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IntroductionLower socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with poorer executive function, but the neural mechanisms of this association remain unclear. As healthy brain communication is essential to our cognitive abilities, white matter integrity may be key to understanding socioeconomic disparities.MethodsParticipants were 201 African American and White adults (ages 33–72) from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) SCAN study. Diffusion tensor imaging was used to estimate regional fractional anisotropy as a measure of white matter integrity. Adjusting for age, analyses examined if integrity of the anterior limb of the internal capsule (ALIC), external capsule (EC), superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), and cingulum mediated SES-executive function relations.ResultsLower SES was related to poorer cognitive performance and white matter integrity. Lower Trails B performance was related to poorer integrity of the ALIC, EC, and SLF, and lower Stroop performance was associated with poorer integrity of the ALIC and EC. ALIC mediated the SES-Trails B relation, and EC mediated the SES-Trails B and SES-Stroop relations. Sensitivity analyses revealed that (1) adjustment for race rendered the EC mediations non-significant, (2) when using poverty status and continuous education as predictors, results were largely the same, (3) at least some of the study’s findings may generalize to processing speed, (4) mediations are not age-dependent in our sample, and (5) more research is needed to understand the role of cardiovascular risk factors in these models.DiscussionFindings demonstrate that poorer white matter integrity helps explain SES disparities in executive function and highlight the need for further clarification of the biopsychosocial mechanisms of the SES-cognition association.

OBJECTIVE The present study investigates whether associations between telomere length (TL) and cognitive performance across multiple domains are moderated by poverty status and race. METHOD Participants were 325 African American and White urban-dwelling adults (M age = 47.9 years; 49.5% African American; 50.2% female; 48.9% living in poverty) from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span study. TL was assayed from peripheral blood mononuclear cells using quantitative polymerase chain reactions. Multivariable regression analyses examined interactions of TL, poverty status, and race with performance on the following cognitive tests: Trail-Making Test Parts A and B, Digit Span Forward and Backward, semantic verbal fluency, Brief Test of Attention, Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), and California Verbal Learning Test-II total learning, short-delay free recall, and long-delay free recall scores. Analyses adjusted for age, sex, and high school-or-greater educational attainment. RESULTS Significant three-way interactions of TL × Poverty Status × Race revealed that, among White participants living in poverty, shorter TL was associated with worse performance on Digit Span Forward and Backward (ps

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological evidence suggests that both anemia and elevated red cell distribution width (RDW) are associated with cognitive impairment. However, the interplay between these 2 predictors has been understudied. OBJECTIVES: We examined sex- and anemia-specific associations between RDW and cognitive performance among urban adults in the United States. METHODS: Data from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity Across the Life Span Study (Baltimore, MD; participants aged 30–65 y at baseline, ∼59% African-American, 45% men) were used. Participants were selected based on the completion of 11 cognitive tasks at baseline (2004–2009) and follow-up (2009–2013) visits (mean time between visits: 4.64 ± 0.93 y) and availability of exposure and covariate data, yielding a sample of between 1526 and 1646 adults out of the initial 3720 adults recruited at baseline. Multiple linear mixed-effects regression models were conducted with RDW as the main exposure of interest and anemia/sex as the key effect modifiers. RESULTS: Overall, high RDWs were linked to poorer baseline performance on the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) List A (per 1 unit increase in RDW %, main effect: γ(01 )= −0.369 ± 0.114; P = 0.001) and to slower rates of decline on the CVLT Delayed Free Recall (per 1 unit increase in RDW %, RDW × time: γ(11 )= +0.036 ± 0.013; P = 0.007). Among nonanemic participants, RDWs were consistently associated with poorer baseline performance on the Trailmaking Test, Part A (γ(01 )= +3.11 ± 0.89; P

ObjectivesEpigenetic modifications are closely linked with aging, but their relationship with cognition remains equivocal. Given known sex differences in epigenetic aging, we explored sex-specific associations of 3 DNA methylation (DNAm)–based measures of epigenetic age acceleration (EAA) with baseline and longitudinal change in cognitive performance among middle-aged urban adults.MethodsWe used exploratory data from a subgroup of participants in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span study with complete DNA samples and whose baseline ages were >50.0 years (2004–2009) to estimate 3 DNAm EAA measures: (1) universal EAA (AgeAccel); (2) intrinsic EAA (IEAA); and (3) extrinsic EAA (EEAA). Cognitive performance was measured at baseline visit (2004–2009) and first follow-up (2009–2013) with 11 test scores covering global mental status and specific domains such as learning/memory, attention, visuospatial, psychomotor speed, language/verbal, and executive function. A series of mixed-effects regression models were conducted adjusting for covariates and multiple testing (n = 147–156, ∼51% men, k = 1.7–1.9 observations/participant, mean follow-up time ∼4.7 years).ResultsEEAA, a measure of both biological age and immunosenescence, was consistently associated with greater cognitive decline among men on tests of visual memory/visuoconstructive ability (Benton Visual Retention Test: γ11 = 0.0512 ± 0.0176, p = 0.004) and attention/processing speed (Trail-Making Test, part A: γ11 = 0.219 ± 0.080, p = 0.007). AgeAccel and IEAA were not associated with cognitive change in this sample.ConclusionsEEAA capturing immune system cell aging was associated with faster decline among men in domains of attention and visual memory. Larger longitudinal studies are needed to replicate our findings.

Anemia (blood hemoglobin [Hb]

The Conners' Continuous Performance Test-Second Edition (CCPT-2) is a widely used measure of attention and impulsivity, however, only a minimal amount is known about its reliability. To clarify the psychometric properties of the CCPT-2, we assessed its performance stability and related it to criterion measures. A total of 91 undergraduate students completed the CCPT-2, the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI), and reported on sleep during two sessions approximately one week apart. They completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult Version (BRIEF-A) at session one and the Stroop Color and Word Test at session two. Findings indicated that the CCPT-2 had strong internal consistency, adequate test-retest reliability for commission errors and response time, poor test-retest reliability for omission errors, and practice effects for omission and commission errors. The CCPT-2 was largely unrelated to the BRIEF-A, Stroop Color and Word Test, and the STPI. More sleep was related to a quicker response time and more commission errors on the CCPT-2, and the BRIEF-A's Behavior Regulation Index was positively related to commission errors. Relative to the omission error component of the CCPT-2, commission errors and response time may be useful and stable measures of sustained attention and impulsivity.

We assessed trends, predictors and outcomes of resource utilization in hospital inpatient discharges with a principal diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) with at least one procedure. Using Nationwide Inpatient Sample data (NIS, 2002-2012), discharges primarily diagnosed with AD, aged ≥60 y and with ≥1 procedure, were selected (Weighted N = 92,300). Hospital resource utilization were assessed using ICD-9-CM codes, while hospitalization outcomes included total charges (TC, 2012$), length of stay (LOS, days), and mortality risk (MR, %). Brain and respiratory/gastrointestinal procedure utilization both dropped annually by 3-7%, while cardiovascular procedures/evaluations, blood evaluations, blood transfusion, and resuscitation ("CVD/Blood") as well as neurophysiological and psychological evaluation and treatment ("Neuro") procedures increased by 5-8%. Total charges, length of stay, and mortality risk were all markedly higher with use of respiratory/gastrointestinal procedures as opposed to being reduced with use of "Brain" procedures. Procedure count was positively associated with all three hospitalization outcomes. In sum, patterns of hospital resources that were used among AD inpatients changed over-time, and were associated with hospitalization outcomes such as total charges, length of stay, and mortality risk.

Background Subjective social status (SSS), or perception of rank on the social hierarchy, is an important indicator of various health outcomes. However, the psychosocial influences on this construct are unclear, and how these influences vary across different sociodemographic groups is poorly understood. Methods Participants were 2077 African-American and Whites (M age=47.85; 57% female; 58% African American, and 58% above poverty) from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study. Multiple regression analyses examined (1) hypothesized psychosocial indicators of SSS and (2) the moderating effect of race and sex on the variables associated with SSS. Results In addition to the traditional measures of SES (i.e. income, employment, and education), psychosocial variables (i.e. depressive symptomatology, neighborhood satisfaction, and self-rated health) were significantly associated with SSS. However, some of these indicators varied with respect to race and sex. Three significant interactions were found: sex by employment, race by employment, and race by education, wherein objective measures of SES were more associated with SSS for Whites and men compared to African Americans and women. Conclusion Psychosocial measures may influence individuals’ perceptions of themselves on the social hierarchy. Additionally, SSS may vary by demographic group. When considering the impact of SSS on health, it is important to consider the unique interpretations that various demographic groups have when perceiving themselves on the social hierarchy., Highlights • Subjective Social Status (SSS) is an important health indicator, but its psychosocial correlates are unknown. • Additionally, it is unclear if indicators of SSS vary by demographic group (i.e. race and sex). • Findings suggest that in addition to traditional measures of socioeconomic status (e.g. education), numerous psychosocial variables (e.g. depressive symptoms) were related to SSS. • Indicators of SSS varied across race and sex, wherein objective measures of SES were more associated with SSS for Whites and men, than African Americans and women.

Aortic stenosis (AS) is the third most prevalent cardiovascular disease following hypertension and coronary artery disease. The primary objective of this cross-sectional study is to examine gender, racial, and socioeconomic disparities in AS-related health care utilization in patients aged ≥50 years using data from the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project Nationwide Inpatient Sample. AS was identified among inpatient discharges with International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification, code 424.1. Using stratum-specific weighted totals, means, proportions, and regression models, we examined time trends and disparities for inhospital AS prevalence according to gender, race, and income over the 2002 to 2012 period, predictors of AS (gender, race, income, age, health insurance, co-morbidities, and hospital-level characteristics), and AS’s role as a predictor of inhospital death, length of stay, and total charges. Inhospital AS prevalence increased from 2.10% in 2002 to 2.37% in 2012, with similar trends observed within gender, race, and income strata. Women were less likely to have AS compared with men (adjusted odds ratio [ORadj] 0.84; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.83 to 0.86). Blacks (ORadj 0.68; 95% CI 0.66 to 0.71), Hispanics (ORadj 0.79; 95% CI 0.76 to 0.84), and Asians/Pacific Islanders (ORadj 0.68; 95% CI 0.64 to 0.74) were less likely than whites to have AS diagnosis that was directly associated with income. AS was inversely related to inhospital death but positively linked to total charges overall and longer hospital stays among men, whites, and middle-income patients. However, shorter stays with AS were observed among blacks. In conclusion, among older inpatients, AS prevalence was ~2% and was higher among males, whites, and higher income groups. Although inhospital death was lower and total charges were higher in AS, length of stay’s association with AS varied by gender, race, and income.

Background: Temporality between socioeconomic status (SES), depressive symptoms (DS), dietary quality (DQ), and central adiposity (CA) is underexplored. Objectives: Alternative pathways linking SES to DQ, DS, and CA were tested and models compared, stratified by race and sex. Methods: With the use of data from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (baseline age: 30–64 y; 2 visits; mean follow-up: 4.9 y), 12 structural equation models (SM) were conducted and compared. Time-dependent factors included the Center for Epidemiologic Studies–Depression [CES-D total score, baseline or visit 1 (v1), follow-up or visit 2 (v2), mean across visits (m), and annual rate of change (Δ)], 2010 Healthy Eating Index (HEI) (same notation), and central adiposity principal components' analysis score of waist circumference and trunk fat (kg) (Adipcent) (same notation). Sample sizes were white women (WW, n = 236), white men (WM, n = 159), African American women (AAW, n = 395), and African American men (AAM, n = 274), and a multigroup analysis within the SM framework was also conducted. Results: In the best-fitting model, overall, ∼31% of the total effect of SES→Adipcent(v2) (α ± SE: −0.10 ± 0.03, P < 0.05) was mediated through a combination of CES-D(v1) and ΔHEI. Two dominant pathways contributed to the indirect effect: SES→(−)CES-D(v1)→(+)Adipcent(v2) (−0.015) and SES→(+) ΔHEI→(−)Adipcent(v2) (−0.017), with a total indirect effect of −0.031 (P < 0.05). In a second best-fitting model, SES independently predicted Adipcent(v1, −0.069), ΔHEI(+0.037) and CES-D(v2, −2.70) (P < 0.05), with Adipcent(v1) marginally predicting ΔHEI(−0.014) and CES-D(v2, +0.67) (P < 0.10). These findings were indicative of DS's and CA's marginally significant bidirectional association (P < 0.10). Although best-fit–selected models were consistent across race × sex categories, path coefficients differed significantly between groups. Specifically, SES→Adipcent[v1(+0.11), v2(+0.14)] was positive among AAM (P < 0.05), and the overall positive association of Adipcent(v1)→CES-D(v2) was specific to AAW (+0.97, P < 0.10). Conclusions: Despite consistent model fit, pathways linking SES to DQ, DS, and CA differed markedly among the race × sex groups. Our findings can inform the potential effectiveness of various mental health and dietary interventions.

Carotenoids may strengthen the association of antioxidant vitamins A, C, and E with favorable cognitive outcomes over time, though a few prospective studies have examined this hypothesis. We evaluated the longitudinal data from 1251 participants in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study (Age at visit 1 in 2004&ndash, 2009 (v1): 30&ndash, 65 years). Vitamins A, C, and E dietary intakes and total and individual dietary carotenoids were computed using two 24-h recalls at v1. Cognitive tests, covering global mental status and domains of memory/learning, attention, psychomotor speed, visuo-spatial, language/verbal, and executive function were conducted at v1 and/or v2 (2009&ndash, 2013), mean &plusmn, SD follow-up: 4.66 &plusmn, 0.93 years. Mixed-effects linear regression models detected an interaction between vitamin E and total (and individual) carotenoids for three of 11 cognitive tests at v1, with only one meeting the statistical significance upon multiple testing correction whereby vitamin E was linked with greater verbal memory performance in the uppermost total carotenoid tertile (&gamma, 0a = +0.26 &plusmn, 0.08, p = 0.002), a synergism largely driven by carotenoid lycopene. Vitamins A and C showed no consistent interactions with carotenoids. In conclusion, we provide partial evidence for synergism between vitamin E and carotenoids in relation to better baseline cognitive performance, pending further studies with time-dependent exposures and randomized trials directly examining this synergism.

Cognitive impairment (CI) in older adults is frequently accompanied by difficulty performing complex everyday activities (e.g., managing finances). However, it is unclear if and how older adults with CI modify their activities (i.e., Do individuals continue, monitor, seek help with, change their approach to, or stop different activities?). In the current study, we examined if older adults with CI are concerned about their ability to carry out complex activities, if and how they modify activities based on their concern, and the factors associated with activity modification. We hypothesized that older adults with CI will more frequently be concerned about, and modify, everyday activities than cognitively healthy (HE) older adults, and that higher awareness of memory loss in the CI group would relate to more frequent modification. The sample included 81 older adults (51 HEs; mean age 70.02 (7.34) and 30 CI; mean age 75.97 (8.12)). Compared to HEs, the CI group reported having more concern about, F(3,77) = 5.50, p = 0.02, and modifying a greater number of activities, F(3,77) = 5.02, p = 0.03. Medication management (30%) and completing taxes (33.3%) were among the most frequently modified activities for the CI and HE groups, respectively. In the CI group, higher memory awareness was associated with more concern (r = .53, p = .005) and activity modification (r = 0.55, p = .003). Findings provide novel information about how cognitively diverse older adults navigate complex activities in daily life. We propose a preliminary theoretical model by which self-awareness may influence navigation of everyday activities in the context of CI.

Objective Lower socioeconomic status (SES) is related to poorer cognitive performance, but the neural underpinnings of this relation are not fully understood. This study examined whether SES-linked decrements in executive function were mediated by smaller dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) volumes. Given the literature demonstrating that SES-brain relations differ by race, we examined whether race moderated these mediations. Method Participants were 190 socioeconomically diverse, self-identified African American (AA) and White adults from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) SCAN study. Regional brain volumes were derived using T1-weighted MP-RAGE images. Adjusting for age and sex, moderated mediation analyses examined if the DLPFC mediated SES-executive function relations differently across racial groups. Executive function was measured using Trail Making Test part B (Trails B), Digit Span Backwards (DSB), and verbal fluency. Results Moderated mediation demonstrated that DLPFC volume significantly mediated the association between SES and Trails B in Whites (lower confidence interval [CI] = 0.01; upper CI = 0.07), but not in AAs (lower CI = -0.05; upper CI = 0.01). No mediations were found for DSB or verbal fluency, although SES was related to all tests. Conclusion The DLPFC may be important in the association of SES and mental flexibility for White, but not AA adults. It is possible that the well-replicated advantages of high SES among Whites do not readily translate, on average, to AAs. These findings highlight the importance of brain volume for cognitive functioning, while adding to the literature on sociodemographic health disparities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Unawareness of memory loss is a challenging characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and other age-related neurodegenerative conditions at their earliest stages, adversely affecting important outcomes such as patient decision making and safety. The basis of this metacognitive disturbance has been elusive; however it is almost certainly determined in part by compromise to brain regions critical for self-assessment. The subjectivity of traditional measurements of self-awareness in dementia has likely limited the rigor with which its neuroanatomic correlates can be established. Here we objectively measure memory awareness (metamemory) using a Feeling of Knowing (FOK) task in a group of cognitively diverse older adults, including 14 with mild AD and 20 cognitively healthy older adults. Performance on the metamemory task was examined in relation to the structural integrity of 14 bilateral neuroanatomic regions hypothesized to support self-awareness. Less accurate metamemory was associated only with reduced right insular volume (r = .41, p = .019). Implications of the current findings for models of metacognitive aging are discussed, with attention to the role of the insula in the conscious detection of errors.

We introduce and describe the Reference Ability Neural Network Study and provide initial feasibility data. Based on analyses of large test batteries administered to individuals ranging from young to old, four latent variables, or reference abilities (RAs) that capture the majority of the variance in age-related cognitive change have been identified: episodic memory, fluid reasoning, perceptual speed, and vocabulary. We aim to determine whether spatial fMRI networks can be derived that are uniquely associated with the performance of each reference ability. We plan to image 375 healthy adults (50 per decade from age 20 to 50; 75 per decade from age 50 to 80) while performing a set of 12 cognitive tasks. Data on 174 participants are reported here. Three tasks were grouped a priori into each of the four reference ability domains. We first assessed to what extent both cognitive task scores and activation patterns readily show convergent and discriminant validity, i.e. increased similarity between tasks within the same domain and decreased similarity between tasks between domains, respectively. Block-based time-series analysis of each individual task was conducted for each participant via general linear modeling. We partialled activation common to all tasks out of the imaging data. For both test scores and activation topographies, we then calculated correlations for each of 66 possible pairings of tasks, and compared the magnitude of correlation of tasks within reference ability domains to that of tasks between domains. For the behavioral data, globally there were significantly stronger inter-task correlations within than between domains. When examining individual abilities, 3 of the domains also met these criteria but memory reached only borderline significance. Overall there was greater topographic similarity within reference abilities than between them (p

OBJECTIVE Metamemory, or knowledge of one's memory abilities, is often impaired in individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD), although the basis of this metacognitive deficit has not been fully articulated. Behavioral and imaging studies have produced conflicting evidence regarding the extent to which specific cognitive domains (i.e., executive function; memory) and brain regions contribute to memory awareness. The primary aim of this study was to disentangle the cognitive correlates of metamemory in AD by examining the relatedness of objective metamemory performance to cognitive tasks grouped by domain (executive function or memory) as well as by preferential hemispheric reliance defined by task modality (verbal or nonverbal). METHOD Eighty-nine participants with mild AD recruited at Columbia University Medical Center and the University of Pennsylvania underwent objective metamemory and cognitive testing. Partial correlations were used to assess the relationship between metamemory and four cognitive variables, adjusted for recruitment site. RESULTS The significant correlates of metamemory included nonverbal fluency (r = .27, p = .02) and nonverbal memory (r = .24, p = .04). CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that objectively measured metamemory in a large sample of individuals with mild AD is selectively related to a set of interdomain nonverbal tasks. The association between metamemory and the nonverbal tasks may implicate a shared reliance on a right-sided cognitive network that spans frontal and temporal regions.

Lower socioeconomic status (SES) has been associated with lesser cognitive performance and smaller brain volumes. Furthermore, smaller brain volumes have been related to poorer cognitive function. This study examined whether SES-linked decrements in executive function (EF) were explained by corresponding reductions in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) volume. Participants were 212 African American (AA) and White adults from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) SCAN study. Multiple regression analyses showed significant associations of SES with three EF test scores. However, PFC mediated the association between SES and EF. Results demonstrated that dorsolateral PFC mediated the relation between SES and Trails B, but not Digit Span Backwards or Verbal Fluency. Race-stratified analyses revealed that significant mediation was present in Whites, but not in AAs. These findings highlight the importance of brain health for optimal cognitive functioning, while adding to the literature on racial health disparities.

Cognitive psychologists posit several specific cognitive abilities that are measured with sets of cognitive tasks. Tasks that purportedly tap a specific underlying cognitive ability are strongly correlated with one another, whereas performances on tasks that tap different cognitive abilities are less strongly correlated. For these reasons, latent variables are often considered optimal for describing individual differences in cognitive abilities. Although latent variables cannot be directly observed, all cognitive tasks representing a specific latent ability should have a common neural underpinning. Here, we show that cognitive tasks representing one ability (i.e., either perceptual speed or fluid reasoning) had a neural activation pattern distinct from that of tasks in the other ability. One hundred six participants between the ages of 20 and 77 years were imaged in an fMRI scanner while performing six cognitive tasks, three representing each cognitive ability. Consistent with prior research, behavioral performance on these six tasks clustered into the two abilities based on their patterns of individual differences and tasks postulated to represent one ability showed higher similarity across individuals than tasks postulated to represent a different ability. This finding was extended in the current report to the spatial resemblance of the task-related activation patterns: The topographic similarity of the mean activation maps for tasks postulated to reflect the same reference ability was higher than for tasks postulated to reflect a different reference ability. Furthermore, for any task pairing, behavioral and topographic similarities of underlying activation patterns are strongly linked. These findings suggest that differences in the strengths of correlations between various cognitive tasks may be because of the degree of overlap in the neural structures that are active when the tasks are being performed. Thus, the latent variable postulated to account for correlations at a behavioral level may reflect topographic similarities in the neural activation across different brain regions.

Many studies have shown that training and testing conditions modulate specificity of visual learning to trained stimuli and tasks. In visually impaired populations, generalizability of visual learning to untrained stimuli/tasks is almost always reported, with contrast sensitivity (CS) featuring prominently among these collaterally-improved functions. To understand factors underlying this difference, we measured CS for direction and orientation discrimination in the visual periphery of three groups of visually-intact subjects. Group 1 trained on an orientation discrimination task with static Gabors whose luminance contrast was decreased as performance improved. Group 2 trained on a global direction discrimination task using high-contrast random dot stimuli previously used to recover motion perception in cortically blind patients. Group 3 underwent no training. Both forms of training improved CS with some degree of specificity for basic attributes of the trained stimulus/task. Group 1's largest enhancement was in CS around the trained spatial/temporal frequencies; similarly, Group 2's largest improvements occurred in CS for discriminating moving and flickering stimuli. Group 3 saw no significant CS changes. These results indicate that CS improvements may be a natural consequence of multiple forms of visual training in visually intact humans, albeit with some specificity to the trained visual domain(s).