Previous attempts to characterize LEH morphology quantitatively have been limited in sample size and scope. We generated digital elevation models using optical profilometry (Sensofar PLu Neox) and extracted 2D coordinates using ImageJ to quantify depths in canines from three great ape genera (N = 75 perikymata; 255 defects). RESULTS All defect depths fall outside the distribution of perikymata depths. Mountain gorilla defects are significantly shallower than those of other great ape taxa examined, including western lowland gorillas. Females have significantly deeper defects than males in all taxa. The deepest defect belongs to a wild-captured zoo gorilla. Virunga mountain gorilla specimens collected by Dian Fossey exhibit deeper defects than those collected recently. DISCUSSION Shallow defect morphology in mountain gorillas may have led to an underestimation of LEH prevalence in past studies. Defect depth is used as a proxy for insult severity, but depth might be influenced by inter- and intra-specific variation in enamel growth. Future studies should test whether severe insults are associated with deeper defects, as might be the case with Haloko, a wild-captured gorilla. Ongoing histologic studies incorporating associated behavioral records will test possible factors that underlie differences in defect morphology.

Enamel formation front (EFF) angles represent the leading edge of enamel matrix secretion at particular points in time. These angles are influenced by rates of enamel extension (the rates at which tooth crowns grow in height), rates of enamel matrix secretion and the angles that prisms make with the enamel-dentine junction. Previous research suggests, but has not yet established, that these angles reflect aspects of primate biology related to their pace of growth and development, most notably brain and body size. The present study tested this possibility on histological sections using phylogenetically-controlled and Bonferroni-corrected analyses spanning a broad taxonomic range. Ten species were represented in the analysis of anterior teeth; 17 in the analysis of posterior (postcanine) teeth (with varying sample sizes). Also, tested was the relationship of EFF angles to striae of Retzius periodicity (long period growth rhythms in enamel) and degree of folivory, as both factors are related to primate developmental rates. Finally, several analyses were conducted to investigate whether tooth size (operationalized as EDJ length) might mediate these relationships. Central results are as follows: (1) Relationships between EFF angles and brain weight (anterior teeth) and between EFF angles and body mass (anterior and posterior teeth) are statistically significant and (2) Mid-crown EFF angles are not statistically significantly related to EDJ lengths. These results suggest that tooth size does not mediate relationships between EFF angles and brain weight/body mass and are discussed with respect to underlying enamel growth variables (especially rates of enamel extension and secretion). Anat Rec, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Anat Rec, 301:125-139, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Objectives This article provides estimates of narrow-sense heritability and genetic pleiotropy for mesiodistal tooth dimensions for a sample of 20th century African American individuals. Results inform biological distance analysis and offer insights into patterns of integration in the human dentition. Materials and Methods Maximum mesiodistal crown dimensions were measured using Hillson-FitzGerald calipers on 469 stone dental casts from the Menegaz-Bock Collection. Narrow-sense heritability estimates and genetic and phenotypic correlations were estimated using SOLAR 8.1.1 with covariate screening for age, sex, age*sex interaction, and birth year. Results Heritability estimates were moderate (∼0.10 – 0.90; h2 mean = 0.51) for most measured variables with sex as the only significant covariate. Patterns of genetic correlation indicate strong integration across tooth classes, except molars. Comparison of these results to previously published work suggests lower overall heritability relative to other human populations and much stronger genetic integration across tooth classes than obtained from nonhuman primate genetic pleiotropy estimates. Conclusions These results suggest that the high heritabilities previously published may reflect overestimates inherent in previous study designs; as such the standard estimate of 0.55 used in biodistance analyses may not be appropriate. For the Gullah, isolation and endogamy coupled with elevated levels of physiological and economic stress may suppress narrow-sense heritability estimates. Pleiotropy analyses suggest a more highly integrated dentition in humans than in other mammals.

The current study aims to characterise dental scratches found on an East Asian hominin upper left central incisor (I1) and lower left lateral incisor (I2) from the Early Pleistocene (Meipu site, Yunxian County), and infer the preference for handedness of these two individuals by quantifying the orientation of dental scratches. The labial surfaces of these two teeth were observed and imaged using light microscopes and/or scanning electron microscope under different magnifications (5–70×). The angle, width and length of each dental scratch was measured and analysed. The dental scratches described and quantified on the labial enamel surface of Meipu I1 and I2 fit the description of cutmarks caused by ‘stuff and cut’ behaviour. Most scratches are oriented in the right oblique direction, averaging 47.11 degrees in I1 and 44.60 degrees in I2. This result indicates preference for the right hand as the dominant one in holding a tool during ‘stuff and cut’ behaviours. This is the earliest reported ‘stuff and cut’ behaviour and inferred right-handedness in East Asia. It fills a temporal gap between the earliest known example in the African Early Pleistocene (~1.8 Ma) and the next known instance in the European Middle Pleistocene. This is also the first time the ‘stuff and cut’ behaviour and right-handedness has been reported in a hominin assigned to Homo erectus sensu lato. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Objectives To update histological data on crown initiation and completion ages in southern Africans. To evaluate implications of these data for studies that: (a) rely on these data to time linear enamel hypoplasias (LEHs), or, (b) use these data for comparison to fossil hominins. Materials and methods Initiation ages were calculated on 67 histological sections from southern Africans, with sample sizes ranging from one to 11 per tooth type. Crown completion ages for southern Africans were calculated in two ways. First, actual derived initiation ages were added to crown formation times for each histological section to obtain direct information on the crown completion ages of individuals. Second, average initiation ages from this study were added to average crown formation times of southern Africans from the Reid and coworkers previous studies that were based on larger samples. Results For earlier-initiating tooth types (all anterior teeth and first molars), there is little difference in ages of initiation and crown completion between this and previous studies. Differences increase as a function of initiation age, such that the greatest differences between this and previous studies for both initiation and crown completion ages are for the second and third molars. Discussion This study documents variation in initiation ages, particularly for later-initiating tooth types. It upholds the use of previously published histological aging charts for LEHs on anterior teeth. However, this study finds that ages of crown initiation and completion in second and third molars for this southern African sample are earlier than previously estimated. These earlier ages reduce differences between modern humans and fossil hominins for these developmental events in second and third molars.

Antemortem enamel chipping in living and fossil primates is often interpreted as evidence of hard-object feeding (i.e., ‘durophagy’). Laboratory analyses of tooth fracture have modeled the theoretical diets and loading conditions that may produce such chips. Previous chipping studies of nonhuman primates tend to combine populations into species samples, despite the fact that species can vary significantly in diet across their ranges. Chipping is yet to be analyzed across population-specific species samples for which long-term dietary data are available. Here, we test the association between enamel chipping and diet in a community of cercopithecid primates inhabiting the Tai Forest, Ivory Coast. We examined fourth premolars and first molars (n = 867) from naturally deceased specimens of Cercocebus atys, Colobus polykomos, Piliocolobus badius, Procolobus verus, and three species of Cercopithecus. We found little support for a predictive relationship between enamel chipping and diet across the entire Tai monkey community. Cercocebus atys, a dedicated hard-object feeder, exhibited the highest frequencies of (1) chipped teeth and (2) chips of large size; however, the other monkey with a significant degree of granivory, Co. polykomos, exhibited the lowest chip frequency. In addition, primates with little evidence of mechanically challenging or hard-food diets—such as Cercopithecus spp., Pi. badius, and Pr. verus—evinced higher chipping frequencies than expected. The equivocal and stochastic nature of enamel chipping in the Tai monkeys suggests nondietary factors contribute significantly to chipping. A negative association between canopy preference and chipping suggests a role of exogenous particles in chip formation, whereby taxa foraging closer to the forest floor encounter more errant particulates during feeding than species foraging in higher strata. We conclude that current enamel chipping models may provide insight into the diets of fossil primates, but only in cases of extreme durophagy. Given the role of nondietary factors in chip formation, our ability to reliably reconstruct a range of diets from a gradient of chipping in fossil taxa is likely weak.

Linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH) have been used in physical anthropology as stress indicators. While circumstances such as malnutrition and illness certainly disrupt enamel formation, intrinsic features of enamel growth may affect defect expression as well. Variation in enamel growth factors, particularly lateral enamel formation time and the angle that striae of Retzius make with the outer enamel surface, may influence the number and visibility of enamel defects on teeth of different species and sexes. Understanding how such intrinsic factors affect enamel defect expression is critical to interpreting enamel defect differences between hominin species and groups. Here, the number of LEH defects and rates of enamel defect acquisition of two sympatric cercopithecoids (Macaca fascicularis and Trachypithecus cristatus) are compared. Their enamel formation time and perikymata spacing are considered in relation to their expression of defects. Longer lateral enamel formation times are not significantly associated with higher enamel defect counts in these two species or between conspecific sexes. Perikymata spacing (which is sometimes correlated with striae of Retzius angles) does not help to explain species-level differences in number or rate of defect acquisition either. However, the greater number of defects and rate of acquisition in females of both species, coupled with tighter perikymata spacing, suggests a possible role of striae angles influencing defect perceptibility. Significantly more research regarding the role enamel growth variables play in enamel defect expression is required for LEH to be used as an informative stress indicator in bioarchaeology and paleoanthropology.

Objectives This article presents estimates of narrow-sense heritability and bivariate genetic correlation for a series of morphological crown variants of the anterior dentition. These results provide insight into the value of dental phenotypes as evolutionary proxies, as well as the development of tooth crowns as integrated or modular structures. Materials and methods African American dental casts from the Menegaz-Bock collection were scored for a standard set of dental morphological variables using the Arizona State Dental Anthropology System. Estimates of narrow-sense heritability and genetic correlations were generated using SOLAR v. 8.1.1, controlling for the covariates of age, sex, and birth year. Analyses were run using ordinal/continuous scale variables that were then dichotomized at various breakpoints, consistent with standard practices in dental anthropology. Results Heritability estimates were low to moderate for most traits, and lower in magnitude than those reported for odontometric data from the same study sample. Only winging, canine shoveling, and canine double shoveling returned narrow-sense heritabilities that did not differ significantly from zero. Genetic correlations were high among antimeres and metameres and low for different traits scored on the same tooth crown. These results affirm standard data cleaning practices in dental biodistance. Double shoveling was atypical in returning strong negative correlations with other traits, shoveling in particular. Conclusions Additive genetic variation contributes to dental morphological variation, although the estimates are uniformly lower than those observed for odontometrics. Patterns of genetic correlation affirm most standard practices in dental biodistance. Patterns of negative pleiotropy involving lingual and labial crown features suggest a genetic architecture and developmental complex that differentially constrain morphological variation of distinct surfaces of the same tooth crown. These patterns warrant greater consideration and cross-population validation.

Dental pathologies and enamel defects in East Asian hominins have rarely been reported. Here, we systematically document and describe a suite of enamel defects in the Xujiayao juvenile maxilla, an East Asian hominin from the early Late Pleistocene that may represent an unknown hominin lineage. In addition, we determine the chronology of growth disruptions represented by matched linear enamel hypoplasias, evaluate the long-held hypothesis that the large brownish pit on the I1 is evidence of dental fluorosis and assess the utility of micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) techniques in analyzing enamel defects. With the use of binocular microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and micro-CT imaging techniques, the Xujiayao teeth were found to exhibit a high number of pit-form defects seldom seen in the fossil record. By matching the timing of linear enamel hyperplasia across multiple teeth, a minimum of five developmental disruptions were identified, indicating that the Xujiayao juvenile experienced several growth disturbances during its short lifespan. Our SEM and micro-CT analyses suggest that the large pit on the I1 is an enamel hypoplasia due to its morphology and pre-eruptive enamel thinning. It is not a post-eruptive fluorotic pit, and there is no evidence of chalkiness or opacity associated with dental fluorosis. The micro-CT technique made it possible to verify the presence of enamel hypoplasia and to more precisely quantify defect dimensions, especially in unerupted teeth and shallow hypoplasias that are difficult to detect by binocular microscopy or SEM. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Objectives This study investigates where the Xujiayao juvenile (I1 and C1) fits into the array of perikymata distribution patterns found within the genus Homo. Materials and Methods In addition to the I1 and the C1 of the Xujiayao juvenile, this study includes samples of early Homo (H. rudolfensis and H. erectus), Neandertals, early modern humans (Qafzeh), and recent modern humans from Southern Africa, Newcastle (UK), and North America (Inupiaq, AK). Three sets of analyses were undertaken, including a comparison of percentage of perikymata in the cervical half of the crown, repeated measures analysis of the percentage of total perikymata in each decile, and canonical variates analysis using both total perikymata number and the percentage of perikymata in the cervical half of the crown. Results The I1 and C1 of early Homo and Neandertals have a lower percentage of perikymata in the cervical half of the crown than modern human samples. Repeated measures analysis reveals clear distinctions in the distribution of perikymata between the modern human and fossil samples. Canonical variates analysis suggests greater differences between modern humans and the fossil samples than within the fossil samples, and classifies the Xujiayao teeth among modern humans. Discussion The present study further clarifies variation of perikymata distribution patterns within the genus Homo. The perikymata distribution of the Xujiayao juvenile tends to be more similar to that of modern humans than to either early Homo or Neandertals. Am J Phys Anthropol 157:684–693, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This study investigates whether variants in dental morphology and nuclear DNA provide similar patterns of intergroup affinity among regional populations using biological distance (biodistance) estimates. Many biodistance studies of archaeological populations use skeletal variants in lieu of ancient DNA, based on the widely accepted assumption of a strong correlation between phenetic- and genetic-based affinities. Within studies of dental morphology, this assumption has been well supported by research on a global scale but remains unconfirmed at a more geographically restricted scale. Paired genetic (42 microsatellite loci) and dental (nine crown morphology traits) data were collected from 295 individuals among four contemporary Kenyan populations, two of which are known ethnically as “Swahili” and two as “Taita;” all have welldocumented population histories. The results indicate that biodistances based on genetic data are correlated with those obtained from dental morphology. Specifically, both distance matrices indicate that the closest affinities are between population samples within each ethnic group. Both also identify greater divergence among samples from the different ethnic groups. However, for this particular study the genetic data may provide finer resolution at detecting overall among-population relationships. Am J Phys Anthropol 000:000–000, 2015. VC 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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The analysis of dental remains, which outlast most other tissues in the human body, provides insight into past diet, activity patterns and ancestry. The remains from Bab edh-Dhra'represent the only skeletal sample available to as- sess the impact of agricultural intensification in the Early Bronze Age of the southern Levant (ca. 3500-2000 BCE). This era ushered in a period of 'urbanisation', evidenced by fortified towns, planned roadways, developments in irrigation and growing population density. During this time, the cultivation, trade and consumption of orchard taxa (such as figs,grapes and olives) increased. This paper examines changes in the teeth associated with agricultural intensification involving orchard crops as well as grains. Dental caries, ante mortem tooth loss and dental wear are examined for Early Bronze IA (EBIA; 3500-3300 BCE) and Early Bronze II-III (EBII-III; 3100-2300 BCE) teeth from the site of Bab edh-Dhra', located in modern-day Jordan. Due to the commingling, general tooth groups (e.g. molars) and specific tooth types (e.g. lower left canine) were used to compare periods. Although age and sex could not be identified for every tooth, analyses of crania and os coxae showed no significant difference in demo- graphic profiles of EBIA and EBII-III. No statistically significant increase was found over time in dental caries frequency; however, teeth for which the cause of pulp exposure could be determined suggested that caries increasingly led to exfoliation. Indeed, ante mortem tooth loss rose significantly with time, whereas dental wear de- creased. In general, changes in oral health were consistent with an archaeological record of greater consumption of softer, stickier foods, such as fruits. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Here we describe dental remains from a Neanderthal fossil assemblage from Moula-Guercy, France. Our report demonstrates that the Moula-Guercy hominid remains contribute important morphological, developmental, and behavioral data to understanding Neanderthal evolutionary history. We include gross comparative morphological descriptions and enamel surface microstructure and microwear data. These teeth reveal numerous characteristics that are diagnostic of Neanderthals and provide no evidence for the presence of any other hominid taxa. Enamel growth increment data from the Moula-Guercy specimens yield evidence of a Neanderthal pattern of development, although at the lower end of the range of variation. The presence of a significant number of linear enamel hypoplasias indicates that these individuals were stressed during childhood. Molar microwear data suggest that these Neanderthals did not differ significantly from modern humans in terms of the fracture properties of the food they were consuming. The incisor microwear and macro striations provide evidence that these individuals may have been using their anterior teeth as tools, similar to the practices of several modern human populations such as the Inuit, Ipiutak, and Australian Aboriginals, and reminiscent of evidence from other Neanderthals from Krapina, Croatia, as well as the 600,000 year old hominids from Sima de los Huesos, Spain. Am J Phys Anthropol 151:477-491, 2013.© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The patterning cascade model of tooth morphogenesis has emerged as a useful tool in explaining how tooth shape develops and how tooth evolution may occur. Enamel knots, specialized areas of dental epithelium where cusps initiate, act as signaling centers that direct the growth of surrounding tissues. For a new cusp to form, an enamel knot must form beyond the inhibition fields of other enamel knots. The model predicts that the number and size of cusps depends on the spacing between enamel knots, reflected in the spacing between cusps. Recently, work by our group demonstrated that the model predicted Carabelli trait expression in human first molars. Here we test whether differences in Carabelli trait expression along the molar row can also be predicted by the model. Crown areas and intercusp distances were measured from dental casts of 316 individuals with a digital microscope. Although absolute cusp spacing is similar in first and second molars, the smaller size and more triangular shape of second molars results in larger cusp spacing relative to size and, likely, less opportunity for the Carabelli trait to form. The presence and size of the hypocone (HY) and a range of small accessory cusps in a larger sample of 340 individuals were also found to covary with the Carabelli trait in a complex way. The results of this study lend further support to the view that the dentition develops, varies, and evolves as a single functional complex.

It is, however, very difficult to establish the precise lines of descent, termed phylogenies , for most organisms. – Ayala FJ and Valentine JW Evolving: The Theory and Process of Organic Evolution (7) As understood today, human evolutionary history involves some twenty species of fossil hominins, give or take a few depending on the taxonomic scheme to which one subscribes. In the field of paleoanthropology, taxonomic questions – how to classify fossil species – are famously contentious. As Richard Dawkins comments in the Ancestor's Tale (8), there is more than one paleontology book in print entitled “ Bones of Contention .” Names given to species carry implications for how species are related to one another. A species placed in the genus Homo for example, is recognized as sharing a more recent common ancestor with modern humans than a species placed in the genus Australopithecus . Resolving species relationships is no straightforward task. That is one reason (among others) why there are so many different points of view about evolutionary relationships among hominin species. Such relationships are summarized in diagrams called phylogenies or phylogenetic trees . All methods of constructing phylogenies rely on comparing the characteristics of species, from their DNA sequences to their dental features to any aspect of their anatomy and even behavior. The most direct means of genetic comparison is through DNA, but, only in more recent hominins has it thus far been possible to extract adequately preserved DNA (see Chapter 5). For earlier species, the characteristics of teeth and bones must suffice for assessing evolutionary relationships. As noted, teeth figure prominently in such assessments: they are extremely well-preserved in the fossil record and much of the variation in their morphology is due to genes (rather than environment). There are different ways to assess evolutionary relationships among species. According to the method of phenetics , all available traits should be used to construct phylogenies. Species with greater similarity are considered more closely related. This method does not take into account two big problems. The first is the problem of homoplasy , when two species have similar traits but not because they inherited them from a common ancestor. One way that homoplasy can occur is when species independently evolve similar solutions to similar problems. The wings of dragonflies and seagulls were not inherited from their common ancestor but evolved independently as adaptations for flight in their separately evolving lineages.

A book about fossil teeth would have been unthinkable before 1669. Three years earlier, a group of Tuscan fishermen caught a colossal white shark. As Brian Switek tells the story in his engaging book, Written in Stone: The Hidden Secrets of Fossils and the Story of Life on Earth, that shark excited the imagination of Medici Grand Duke Ferdinando II, a great patron of the sciences (1). The shark's body was too large to transport and had begun to decompose anyway, so its head was cut off and sent to the Grand Duke, who chose his most talented resident anatomist for the privileged job of dissecting it (Figure i). Danish-born Nicolaus Steno (aka Niels Steensen) turned out to be the man for the job (1). As he poured over his dissection, Steno was struck by the uncanny similarity of the shark's teeth to what were then popular triangle-shaped stones called glossopetrae or “tongue stones” (2, 3) (Figure 1). At the time, glossopetrae were used for all sorts of purposes: as antidotes to snake venom, treatments for epilepsy, amulets, and when ground into a fine powder, as toothpastes (2, 3). Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder thought glossopetrae dropped from the sky on moonless nights (4). Inspired by his shark dissection, Steno published his own explanation in 1669. He suggested that the corpuscular theory, which held that matter was made of tiny corpuscles, could explain how shark teeth turned to stone (5). When the teeth were buried in sediments, the corpuscles of minerals gradually replaced the corpuscles that made up teeth, transforming them into stone. This explanation is not so far from our modern understanding of how fossils form. In the case of fossil teeth though, most of the original mineral remains while mineral from surrounding sediments fills in tiny pore spaces within them in the process of permineralization. That fossil teeth played such a starring role at the dawn of paleontology is no coincidence. To be sure, sharks lose a lot of teeth. But it is the fact that teeth are hard, compact, and composed of mineralized tissue that makes them prime candidates for preservation and fossilization. Indeed, most of the fossil record consists of teeth and that is also true of the human fossil record. This book is about what fossil teeth tell us about human evolution.