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From 300 BC to AD 300, the city of Pergamon underwent a profound transformation that impacted the rural settlement patterns and the concomitant geomorphodynamics. We present a geoarchaeological study in a long-term settled catchment in the Pergamon micro-region to disentangle the Holocene geomorphodynamics and triggering factors, for example, climate change and human activity. The analyses of eight radiocarbon-dated sediment profiles from the Tekkedere alluvial fan and its catchment indicate four principal sedimentation phases. Phase 1 (ca. 6.2 to 5–4 ka) is dominated by the floodplain aggradation of the receiving Bakırçay River, which is followed by the formation of floodplain soils (phase 2). Substantial geomorphodynamic changes occurred around 4 ka (phase 3), when the edge of the floodplain was buried by fan sediments of the tributary Tekkedere creek. This is attributed to supraregional aridization and rapid climate change events, superimposed by the onset of local human activities. Repeated cycles of coarse- and fine-textured fan sediments with age inversions after ca. 3.8 ka and valley infills younger than 1300 yr BP indicate the strong erosion and redeposition of sediments in phase 4. These increased geomorphodynamics may coincide with the changing settlement pattern and thus reflect human–environment interactions.

This study presents a meta‐analysis of radiocarbon ages for the environs of Göbekli Tepe – one of the oldest monumental structures worldwide – using cumulative probability functions to diachronically assess phases of geomorphodynamic activity as controlled by natural or anthropogenic drivers. We employ sediment cascades as a heuristic framework to study the complex responses of the geomorphological system to various triggers at local to supra‐regional scales. Possible triggers include climatic variability as documented by supra‐regional hydroclimatic proxy data, regional demographic trends, and local to regional socioeconomic developments such as the emergence of sedentism or the introduction and dispersal of livestock herding. Our results show that phases of intensified geomorphodynamic activity occurred between ca. 7.4–7.0 and 5.8–3.3 ka BP. These phases roughly coincide with phases of population growth in southern Turkey and climatic variations in Turkey and the Levant. The phase between ca. 5.8–3.3 ka BP also corresponds to the time when organized agriculture and the seeder plough were introduced. Also, the identified phases are in agreement with the general trend of varying geomorphodynamic activity in the Eastern Mediterranean as driven by human impact and climatic change. However, neither the Younger Dryas–Holocene transition nor the development of herding during the Pre‐Pottery Neolithic left a clear signature. We demonstrate how the different depositional environments in the studied landscape compartments vary with respect to their spatiotemporal coverage and discuss challenges when trying to understand processes that once shaped landscapes of past societies. © 2020 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Geomorphodynamic activity in the surroundings of the Early Neolithic hilltop site Göbekli Tepe is significantly intensified between ca. 7.4–7.0 and 5.8–3.3 ka BP, reflecting demographic, sociocultural, and climatic variations. The studied landscape compartments form a sediment cascade whose different depositional environments vary with respect to their spatiotemporal coverage. Preservation of colluvial deposits in upland catchments represents a key challenge when studying ancient hilltop sites such as Göbekli Tepe in semi‐arid environments like southeastern Anatolia.

The monumental Late Bonze Age royal tomb of Seddin is located in the old morainic landscape of the Prignitz region, northeastern Germany. Together with other richly equipped burials and a row of stone pits in its direct vicinity, it provides evidence for the presence of an elite from the nineth to sixth centuries BCE in this region. Our map emphasizes the well-chosen location of the royal tomb in relation to the spatial arrangement of other archaeological monuments that together form an ensemble of a ritual landscape. We trace legacies of land use from the Bronze Age to the present against the backdrop of Late Quaternary landscape evolution. These include the Bronze Age landscape (re-)organization for ritual and economic purposes, its medieval use for arable farming, its economic use and settlement history in historic times, and modern times melioration of agricultural areas that together form the palimpsest of the present-day landscape.

How did socio-cultural transformation processes change land-use patterns? Throughout the last 50 years, outstanding comprehensive geographic, archaeobiological, and archaeological data have been produced for the area of Oldenburger Graben, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Based on this exceptional data set, we are able to study the land-use patterns for a period ranging from the Final Mesolithic until the Late Neolithic (4600–1700 BCE). By application of fuzzy modeling techniques, these patterns are investigated diachronically in order to assess the scale of transformations between the different archaeological phases. Based on nutrient requirements and proposed dietary composition estimates derived from empirical archaeobotanical, archaeozoological, and stable isotope data, the required extent of the areas for different land-use practices are modeled. This information is made spatially explicit using a fuzzy model that reconstructs areas of potential vegetation and land-use for each transformation phase. Pollen data are used to validate the type and extent of land-use categories. The model results are used to test hypotheses on the dynamics of socio-cultural transformations: can we observe a diversification of land-use patterns over time or does continuity of land-use practices prevail? By integrating the different lines of evidence within a spatially explicit modeling approach, we reach a new quality of data analysis with a high degree of contextualization. This allows testing of hypotheses about Neolithic transformation processes by an explicit adjustment of our model assumptions, variables, and parameters.

We would like to begin by thanking the journal and the commentators for their time and attention.

With the emergence of modern techniques of environmental analysis and widespread availability of accessible tools and quantitative data, the question of environmental determinism is once again on the agenda. This paper is theoretical in character, attempting, for the benefit of drawing up research designs, to understand and evaluate the character of environmental determinism. We reach three main conclusions: (1) in a typical pattern of research design, studies seek to detect simultaneous shifts in the environmental and archaeological records, variously positing the former to have influenced, triggered or caused the latter; (2) the question of determinism involves uncertainty about the justification for the above research design in particular in what comes to biologism and the concept of environmental thresholds on the one hand and the externality of the drivers of transformation in human groups and societies on the other; (3) adapting the concepts of the social production of vulnerability and the social basis of hazards from anthropology may help to clarify the available research design choices at hand.

“The Anthropocene” currently serves as a framework to acknowledge global human influences on the earth systems. Different prominent authors call for geographers and especially physical geographers to intensify their involvement in the discussions on the theme. A bibliometric analysis shows that geographers are already one of the leading contributors to the keyword Anthropocene in journal articles. While we generally support the standpoint of increased engagement with the topic, we want to emphasize that we need to do more than only attaching the “Anthropocene” label to our daily research practice. A critical engagement with and reflection of the research questions and contexts is needed to play a vital role as discussant in the debate. We should take advantage of the diverse themes, topics and viewpoints of our subject by actively following a more critical approach to our research practices in order to find those geographic ties that join us and our discipline and that enable us to contribute more substantially to the Anthropocene debate.

Northeastern Jordan is one of the few remaining regions in the Middle East where pastoral nomadism is still practiced. In this desert region, pastoral mobility is an adapted land use able to cope with low rainfall rates, great seasonal and annual rainfall variations and thus heterogeneous vegetation and water availability. During winter, herders and their livestock move into the desert; in summer they move to the desert margins to places with perennial water supply. First traces of mobile pastoralism date back to the beginning of the Late Neolithic. Within the basaltic region of northeastern Jordan, there is a dense distribution of archaeological remains; some of them can be linked to pastoral groups due to the herders' ancient practice of building agglomerations of sub-circular enclosures ('clustered enclosures') made of basalt boulders for corralling their flocks and domestic activities. These features provide an excellent opportunity to investigate a landscape that shows traces of pastoral activity since eight to nine Millennia. In this study, 9118 clustered enclosures in the northeastern Jordanian basalt desert have been systematically recorded using satellite imagery. In order to investigate potential migration or communication routes, grazing lands and social interactions of former pastoralists, we examine their first- and second-order characteristics using distance and density based approaches of point pattern analyses by integrating geomorphometric and geomorphological site properties. The results of this spatial analysis are combined with available archaeological data and a review on traditional herding practices in northeastern Jordan. Overall, the results demonstrate that the observed spatial distribution of clustered enclosures is influenced locally by natural characteristics but regionally by cultural practices.

The city of Anuradhapura, founded on the banks of the River Malwathu Oya, was the ancient capital of Sri Lanka between the 4th century BCE and the 11th century CE. The widespread architectural remains of the ancient city make it the most important archaeological site in the cultural landscape of the country. Most of the foundations, floor areas, pillars, and entrance units of the ancient constructions consist of stone materials, evidencing that stones were the principal building material in the ancient Kingdom of Anuradhapura. Numerous ancient rock quarries are located inside and outside the ancient city complex; most of them can be found along a N-S striking line of rock outcrops that runs through the historic city. This study focuses on the importance of the availability of stone resources for the founding and development of early Anuradhapura settlement. For this purpose the building rocks in the ancient constructions are analyzed and the spatial distribution of their source areas examined using the petrological, chemical and mineralogical characterization of both building and source rock specimens. The investigations document the predominant application of local gneissic rocks for construction elements such as pillars, stairs, balustrades and foundations. Contrastingly marble, which is not represented in the local lithology, was imported and utilized for ornamentation in sacred and residential buildings.

This study introduces an easy-to-apply approach to studying historic landscape development and tillage-induced wind-driven soil erosion of a loess-like sediment. It discusses the implications of these processes for the preservation of cultural remains in the environs of the largest known European ground monument – Cornesti-Iarcuri. This Late Bronze Age enclosure is located in the loess-covered, undulating plains of western Romania and consists of four earth-filled wooden ramparts. Interpretation of historic and modern maps is combined with the study of written sources to qualitatively record historic landscape development. It is shown that major changes in the natural environment, including the intensification of arable farming and the regular establishment of straight field paths, occurred in the study area between c. 1770 and c. 1865. The amount of surface lowering due to wind-driven soil erosion is estimated using a combination of systematic feature extraction from the historic and modern maps, high resolution modeling of the topography based on LiDAR data, subsurface compaction measurements and grain size analyses. The surface lowering on the arable fields of the high plain since c. 1865 totals between 10 and 40 cm. This, together with the actual plowing depth of c. 30 cm, implies that archaeological structures must have penetrated the subsurface to between 40 and 70 cm in order to be preserved in the present-day subsurface. Thus, this study shows that a considerable portion of the cultural heritage has presumably been lost. Moreover, the still intact lower-lying stratigraphy is threatened by the destructive impact of plowing that successively reaches greater depths due to ongoing tillage-induced wind-driven soil erosion on the arable fields. However, bioturbation causing distortion of the systemic context of the cultural remains cannot be excluded, as Luvic Phaeozems and Luvic Chernozems prevail in the study area.

This study traces the geomorphological development in the environs of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic site Gobekli Tepe by means of radiocarbon dated sediment profiles from its close vicinity. Based on facies interpretation we identify different depositional environments and discuss the involved process dynamics. Our results show that the sediments from the foot slopes are characterized by soil creep and slope wash. Further downstream, in the proximal piedmont zone, fluvial deposition prevails forming a channel and an overbank facies. The sediments at the foot slopes were mainly deposited during Roman and Byzantine times, while those from the proximal piedmont zone cover the period from the Bronze Age to the Roman times. Phases of geomorphological activity and stability can be distinguished in the course of the later Holocene, where organic rich topsoils were buried at c. 4750, 4200, and 3650 cal. a BP documenting phases of landscape stability followed by enhanced geomorphodynamics. These phases fall into the Bronze Age in Anatolia and coincide with an increasing population, pronounced human impact, and climatic aridization that occurred in Turkey around 5.3–4.1 ka BP. Our findings provide among the first insights into the environmental development including the involved process dynamics in the vicinity of the UNESCO World Heritage site of Gobekli Tepe during the later Holocene, also allowing to further develop hypotheses for the period of its occupation.

Within arid regions allochthonous rivers as a main source of fresh water play a significant role in the spatial organisation of human occupation.This study aims at a comprehensive view on changes in the prehistoric occupation patterns within the Río Ica catchment on the southern coast of Peru. Results of different research projects are integrated. The heterogeneous character of the catchment allows us to define three sub-sections which differ greatly in terms of vegetation, relief and water regime.Based on quantitative geo-statistical methods we analyse spatio-temporal changes in human occupation from the Early Horizon (c. 1000–200 BC) through to the Inca Late Horizon (AD 1450–1532) in the context of environmental conditions, as well as socio-economic processes. Examining known archaeological sites we are able to assess the significance of environmental location factors for pre-Hispanic settlements. In addition, areas of high human interaction are identified on the basis of a classification of archaeological sites according to their function (craft/industry, cult, cooperation and trade). We thereby transfer the concept of central place theory to the spatial distribution of archaeological remains, introducing a novel approach to identifying central functions in a spatially explicit way.Our results crystallise the changing character of occupation in the study area over more than two millennia. They contribute to the ongoing debate on the decline of the Nasca culture, endorsing a complex combination of natural and socio-economic reasons. Furthermore, the results support the concept of a more widespread exchange and cooperation during ‘Horizon’ periods in the study area and likewise indicate that the disappearance of a supra-regional administrative polity during ‘Intermediate’ periods might have led to higher human activity in smaller scale societies, as reflected in a more diverse spatial organisation in terms of geomorphometric units and central areas.

The paper introduces a method that links environment to landscape. The environment-landscape divide appears because of epistemological differences: since studying the landscape involves describing the world as it was perceived by humans, it is difficult to access this dimension through the numerical data that we employ when studying the environment. We approach the issue of noncorrespondence between environment and landscape knowledge using fuzzy logic. The numerical data describing two geomorphometric parameters, slope and modified topographic index, are split each into three classes with overlapping borders. The classes are then fused into four qualitative categories: flat wet, steep dry, flat dry, and gradual moist. These four categories have direct correspondence in the real world and can be observed by people through simple perception. The correspondence of such categories to peoples’ perception is checked against evidence of past human settlement in three areas coming from Turkey, Serbia, and Syria. The identified qualitative categories resemble the way people categorized their landscape in all but the second case study. Humans were able to perceive and choose areas which correspond to gradual moist in Turkey and broadly to flat

Landscape archaeology is an emerging interdisciplinary field where researchers from humanities and sciences investigate human/environment interactions and interrelations as well as human perceptions of the environment. It is closely related to Critical Physical Geography except that the investigated humans are long gone. Insights about past societies and their relations to the environment are only indirectly accessible via material traces. We present different challenges when interpreting such material remains that are produced by coupled eco-social systems. In order to tackle these challenges, critical physical geographic thinking is necessary that iteratively questions the application of methods from physical and social science, their data selection and interpretation of results in order to arrive at a comprehensive, transdisciplinary understanding of long gone societies within their environment.

In this contribution, we apply different methods of spatial and geomorphometric analysis in order to present a general approach of data exploration in areas where detailed local information is absent. Our data are based on locations of megalithic graves from Funnel Beaker societies (3700–2800 BCE) in the area of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Using these locations, we apply methods of point pattern analysis in order to reconstruct the spatial processes that created the sample: We use density-based measures to show the influence of first-order effects on the dataset. While first-order effects are related to the underlying areal characteristics of the point locations and hence are determinant of their intensity, second-order effects are the result of interactions between points. We conduct distance-related approaches, e.g. focusing on nearest-neighbour characteristics, in order to investigate the interaction between the points. The point pattern analyses are complemented by integrating geomorphometric measures that are indirectly indicative for some general environmental conditions, even in prehistoric times. This helps (a) to relate first-order effects to societal or environmental features and (b) to understand the specific pattern of interactions between the points. The necessary raw data in the form of digital elevation models are freely available for large parts of the globe. All analyses are conducted using free and open-source software in order to provide their limitless application.

This study exemplifies the theoretical and methodological process of integration of disciplinary results, the joint development of new hypotheses and its interdisciplinary interpretation in the framework of landscape archaeological research. A conceptual model is introduced to visualize the integration process. The findings of two recently published studies and the archaeological state of the art regarding the largest known prehistoric enclosure in Europe – Corneşti-Iarcuri – are used as exemplary data to demonstrate the applicability of the conceptual model. The presented discussion shows how integration of disciplinary findings leads to a more holistic and more rigorous interpretation and opens the opportunity to jointly develop new hypotheses that can be integrated subsequently.

The importance of an archaeological site is determined by its centrality, a measure of the interaction at the site. Interactions are assessed by different central functions that are important on different spatial scales. With this integrated approach, applying the knowledge of geography, prehistoric archaeology and classical archaeology, the surroundings of present-day Bergama and Selcuk in Western Anatolia are analysed with regard to their centrality. The diachronic approach shows the different developments of both areas throughout time, indicating the importance of different environmental and social factors that create the level of centrality. Two kinds of centrality can be distinguished: (1) a natural centrality that is mainly based on the location of a site in relation to its local hinterland as well as supra-regional landscape characteristics and (2) a politically controlled centrality that is caused by human efforts to assemble central functions. While in the second case deterioration starts when the required effort can no longer be afforded, deterioration in the first type of centrality is caused by the natural landscape dynamics. This interdisciplinary, diachronic analysis allows a holistic assessment of centrality. Furthermore it shows that (1) local, natural or social factors alone are not able to give a full and sufficient explanation of the differences in a location's centrality as well as (2) the evident need for integrated research frameworks in the analysis of human–environmental relationships throughout time.

Throughout history, societies have performed water management to provide themselves with water for several purposes. Here, three main entities of water management can be distinguished, which are: water availability, water technology and social organization. These three entities with their specifications and some examples will be presented in this study. The study categorizes and classifies some basic terms of water management, with a focus on the antique Mediterranean. For a holistic analysis of water management we suggest the utilization of an integrated approach called social ecology.

The present contribution deals with the concepts of marginal habitats in selected regions of the ancient world, ranging from modern Spain to the Jordanian desert and from Turkey to the Ethiopian highlands. Central to this research is the hypothesis that the occupation of areas beyond the ‘normal’ settlement patterns corresponds to colonization processes which reflect specific social strategies and may have stimulated the development of new technological skills. A review of ‘marginality’ research in various disciplines indicates that there is no comprehensive definition of the concept, which can be approached from a multitude of perspectives and with manifold objectives. A survey of the eight case studies and two more in-depth discussions of the sites of Musawwarat (Sudan) and Ayamonte (Spain) highlight the potentials as well as the limits of the archaeological investigation into past marginalities. Patterns of spatial marginalization are the easiest to detect. The studies also show that we must not limit our analysis to the adverse factors connected to different kinds of marginalities. Instead, our analyses suggest that spatially marginal areas were deliberately chosen for settlement – an integration with core-periphery approaches may help us to understand these scenarios, which have received little attention in ‘marginality’ research in archaeology or elsewhere so far.

Location and characterisation of places is the central topic of landscape archaeology. Places can be characterised according to the landscape in which they are located. The information from a landscape classification can be transferred to places; for example, settlements. This chapter discusses both crisp and fuzzy approaches of landscape classification. The location can be optimised due to providing the place with the best landscape features for a certain purpose. Moreover, the optimisation can be based upon the relationship to other places, which is addressed as structure based optimisation. Predictive modelling draws upon the fact that certain landscape features are optimal for a certain economic and cultural style of life and hence are preferred. Predictive models are regression models showing the likeliness of having a place at a certain location characterised by a certain set of landscape features. Both inductive starting with observations of places with characteristics and deductive approaches starting with a set of theoretical preferences are discussed.

This chapter is dedicated to the term ‘model’ which is explored in the first part. The chapter presents different definitions and characterisations of the term ‘model’ and aims to provide readers with a deeper understanding of differences and similarities in the various concepts of models, as well as their practical applications. A brief discussion of some classifications of models introduces the reader to the most important distinctions in the modelling terminology. Among these classifications, the distinction between theoretical and empirical models plays a dominant role and is pivotal for understanding the methodological chapters. In addition, we present the SQM classification and address the development and reduction of complexity in models. Different purposes and benefits of models are described and may serve as a starting point for describing modelling applications. In order to have practical rules of thumb for the usage of models some modelling directions are given. Finally, examples from archaeology and geography complete this conceptual chapter on modelling.

While density analysis only deals with points in a coordinate system, regression and interpolation includes additional information. The points are provided with values. Regression investigates the relationship of the coordinates and the dependent variable. Theoretical functions are used to describe this relationship and these functions are fitted to the empirical data. Among the different techniques of regression, the chapter concentrates on linear models. In the case of interpolation, we are also interested in the relationship between the coordinates and the dependent variable, although we ask for values of the dependent variable where we have no observations. Interpolation means predicting values for points where no measurements are available. The result is a model of the values of the entire area of interest based upon the idea that values are similar when the distance is small. This itself is a conceptual model of the relationship of points in space. Interpolation is an important technique that is applied in many more complex types of models. Inverse distance weighting and kriging are the methods discussed.

The emergence and development of modelling in archaeology and geography as well as the relationship of these disciplines is discussed. This narrative is embedded in a broader view on science and humanities. Archaeology and geography are identified as bridging disciplines between the two cultures of science and humanities. This emphasises the interdisciplinary role of archaeology, geography and modelling. In addition, the three sets of data used in the case studies are introduced. These data form a minimal example to exemplify different modelling concepts to highlight their strength and weaknesses. Finally, some mathematical concepts including logic, sets, relations, algebra, graph theory, statistics, stochastic and optimisation are mentioned, since they are vital to understand the content of this book. Brief summaries of concepts and facts as well as references to further reading help to refresh the knowledge and prepare the mathematical background for the following chapters.

Ein archäologisch-geographisches Kooperationsprojekt im Turano-Tal, nordöstlich von Rom, untersuchte die Landschafts- und Besiedlungsgeschichte. Die mächtigen Talverfüllungen des Untersuchungsgebietes, die in den letzten 5500 Jahren gebildet wurden, dokumentieren die Verzahnung von kolluvialen und fluvialen Sedimenten. Um 2200 BC zeigt sich eine deutliche Veränderung der fluvialen Systeme mit einer stetigen Zunahme der Sedimentmächtigkeiten. Die kumulierten 14C-Datierungen zeigen Intervalle verstärkter Sedimentverlagerung, die die historische Landnutzung sowie soziale Umbrüche widerspiegeln. Der archäologische Fokus der Untersuchung lag auf Zeugnissen der römischen Besiedlung. In diesem Zusammenhang ist ein römischer Tempel besonders bedeutungsvoll, der unter der Kirche auf dem Berg San Giovanni liegt und eine Zentralortfunktion auf das umgebende Tal ausübte. Zudem wurde eine Dokumentation zu einer bereits bekannten monumentalen Grabinschrift durchgeführt. Zentral-Apennin; Alt-Sabiner Land; Spät-Holozän; Landschaftsentwicklung; Besiedlungsgeschichte; Historische Landnutzung; Römische Besiedlung. A joint project of archaeologists and geographers investigated the landscape development and settlement history of the Turano valley, NE of Rome. The valley fills in the area were deposited during the last 5500 years and show an interlocking of colluvial and fluvial sediments. From c. 2200 BC onwards a continuous increase in sediment thickness attests to modifications of the fluvial systems. The distribution of C-dates exhibits intervals of intense sediment dislocation representing changes in land use and society. Archaeological research focused on evidence of Roman settlement activities. In this context a Roman temple situated in the basement of the medieval church on Mount San Giovanni is of particular interest, as it served the surrounding valley as a central place. Additionally, an already known monumental grave inscription was documented.