Search

Gut microbiota play important roles in fish health and growth performance and the microbiome in fish has been shown to be a biomarker for stress. In this study, we surveyed the change of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) gut and water microbiota in freshwater recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) for 7 months and evaluated how gut microbial communities were influenced by fish health and growth performance. The gut microbial diversity significantly increased in parallel with the growth of the fish. The dominant gut microbiota shifted from a predominance of Firmicutes to Proteobacteria, while Proteobacteria constantly dominated the water microbiota. Photobacterium sp. was persistently the major gut microbial community member during the whole experiment and was identified as the core gut microbiota for freshwater farmed Chinook salmon. No significant variation in gut microbial diversity and composition was observed among fish with different growth performance. At the end of the trial, 36 out of 78 fish had fluid in their swim bladders. These fish had gut microbiomes containing elevated proportions of Enterococcus, Stenotrophomonas, Aeromonas, and Raoultella. Our study supports the growing body of knowledge about the beneficial microbiota associated with modern salmon aquaculture systems and provides additional information on possible links between dysbiosis and gut microbiota for Chinook salmon.

Cardiac abnormalities may pose a threat to salmonid aquaculture due to their potential detrimental effect on fish health and welfare. The teleost heart is an extremely plastic organ with important morphological differences between wild and farmed fish that include ventricular shape, alignment of the bulbus arteriosus and epicardial fat deposition. However, little is known about how different factors and interactions among them may affect cardiac morphology of Atlantic salmon. To determine whether rearing temperature could induce cardiac malformations in large Tasmanian Atlantic salmon, we examined a range of cardiac morphology indicators and growth parameters in a population of 1-2 kg seawater salmon (n = 60 temperature-1 diet-1 ) exposed to control and elevated temperatures of 15 and 19°C, respectively, while fed one of two commercial feeds with different dietary energy levels. Most fish possessed conspicuous fat around the heart with a tendency towards a rounded ventricle and a more obtuse angle of the bulbus arteriosus. However, fish showed no significant differences in heart shape and bulbus alignment in relation to water temperature and dietary energy. These results suggest that cardiac morphology of large Atlantic salmon is unlikely to be affected by rearing temperature and dietary energy during the grow-out phase.

Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), also referred to as King salmon, is a premium aquaculture species farmed in New Zealand and to a small extent in western Canada. Despite the high research investment in the 50s and 60s, literature on nutrition on chinook salmon from recent years is sparse, particularly when compared to other salmonid aquaculture species, such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). To improve fish productivity, it is essential to provide specific and efficient diets based on satisfying chinook salmon requirements for nutrients and energy and adapting these to life-stage, season, and production variables. Diet specifications for chinook salmon have to date largely been based on knowledge derived from other salmonid species and may not be optimised for chinook salmon. Thus, there is a lack of knowledge in some fundamental areas. This review explores the production status and literature related to the macro and micronutrient requirements, and general nutrition of chinook salmon. In doing so it compares these requirements to other farmed salmonids to understand some of the differences between species and highlights the main gaps in the literature.

Spiny lobsters have a range of complex chemical communication pathways that contribute to feeding behaviour. Feed intake is modulated by feed availability and feed characteristics, such as attractiveness and palatability, with behavioural factors, such as social competition and circadian rhythm, providing an extra layer of complexity. In this study, we investigated the effect of feed frequency on survival and growth of early-stage (instar 2-6) juvenile

In recent decades, mortality caused by ostreid herpesvirus (OsHV-1) and a variant (OsHV-1 μvar) has severely impacted the production of Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, chronologically in France, New Zealand (NZ) and Australia (Jenkins et al., 2013; Keeling et al., 2014; Segarra et al., 2010). This study was conceived based on observations made in several commercial hatcheries and research institutes in these countries where vertical transmission of OsHV-1 μvar has been absent or extremely rare. We have collated data from the production of Pacific oysters across these countries to assess the risk associated with breeding oysters from broodstock grown in OsHV-1 μvar-infected waters. The aim is to provide a reference point for regulatory authorities to use when developing or updating biosecurity management policy associated with the hatchery production of Pacific oysters.

The respiratory quotient (RQ) has been used extensively as an index to evaluate metabolic energy expenditure in terrestrial animals including humans. In contrast, RQ use in understanding physiology and nutrition of aquatic ectotherms has been restricted due to technical challenges in measuring total CO2 in water. With technical advances in measuring total CO2 in water, RQ in aquatic ectotherms can be accurately determined and is potentially available as a valuable method. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of studies on RQ and metabolic energy substrate use in aquatic ectotherms. Metabolic energy substrate use is evaluated by a reliable stoichiometric bioenergetic approach, based on measuring RQ and nitrogen quotient (NQ) simultaneously. Stoichiometry provides a non‐destructive and unequivocal way to quantify the instantaneous oxidation of each major energy substrate (protein, lipid or carbohydrate). This review aims to refine knowledge about bioenergetics of aquatic ectotherms under different conditions including nutritional aspects of sustainable aquaculture. Notably, stoichiometry provides a promising approach to optimize feeds and feeding regimes to realize sustainable aquaculture under differing conditions and with differing feed ingredients. It also provides an approach to consider climate change impacts and physiological adaptation mechanisms for survival and development in farmed environments and natural ecosystems. Stoichiometric bioenergetics knowledge in aquatic ectotherms has relevance to commercial impacts in the face of overfishing and food security, and ecological significance in the face of environmental change scenarios. We suggest expanding the use of stoichiometry in future bioenergetic research in emerging aquaculture species.

Aquaculture is critical for ensuring global food and nutrition security, and fed-aquaculture, which depends on formulated nutritionally balanced manufactured feeds, must be sustainable. Single-cell ingredients (SCI) are predicted to play a significant role in future aquafeeds and have the potential to underpin sustainable fed-aquaculture for many species. The value of an aquafeed ingredient includes nutritional, commercial, environmental, and socioeconomic factors. Here we aim to review approaches to understanding the value of ingredients and use this to outline a practical approach for considering the use of SCI in aquafeeds. We conclude that following an initial experimental focus on nutritional value, a collaborative and iterative approach with an aquafeed manufacturer will provide the most likely route to successful commercialisation of SCI.

To date, many studies trying to understand species’ climate-driven changes in distribution, or ‘range shifts’, have each focused on a single potential mechanism. While a single performance measure may give some insight, it may not be enough to accurately predict outcomes. Here, we used multiple measures of performance to explore potential mechanisms behind species range shifts. We examined the thermal pattern for multiple measures of performance, including measures of aerobic metabolism and multiple aspects of escape speed, using the final larval stage (puerulus) of eastern rock lobster Sagmariasus verreauxi as a model species. We found that aerobic scope and escape speed had different thermal performances and optimal temperatures. The optimal temperature for aerobic scope was 27.5°C, while the pseudo-optimal temperature for maximum escape speed was 23.2°C. This discrepancy in thermal performance indicators illustrates that one measure of performance may not be sufficient to accurately predict whole-animal performance under future warming. Using multiple measures of performance and appropriate modelling techniques may lead to a more accurate prediction of future range shifts, including the timing and extent of climate-driven species redistribution.

Behaviour underpins many facets of the performance of animals in aquaculture. By manipulating culture systems to segregate or allow particular aspects of conspecific interaction, we found physical interactions between P. ornatus individuals to be essential for better culture performance. Three culture types were used to control conspecific interactions: isolated culture (individual vessels) excluded all conspecific interactions, separated culture (lobsters cultured in adjacent cages) excluded physical interactions, and communal culture allowed for all interactions. Two water exchange rates were introduced to investigate the influence of chemical cue intensity on growth and survival. Time-series photography was used to determine the feeding behaviour and preference for different feeds including mussel gonad, commercial prawn feed and moist feed. The experiment showed improved growth and moulting frequency in communally cultured lobsters. These results suggest that direct physical contact between conspecifics is required to optimise growth of lobsters, which may be related to the complex social structures of this gregarious species. Behavioural observations of two juvenile instars (2 and 4), revealed circadian rhythm of interactions with feeds, feed preferences and intake. Observations revealed differing behaviours between the different culture types, where lobsters reared in separation displayed higher level of interactions with feeds; however this was not associated with higher feed intake. Observations of two juvenile instars (2 and 4) exhibited increase of daylight activity (interactions with feeds and feed intake) in older lobsters (instar 4).

Research with a variety of aquatic ectotherms suggests that variation in individual metabolic rate (i.e., metabolic phenotype) can be a factor that influences the behaviour and growth of individuals. Slow growth, growth disparity and growth depensation have been reported as major drawbacks to spiny lobster production which is thought to be associated with agonistic behaviour of dominant individuals controlling a disproportional share of food resources. Our study examined the relationship between individual variation of metabolic phenotypes (standard, routine and active metabolic rates and aerobic scope), and growth performance of juvenile spiny lobster, Sagmariasus verreauxi (5.99 ± 0.46 g) that were reared either individually (n = 20) or communally as a group of 20 for 90 days. Growth performance and feed intake were significantly higher in communal rearing demonstrating that social interaction is important for promoting growth of spiny lobsters. There was a positive relationship between standard metabolic rate, routine metabolic rate and growth in individually reared lobsters indicating a direct link between metabolic phenotype and growth of lobsters in the absence of social interaction. There was no relationship between metabolic phenotype and growth in communal rearing suggesting that social interactions outweigh the direct link between metabolic rate and lobster growth. The results demonstrate for the first time that growth performance of spiny lobsters can be linked with individual variation in metabolic status however social behaviour plays a more dominant role in determining growth of this naturally gregarious species.

As salmon aquaculture continues to grow, understanding aquafeed conversion is imperative for making informed strategic growth planning and management decisions. Accurately measuring the apparent digestibility (AD) of commercial aquafeeds on farms requires greater understanding and method development, including the validation of one or more inert endogenous AD markers. Laboratory and commercial experiments assessed the potential of elements that naturally occur in aquafeeds as potential endogenous AD markers. Two commonly used and validated AD markers, acid insoluble ash (an endogenous marker) and ytterbium oxide (an exogenous marker) were compared using protein AD calculated from a range of endogenous elements. Using a Percentage Similarity Analysis, comparison of protein digestibility calculated with recognised AD markers demonstrated lutetium (Lu) was the most accurate endogenous AD marker. Identification of Lu as an effective endogenous AD marker in commercial salmon aquafeeds will facilitate straightforward measurement of AD under commercial conditions. This work has important application in salmon aquaculture where protein AD is fundamental to growth efficiency.

Metabolism in aquatic ectotherms evaluated by oxygen consumption rates reflects energetic costs including those associated with protein synthesis. Metabolism is influenced by nutritional status governed by feeding, nutrient intake and quality, and time without food. However, little is understood about contribution of protein synthesis to crustacean energy metabolism. This study is the first using a protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide to research contribution of cycloheximide-sensitive protein synthesis to decapod crustacean metabolism. Juvenile Sagmariasus verreauxi were subject to five treatments: 2-day fasted lobsters sham injected with saline; 2-day fasted lobsters injected with cycloheximide; 10-day starved lobsters injected with cycloheximide; post-prandial lobsters fed with squid Nototodarus sloanii with no further treatment; and post-prandial lobsters injected with cycloheximide. Standard and routine metabolic rates in starved lobsters were reduced by 32% and 41%, respectively, compared to fasted lobsters, demonstrating metabolic downregulation with starvation. Oxygen consumption rates of fasted and starved lobsters following cycloheximide injection were reduced by 29% and 13%, respectively, demonstrating protein synthesis represents only a minor component of energy metabolism in unfed lobsters. Oxygen consumption rate of fed lobsters was reduced by 96% following cycloheximide injection, demonstrating protein synthesis in decapods contributes a major proportion of specific dynamic action (SDA). SDA in decapods is predominantly a post-absorptive process likely related to somatic growth. This work extends previously limited knowledge on contribution of protein synthesis to crustacean metabolism, which is crucial to explore the relationship between nutritional status and diet quality and how this will affect growth potential in aquaculture species.

One of the main challenges for spiny lobster aquaculture is the successful development of formulated feeds that are attractive, readily consumed by lobsters and promote optimal growth and survival. In a 54-day growth trial, we investigated the performance of four moist formulated feeds containing A) non-homogenised flesh ingredients; B) fish meal only; C) 10% krill meal; or D) homogenised flesh ingredients; and a reference diet of shucked blue mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) flesh, on growth, nutritional condition and feeding behaviour of juvenile tropical spiny lobster (Panulirus ornatus) reared either communally or individually. Growth and survival achieved by lobsters fed mussel were significantly higher than all other treatments. However, lobsters fed the formulated feed containing 10% krill meal (treatment C) and reared communally had a significantly higher growth, survival and feeding performance when compared to the formulated feeds with inclusion of non-homogenised and homogenised flesh ingredients (treatments A and D). The highest levels of feed interaction and pellet consumption among the formulated feeds were also recorded for treatment C. We demonstrated that the inclusion of krill meal in formulated feeds provides a benefit when compared to the inclusion of the flesh ingredients. Flesh ingredient format (homogenised or non-homogenised) had no effect on growth performance of lobsters, suggesting that the process of homogenisation of flesh ingredients does not provide any benefit in promoting feed consumption. Furthermore, time-series photography analysis trials showed that all the formulated feeds only promoted a feeding response within the first 2–3 h post-feeding, whereas mussel retained its attractiveness throughout the feeding period. These results suggest that the prolonged attractiveness remains an impediment for formulated feed performance in lobster culture. The present study also showed that growth performance and feeding response were higher in lobsters reared communally than individually. As observed in other spiny lobster species, it is likely that social interactions in communal housing may have provided cues that stimulated feeding responses and promoted higher growth rates.

Spiny lobsters have a range of complex chemical communication pathways that contribute to feeding behaviour. Feed intake is modulated by feed availability and feed characteristics, such as attractiveness and palatability, with behavioural factors, such as social competition and circadian rhythm, providing an extra layer of complexity. In this study, we investigated the effect of feed frequency on survival and growth of early-stage (instar 2–6) juvenile Palunirus ornatus. In addition, we investigated the interactive effect of feed frequency and circadian rhythm on lobster feed response. Lobsters were fed a set ration at a frequency of either one, two, four, eight, sixteen or thirty-two times per day over 49 days. The effect of feed frequency on growth and survival was determined. Circadian feeding activity under these feeding treatments was assessed by time-lapse photography. Increased feed frequency from one to sixteen feeds daily improved growth by increasing apparent feed intake (AFI) and feed attraction, as confirmed by the increased presence of lobsters in the feeding area. The rapid leaching of feed attractant, particularly free amino acid, suggests a beneficial effect of multiple feeding frequencies on feed intake and growth. However, more than sixteen feeds per day resulted in decreased feed intake and a subsequent reduction in growth. The decrease in feed intake is thought to be associated with saturation of the culture environment with attractants, resulting in a reduced behavioural response to feed supplies. This may indicate the need for depletion of attractants to retrigger a feeding response. As lobsters were grown communally, faster growth at sixteen rations per day was also coupled with increased cannibalism, likely driven by increased vulnerability with the occurrence of more frequent ecdysis events. Whereas circadian rhythm indicated more activity at night, an interaction between daytime activity and feed frequency was not observed.

Understanding the molecular mechanisms that underlie differences in feed efficiency (FE) is an important step toward optimising growth and achieving sustainable salmonid aquaculture. In this study, the liver and white muscle proteomes of feed efficient (EFF) and inefficient (INEFF) Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) reared in seawater were investigated by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In total, 2746 liver and 702 white muscle proteins were quantified and compared between 21 EFF and 22 INEFF fish. GSEA showed that gene sets related to protein synthesis were enriched in the liver and white muscle of the EFF group, while conversely, pathways related to protein degradation (amino acid catabolism and proteolysis, respectively) were the most affected processes in the liver and white muscle of INEFF fish. Estimates of individual daily feed intake and share of the meal within tank were significantly higher in the INEFF than the EFF fish showing INEFF fish were likely more dominant during feeding and overfed. Overeating by the INEFF fish was associated with an increase in protein catabolism. This study found that fish with different FE values had expression differences in the gene sets related to protein turnover, and this result supports the hypothesis that protein metabolism plays a role in FE.

Simple Summary Using combinations of plant protein concentrates and EAA supplementation, high levels of replacement (50–75% of fishmeal protein) have been achieved in gilthead sea bream without affecting the growth performance or quality traits. It was confirmed in this study that 16% replacement of marine protein with plant protein meets the amino acid needs of sea bream. The results of the present study suggest the need to further investigate tissue-specific and species-specific responses in the timing and ability to regulate metabolism due to dietary nutrient utilization. Abstract Following a meal, a series of physiological changes occurs in fish as they digest, absorb and assimilate ingested nutrients. This study aims to assess post-prandial free amino acid (FAA) activity in gilthead sea bream consuming a partial marine protein (fishmeal) replacement. Sea bream were fed diets where 16 and 27% of the fishmeal protein was replaced by plant protein. The essential amino acid (EAA) composition of the white muscle, liver and gut of sea bream was strongly correlated with the EAA composition of the 16% protein replacement diet compared to the 27% protein replacement diet. The mean FAA concentration in the white muscle and liver changed at 4 to 8 h after a meal and was not different to pre-feeding (0 h) and at 24 h after feeding. It was confirmed in this study that 16% replacement of marine protein with plant protein meets the amino acid needs of sea bream. Overall, the present study contributes towards understanding post-prandial amino acid profiles during uptake, tissue assimilation and immediate metabolic processing of amino acids in sea bream consuming a partial marine protein replacement. This study suggests the need to further investigate the magnitude of the post-prandial tissue-specific amino acid activity in relation to species-specific abilities to regulate metabolism due to dietary nutrient utilization.

Apparent digestibility and gastrointestinal evacuation rate were measured to assess the potential of five commercially available protein sources for their inclusion in feeds for juvenile slipper lobster, Thenus australiensis. Protein sources tested were fishmeal, krill meal, lupin meal, soybean meal and squid by-product meal. Apparent digestibility of crude protein ranged from 79.6% to 95.3%, with fishmeal protein significantly less digestible than lupin meal, squid by-product meal and soybean meal. Gastrointestinal evacuation rate was estimated from marker replacement, where yttrium oxide replaced ytterbium oxide. Faeces were collected every 3 h for 48 h, and a kinetic model was used to calculate the rate and time for the second marker to replace the first marker. Gastrointestinal evacuation (≥ 95%) was completed between 4 and 6 h with no significant differences among protein sources. Faeces consisted of both markers in equal parts 2.7 to 5.0 h after the feed switch, with lupin meal reaching the midpoint significantly faster than squid by-product meal and reference feed. The present study is the first in crustaceans to examine the relationship between apparent digestibility and gastrointestinal evacuation, showing more digestible protein sources had slower evacuation rates. The combined approach provides deeper insight into crustaceans' digestive physiology and helps understand their ability to digest specific ingredients. Further research is recommended to understand protein requirements in a broader context to verify highly digestible protein sources meet all nutritional requirements.

Humans have relied on coastal resources for centuries. However, current growth in population and increased accessibility of coastal resources through technology have resulted in overcrowded and often conflicted spaces. The recent global move towards development of national blue economy strategies further highlights the increased focus on coastal resources to address a broad range of blue growth industries. The need to manage sustainable development and future exploitation of both over-utilised and emergent coastal resources is both a political and environmental complexity. To address this complexity, we draw on the perspectives of a multi-disciplinary team, utilising two in depth exemplary case studies in New Zealand and within the Myanmar Delta Landscape, to showcase barriers, pathways and actions that facilitate a move from Business as Usual (BAU) to a future aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the UN International Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021-2030. We provide key recommendations to guide interest groups, and nations globally, towards sustainable utilisation, conservation and preservation of their marine environments in a fair and equitable way, and in collaboration with those who directly rely upon coastal ecosystems. We envision a sustainable future driven by conflict mitigation and resolution, where:(i)Change is motivated and facilitated(ii)Coastal ecosystems are co-managed by multiple reliant groups(iii)Networks that maintain and enhance biodiversity are implemented(iv)Decision-making is equitable and based on ecosystem services(v)Knowledge of the marine realm is strengthened-'mapping the ocean of life'(vi)The interests of diverse user groups are balanced with a fair distribution of benefits.

Graphic abstract Food from the sea can make a larger contribution to healthy and sustainable diets, and to addressing hunger and malnutrition, through improvements in production, distribution and equitable access to wild harvest and mariculture resources and products. The supply and consumption of seafood is influenced by a range of ‘drivers’ including ecosystem change and ocean regulation, the influence of corporations and evolving consumer demand, as well as the growing focus on the importance of seafood for meeting nutritional needs. These drivers need to be examined in a holistic way to develop an informed understanding of the needs, potential impacts and solutions that align seafood production and consumption with relevant 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This paper uses an evidence-based narrative approach to examine how the anticipated global trends for seafood might be experienced by people in different social, geographical and economic situations over the next ten years. Key drivers influencing seafood within the global food system are identified and used to construct a future scenario based on our current trajectory (Business-as-usual 2030). Descriptive pathways and actions are then presented for a more sustainable future scenario that strives towards achieving the SDGs as far as technically possible (More sustainable 2030). Prioritising actions that not only sustainably produce more seafood, but consider aspects of access and utilisation, particularly for people affected by food insecurity and malnutrition, is an essential part of designing sustainable and secure future seafood systems. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11160-021-09663-x.

Marine tropical carnivorous (MTC) fish are less tolerant to high dietary lipid compared with cold and temperate climate fish. However, insufficient n‐3 long‐chain (≥C 20 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC‐PUFA) compromises MTC fish health and growth which requires attention when choosing lipid sources in aquafeed formulations. Fish oil (FO) has been the major lipid source for feeding key MTC fish. We estimated that more than 200 thousand tonnes of FO were used to feed farmed MTC fish in 2016, representing nearly 25% of global FO production. Nevertheless, recent increases in FO prices and demand, and the foreseen inability of wild fisheries to produce sufficient FO in the future, have created a need for cheaper and more sustainable alternatives. Meta‐analysis showed that feeding vegetable oils (VO) to MTC fish can slightly reduce their growth, with a marked decrease in n‐3 LC‐PUFA content in the fish tissues corresponding with the increased replacement of FO and fishmeal in the diet. Rendered terrestrial animal fat or modulating the bioconversion of n‐3 LC‐PUFA precursors in VO can be utilised further in MTC fish nutrition with more research recommended on these approaches. Oils and oil‐rich meals from non‐food marine organisms are rich in n‐3 LC‐PUFA and represent an underutilised alternative to FO for tropical aquaculture. With oils rich in n‐3 LC‐PUFA produced from transgenic plants presently gaining regulatory approvals and becoming available as a renewable alternative to FO, aquaculture in the tropics and around the globe is ready to leap into a new phase of sustainable expansion.

Feed ration plays a crucial role in influencing fish growth performance and maintaining optimal gut health over the seasonal temperature range. However, we have limited knowledge of how these factors affect the gut microbiota of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) farmed in freshwater recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). Here we examined the environmental and faecal microbiota of freshwater Chinook salmon using 16S rRNA gene V1-V3 amplicon sequencing and evaluated the relationship between faecal casts and dominant microflora. Faecal microbial communities were highly stable in terms of composition and diversity regardless of feed ration and temperature changes, whereas temperature significantly affected water microbiota. The composition of faecal microbiota significantly differed from the microbiota of water or feed. The faecal microbiota was dominated by the species Photobacterium piscicola that was more predominant in faecal samples with higher water content (high faecal scores). The relative abundance of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in the gut was distinctly lower than that in the feed and water. Our study provides detailed information on the complex microbial communities in the freshwater RAS and farmed Chinook salmon. It increases our knowledge of potential linkages between core gut microbiota and gut health, illustrated by the relationship between faecal casts and dominant microflora, and provides useful information for sustainable land-based Chinook salmon aquaculture.

Phospholipids , especially phosphatidylcholine (PC), are considered essential nutrients for larval and juvenile stages of many decapod crustacean species due to low rates of endogenous biosynthesis and potential nutritional benefits in assisting lipid digestion and transport. This study was conducted to test the hypothesis that dietary PC is essential and would subsequently have beneficial effects on lipid utilisation and digestibility of fish oil triacylglycerol (TAG) in the slipper lobster, Thenus australiensis. Juvenile slipper lobsters were supplied six formulated experimental feeds with actual PC contents of 0.05, 0.48, 0.65, 0.98, 1.15 and 1.43% (dry matter) for 12 weeks. Manipulating dietary PC content had no effects on survival, growth, chemical composition, whole body or tissue lipid distribution, or apparent digestibility (AD) of gross energy (GE), total lipid (TL) or PC. Juvenile slipper lobsters appeared to possess fully developed and efficient mechanisms for GE, TAG and PC digestion (>95% AD). In vivo lipid class mass balance calculations demonstrated net intake of TL and TAG was considerably greater than was accumulated in the whole-body during growth. Thus, a significant proportion of dietary TL and TAG was utilised for energy and other metabolic processes. In contrast, particularly for low PL dietary treatments (≤ 0.5%), net gain of PC was greater than net intake, indicating a reliance on biosynthesis of PC. Thus, it is concluded that there is no or a very low requirement for dietary PC and thus may not be essential for the examined size class of juvenile T. australiensis when supplied adequate dietary PC biosynthetic precursors and other potentially related dietary nutrients. Further targeted research is recommended to verify if these findings are applicable to larval and early juvenile stages, and to enhance overall understanding of lipid nutritional requirements for T. australiensis.

Feed efficiency, the relative ability to convert feed nutrients into growth, is an important factor in the primary production of animals. Farming fish with improved feed efficiency is necessary to reduce production costs and achieve sustainability for the aquaculture industry. Proteomics provides an approach to discover biochemical mechanisms driving feed efficiency. To do this, we have evaluated the proteomic profile of liver and white muscle in efficient (EFF) and inefficient (INEFF) Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Twenty-six fish, 14 EFF and 12 INEFF individuals, were assessed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and a data-independent acquisition method. In total, 2433 liver and 635 white muscle proteins were quantified across all samples. Bioinformatics showed enrichment of gene ontology (GO) terms related to lipid metabolism in liver of EFF fish (~30% of total GO terms). Protein metabolism (~30% of total GO terms) were the top enriched pathways in white muscle of EFF fish. In INEFF fish, protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum and proteolysis (~40% of total GO terms) were the highest enriched GO terms in the liver. This is the first study to compare feed efficient and inefficient individuals at the proteomic level in an aquatic species and the results provide a preliminary insight into the fundamental molecular landscape of feed efficiency in Chinook salmon.

The spiny lobster Sagmariasus verreauxi is an emerging lobster species for intensive aquaculture. The lack of any nutritional information required for feed development in this species initiated this study to understand the effect of different dietary lipid sources on tissue lipid profiles and expression of selected lipid metabolising genes. Krill oil, marine oil (blend of fish oils), and vegetable oil (combination of linseed and palm oil), were utilised to formulate three experimental feeds with different phospholipid, triacylglycerol and polyunsaturated fatty acid profiles. Experimental feeds were administered to freshly moulted juvenile S. verreauxi for 50 to 55 days, to determine the effect of lipid sources on the nutritional status, fatty acid composition and expression of genes related to fatty acid biosynthesis, β-oxidation, lipid catabolism and regulation of lipid metabolism. While there were no significant differences in terms of weight gain and mortality among different dietary treatments, the fatty acids composition in the hepatopancreas and to some extent, muscle tissues correlated with the fatty acids composition of the respective dietary treatments. Vegetable oil diet resulted in higher expression of genes related to β-oxidation, which indicates selectivity towards utilisation of monounsaturated fatty acids for energy in this species. In tandem, genes related to fatty acid and cholesterol biosynthesis were upregulated, suggesting their importance in the marine lobster diet. This is the first report on the use of formulated feeds to successfully maintain juvenile S. verreauxi.

There is currently renewed interest in farming triploid Atlantic salmon. Improving farming requires identifying triploid specific phenotypic and physiological traits that are uniquely derived from ploidy per se and developed under optimal growing conditions. This study investigated firstly, the impact of ploidy on growth performance and whole body composition of Atlantic salmon at different early freshwater stages [34 dph (days post-hatching) alevin, 109 dph fry, and 162 dph parr] and secondly, whether phenotypic differences at these stages were reflected in protein samples collected from whole fish, white muscle or liver tissue. Female diploid and triploid Atlantic salmon (n = 3) were first fed at 35 dph and then maintained by feeding to satiation on commercial feeds. Triploids were significantly lower in weight at the late alevin and fry stages but matched diploid weight at the parr stage. The whole-body lipid content was significantly higher for triploids at the parr stage, while the whole-body lipid class profile was broadly similar and was largely not affected by ploidy. Comparative label-free shotgun proteomic analysis did not detect significant alterations in protein expression between diploids and triploids at any growth stage. The present results indicate that ploidy under optimal growing conditions and during early freshwater stages only result in small phenotypic differences in weight and whole body lipid content that were not reflected at the proteome level. These findings suggest that optimal husbandry conditions for freshwater Atlantic salmon are similar between ploidies, at least for all-female populations.

We examined the effects of temperature on the growth, feeding, nutritional condition and aerobic metabolism of juvenile spiny lobster, Sagmariasus verreauxi, in order to determine if temperature acclimated aerobic scope correlates with optimum for growth and to establish the thermal tolerance window for this emerging aquaculture species. Juvenile lobsters (initial weight = 10.95 ± 0.47 g) were reared (n = 7) at temperatures from 11.0 to 28.5 °C for 145 days. All lobsters survived from 14.5 to 25.0 °C while survival was reduced at 11.0 °C (86%) and all lobsters died at 28.5 °C. Lobster specific growth rate and specific feed consumption displayed a unimodal response with temperature, peaking at 21.5 °C. Lobster standard, routine and maximum metabolic rates, and aerobic scope all increased exponentially up to maximum non-lethal temperature. Optimum temperature for growth did not correspond to that for maximum aerobic scope suggesting that aerobic scope is not an effective predictor of the thermal optimum of spiny lobsters. Plateauing of specific feed consumption beyond 21.5 °C suggests that temperature dependent growth of lobsters is limited by capacity to ingest or digest sufficient food to meet increasing maintenance metabolic demands at high temperatures. The nutritional condition of lobsters was not influenced by temperature and feed conversion ratio was improved at lower temperatures. These findings add to a growing body of evidence questioning the generality of aerobic scope to describe the physiological thermal boundaries of aquatic ectotherms and suggest that feed intake plays a crucial role in regulating performance at thermal extremes.

Simultaneous measurements of nitrogenous (ammonia and urea) excretion and respiratory gas (O2 and CO2) exchange provide a non-destructive stoichiometric bioenergetic approach to elucidate metabolic energy substrate use which has rarely been used with aquatic ectotherms due to previous difficulties in measuring total CO2 excretion. This study examined metabolic energy substrate use and specific dynamic action (SDA) in cultured spiny lobster, Sagmariasus verreauxi, of different nutritional status. SDA magnitude calculated by stoichiometry was compared to a traditional composite oxycalorific coefficient approach. Protein synthesis can account for a large part of SDA in aquatic ectotherms. This study used a protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide to investigate the contribution of cycloheximide-sensitive protein synthesis to SDA and the effect of cycloheximide on nitrogenous and CO2 excretion. Lobsters were subjected to five treatments: 2-day fasted juveniles sham injected with saline (FS treatment); 2-day fasted juveniles injected with cycloheximide (FC treatment); 10-day starved juveniles injected with cycloheximide (SC treatment); post-prandial juveniles fed squid Nototodarus sloanii (FED treatment) and; post-prandial juveniles injected with cycloheximide (FEDC treatment). Protein was the primary energy substrate (65% of oxygen consumption) for 2-day fasted juveniles, with lipid accounting for the remainder (35%). After 10-day starvation lipid became the main substrate, indicating lipid oxidation increased with extended fasting. Following feeding, protein contribution remained above 50%, while lipid (0–43%) and carbohydrate (0–37%) provided significant energy at different time periods, indicating besides protein appropriate proportions of non-protein ingredients are also essential to lobsters. SDA magnitude in FED and FEDC treatments estimated by the traditional approach was 10.5 and 0.4 J g−1, respectively, indicating S. verreauxi expended 96% of post-prandial energy on protein synthesis and that decapod protein synthesis can account for one of the highest proportions of SDA in aquatic ectotherms. SDA magnitude in the FED treatment evaluated by stoichiometry (12.6 J g−1) was comparable to the traditional approach. Interestingly, stoichiometry was not applicable in the FEDC treatment as the respiratory quotient exceeded the theoretical maximum under aerobic conditions. Cycloheximide did not affect CO2 excretion among all treatments or nitrogenous excretion among unfed treatments, while the post-treatment total nitrogenous excretion reduced in fed lobsters. The combined measurement of substrate use and SDA potentially helps optimize the feed to achieve sustainable aquaculture. However, more research is required to decipher limitations and the applicability of stoichiometry for crustaceans.

Following recent advances in hatchery technology and large-scale larval rearing of spiny and slipper lobsters, a greater understanding of key nutritional requirements is now imperative to facilitate feed development for juvenile culture. However, there is a lack of relevant information available for the slipper lobsters, particularly Thenus species. This study sought to evaluate the potential requirements for and effects of a fresh ingredient component in a formulated feed on the growth performance of hatchery-reared juvenile Thenus australiensis. This was assessed using six formulated experimental feeds incorporating fresh blue mussel flesh (BM; Mytilus galloprovincialis) in a geometric series (0, 1.6, 3.1, 6.3, 12.5 and 25.0% dry matter) administered continuously over 9 weeks. An additional dietary treatment of blue mussel half shells (BMHS) was included as a reference feed to establish a benchmark of growth potential. Survival and moult frequency were unaffected by feed treatment. Lobsters fed BMHS displayed a clustered or synchronised moulting pattern with two major moulting events lasting several days each during the experiment. In contrast, lobsters provided experimental feeds moulted continuously throughout the experiment. The BMHS produced approximately 2-fold greater growth compared to experimental feeds, while BM incorporated into experimental feeds had no beneficial effect on growth at any inclusion level. Growth mirrored feed intake where it was also found that feed intake on a dry matter basis was approximately 2-fold higher for BMHS compared to experimental feeds, while biological feed conversion ratios were similar for all feeds. Thus, dry matter intake appeared to be primarily responsible for the difference in growth rates achieved. Bulk chemical analysis revealed that BMHS-fed lobsters had significantly lower ash content coupled with higher gross energy, total lipid and polar lipid contents on a proportional basis compared to lobsters fed formulated experimental feeds. Lobster haemolymph Brix values were also significantly higher in the BMHS treatment lobsters. Higher Brix coupled with decreasing feed intake suggests these lobsters were on average at a more advanced stage within the moult cycle and offers a possible explanation for differences in body chemistry. In conclusion, while growth rates were lower in animals fed formulated feeds compared to benchmark growth performance, overall survival, moulting and growth performance revealed the potential of the basal experimental feed formulation as a reference for future nutrition research with this species without a requirement for inclusion of fresh BM. The research highlights that significant opportunities exist to improve slipper lobster growth performance through maximising feed intake.

The moult cycle is arguably the most critical aspect of crustacean biology and is associated with dramatic changes in behaviour, physiology and condition. Here we describe the first detailed investigation of the combined changes in morphology, physiological status and nutritional condition over the moult cycle of juvenile T. australiensis. Haemolymph refractive index (measured as Brix) was evaluated as a non-destructive method for predicting physiological status and nutritional condition. Post-moult, inter-moult and pre-moult stages were identifiable by microscopic examination of the pleopod distal tips, though differentiation of the pre-moult substages was not possible using this technique. Monitoring of ecdysial suture lines on the exoskeleton gill chambers was found to be highly useful for visually determining progression through the pre-moult stage and predicting the timing of ecdysis. A classical pattern of inter-moult growth was observed where size and wet weight remained relatively uniform over the moult cycle while highly significant changes in whole-body composition were simultaneously observed over time. Growth was most evident by changes in dry weight and dry matter content which more than doubled by the onset of pre-moult. Changes in dry matter content were generally mirrored by Brix and whole-body crude protein, total lipid and gross energy content. Brix strongly correlated with dry matter content and significant correlations were also found for all other primary measures of nutritional condition. Typical moult-related changes were also found for circulating ecdysteroids. This study clearly demonstrates pronounced cyclical changes in physiology and condition of juvenile T. australiensis over a typical moult cycle. The significant correlations between haemolymph and whole-body composition validates Brix as a practical and non-destructive method to objectively assess physiological status, nutritional condition and quality in T. australiensis and further demonstrates its potential for individual crustacean assessment in experimental research and practical commercial applications.

Triploid Atlantic salmon populations are associated with higher prevalence of lower jaw skeletal anomalies affecting fish performance, welfare and value deleteriously. Anomalous lower jaw can be curved downward (LJD), shortened (SJ) or misaligned (MA). Two separate groups of triploid Atlantic salmon (~12 g) with either normal lower jaw (NOR) or SJ were visually assessed four times over three months for presence and concurrence of jaw anomalies (with severity classified) and opercular shortening to understand the relatedness of these anomalous developmental processes. The prevalence of jaw anomalies increased in both groups over time (NOR group - SJ, LJD and MA combined 0-24.5%; SJ group - LJD and MA combined 17-31%). SJ and LJD occurred both independently and concurrently whereas MA exclusively concurred with them. All three anomalies could be concurrent. Severity of both LJD and SJ increased in the SJ group only. Opercular shortening recovery was observed in both groups but at a slower rate in the SJ group. The SJ group specific growth rate (SGR) was significantly (P

Triploid Atlantic salmon tend to develop a higher prevalence of skeletal anomalies. This tendency may be exacerbated by an inadequate rearing temperature. Early juvenile all-female diploid and triploid Atlantic salmon were screened for skeletal anomalies in consecutive experiments to include two size ranges: the first tested the effect of ploidy (0.2–8 g) and the second the effect of ploidy, temperature (14 °C and 18 °C) and their interaction (8–60 g). The first experiment showed that ploidy had no effect on skeletal anomaly prevalence. A high prevalence of opercular shortening was observed (average prevalence in both ploidies 85.8%) and short lower jaws were common (highest prevalence observed 11.3%). In the second experiment, ploidy, but not temperature, affected the prevalence of short lower jaw (diploids > triploids) and lower jaw deformity (triploids > diploids, highest prevalence observed 11.1% triploids and 2.7% diploids) with a trend indicating a possible developmental link between the two jaw anomalies in triploids. A radiological assessment (n = 240 individuals) showed that at both temperatures triploids had a significantly (P

Detailed classification and characterisation of the gut microbial community and understanding of factors affecting the microbiota are essential to understand the relationship between Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) gut microbiota and fish health. Here we evaluated the multiple effects of biotic and abiotic factors on the gut microbial community composition of farmed Chinook salmon, based on high-throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA gene V1-V3 amplicons. Gastrointestinal microbial community composition was highly dynamic between freshwater and saltwater conditions but similar among individual fish. A high abundance of Proteobacteria and a relatively low abundance of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were detected in farmed Chinook salmon regardless of salinity. Species richness and diversity were significantly higher in freshwater farmed salmon than in those farmed in the marine environment. Water temperature and farming location displayed relatively minor effects on gut microbiota, while fish age had significant effects on the beta diversity of gut microbiota in both freshwater and saltwater habitats. Our study provided a detailed description of the gut microbial community of farmed Chinook salmon during grow out and contributed to a greater understanding of the effects of fish age and water salinity on the gut microbiota modulation.

Understanding the nutrition of lobster larvae through the examination of growth and biochemical composition across different life stages is a critical component of aquafeed development of new aquaculture species. Therefore, in the present study, we benchmarked growth and changes in biochemical composition of Thenus australiensis from first larval stage (S1) to the juvenile first stage (J1). The larval cycle was completed in a maximum duration of 31 d and comprised four successive larval stages followed by a post-larvae stage (nisto) and a subsequent moult to J1. Growth during all larval stages, metamorphosis to nisto, and moult to J1 were tracked through the measurement of size (total length, TL and cephalic/carapace width, CW), individual wet (WW) and dry (DW) weights. Bulk samples of all developmental stages were collected and analysed for ash, crude protein, total lipid, nitrogen free extract (NFE) and gross energy of dry matter (DM). Lipid class, fatty acid and mineral composition of S1, S4 and J1 of DM were also measured to provide more detailed analysis of composition. As expected, TL, CW, WW and DW increased with each subsequent stage except for lower TL and CW of the nisto stage when compared to S4 larvae. The DW increases throughout larval development until nisto and was defined by higher ash, crude protein, total lipid and NFE absolute amounts. However, from nisto to J1, total lipid decreased by half. The total lipid of DM increased as larval stages progressed to the nisto phase, declining rapidly when monitored at J1. The accumulation of lipid during the larval phase highlights the importance of building lipid stores to maintain metabolism during the non-feeding nisto stage and moult to J1. Polar lipid was the dominant lipid group in comparison to neutral lipids stores. The energy content of larvae, nisto and J1 reflected the accumulation of lipid over the larval stages and its depletion during the non-feeding nisto stage. The environmental influence on elemental uptake was evident at the moult to J1 with a >4-fold increase in ash content in individual J1 compared to nisto. This was supported by an increase of major mineral constituents of the exoskeleton, particularly, calcium. The present study is the first describing in detail the growth and biochemical composition of all the larval stages until J1 for T. australiensis. The new knowledge on nutrition will support progress in aquafeed development for this new aquaculture species.

Farmed Atlantic salmon in Tasmania are exposed to elevated water temperatures during summer, which is often associated with reduced pigmentation quality. This study tested the effects of the factors: temperature (elevated, 19.4 °C (ET) vs. control, 15.2 °C), dietary fatty acid (FA) composition (diet 1, high in fish oil vs. diet 2, low in fish oil) and fillet cut (anterior/dorsal cut; ADCT and dorsal Norwegian quality cut (dNQC)) on the concentration of astaxanthin (Axn) in white muscle of salmon post-smolt. After fish doubled initial weights (212 g) at each temperature, the concentration of Axn in muscle was not affected by dietary FA composition, but was higher at ET and higher in the dorsal NQC at ET. In contrast, Axn concentrations between these fillet cuts were the same at the control temperature. The concentration of long chain polyunsaturated FA, which are prone to peroxidation, was generally higher in the fish fed the diet high in fish oil, and in the anterior/dorsal cut. However, the relationships between these FA within triglycerides and phospholipids and the lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde in white muscle were poor. Further, the concentrations of malondialdehyde showed a poor relationship with Axn in white muscle. There was no idoxanthin in any of the white muscle samples at the analytical detection limit of 0.1 mg/kg. In summary, ET led to higher concentrations of Axn in white muscle, but also to heterogeneous Axn concentrations between the fillet cuts tested. The concentration of Axn in white muscle was not affected by the dietary FA composition and was not associated with oxidative stress or metabolic conversion into idoxanthin in this tissue under the conditions tested. When Axn was expressed per unit of crude protein, the concentration of Axn was higher in the dorsal NQC at ET, indicating that differences of myofibrillar white muscle proteins in their capacity to bind pigment carotenoids may have contributed to the heterogeneous pigment deposition in fillet at ET. Global sea temperatures are anticipated to rise in the future and the implications for aquaculture production must be understood. This study demonstrated the significant effects of temperature on the deposition of pigment carotenoids over the fillet of salmon.

The nutritional condition of cultured Sagmariasus verreauxi juveniles over the molt and during starvation was investigated by studying their metabolism, bioenergetics of nutrient reserves, and hemolymph biochemistry. Juveniles were shown to downregulate standard metabolic rate by as much as 52% within 14 d during starvation. Hepatopancreas (HP) lipid was prioritized as a source of energy, but this reserve represented only between 1% and 13% of the total measured energy reserve and was used quickly during starvation, especially in the immediate postmolt period when as much as 60% was depleted within 3 d. Abdominal muscle (AM) protein represented between 74% and 90% of the total measured energy reserve in juvenile lobsters, and as much as 40% of available AM protein energy was used over 28 d of starvation after the molt. Carbohydrate reserves represented less than 2% of the measured total energy reserve in fed intermolt lobsters and provided negligible energy during starvation. Eighteen hemolymph parameters were measured to identify a nondestructive biomarker of condition that would reflect accurately the state of energy reserves of the lobster. Among these, the hemolymph Brix index was the most accurate and practical method to predict HP lipid and the total energy content of both the HP and the AM in juvenile S. verreauxi. The Brix index was strongly correlated with hemolymph proteins, triglyceride, cholesterol, calcium, and phosphorus concentrations, as well as lipase activity; all were useful in predicting condition. Electrolytes such as chloride, magnesium, and potassium and metabolites such as glucose and lactate were poor indicators of nutritional condition. Uric acid and the "albumin"-to-"globulin" ratio provided complementary information to the Brix index, which may assist in determining nutritional condition of wild juvenile lobsters of unknown intermolt development. This study will greatly assist future ecological studies examining the nutritional condition of juvenile lobsters in the wild, as well as the development of husbandry protocols and feeds for aquaculture.

The digestible protein (DP) and digestible energy (DE) requirements for maintenance and growth of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) were determined using a factorial model at either optimum (15 °C) or elevated temperature (19 °C). Several key parameters of the factorial model were measured using a series of inter-related studies. The maintenance requirements for DP and DE were 0.10 gDP kg−0.69 day−1 (15 °C) and 0.31 gDP kg−0.78 day−1 (19 °C), and 34.86 kJDE kg−0.84 day−1 (15 °C) and 46.14 kJDE kg−0.86 day−1 (19 °C). The total requirements for DP were 0.10 gDP kg−0.69 day−1 + 2.14PG (protein gain) (15 °C) and 0.31 gDP kg−0.78 day−1 + 1.98PG (19 °C). The total requirements for DE were 36.86 kJDE kg−0.84 day−1 + 1.58EG (energy gain) (15 °C) and 46.14 kJDE kg−0.86 day−1 + 1.64EG (19 °C). The partial efficiencies for growth were 0.47 (15 °C) and 0.51 (19 °C) for protein, and 0.63 (15 °C) and 0.61 (19 °C) for energy. Nutrient gain was lower at the elevated temperature; however, feed formulation for brook trout should be adjusted to match changes in nutrient requirements at different culture temperatures. The protein and energy requirements model will be useful for developing commercial feeds and feeding charts for brook trout.

Understanding how aquatic species respond to extremes of DO and temperature is crucial for determining how they will be affected by climate change, which is predicted to increasingly expose them to levels beyond their optima. In this study we used novel animal-borne DO, temperature and depth sensors to determine the effect of extremes of DO and temperature on the vertical habitat use of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar in aquaculture cages. Salmon showed a preference for temperatures around 16.5 to 17.5 °C, however, selection of preferred temperatures was trumped by active avoidance of low DO (20.1 °C), which led to a considerable contraction in the available vertical habitat. Despite their avoidance behavior, fish spent a large amount of time in waters with suboptimal DO (

Pigment-depletion in the fillets of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) arises after periods of elevated water temperatures with voluntary starving. This study tested the effects of dietary pre-loading with different pigment carotenoids (astaxanthin and/or canthaxanthin) combined with two α-tocopherol levels (normal and high: 500 and 1000 mg/kg, respectively) on pigment-depletion in vivo in Atlantic salmon after four weeks of challenge. We also tested whether oxidative stress manifested as an underlying depletion mechanism. Carotenoid levels in whole fillet homogenates were not decreased significantly post-challenge but fillet α-tocopherol concentrations were increased significantly in contrast to decreased oxidative stress indices. However, image analysis revealed localised fillet pigment-depletion following all dietary treatments. These data imply that localised pigment-depletion was not prevented by pre-loading of the fillet with different carotenoid-types/mixtures and increased of α-tocopherol levels from normal to high, respectively. Further, we suggest that oxidative stress might not facilitate pigment-depletion in vivo.

The ability of lobsters to recover from stress is an important factor influencing growth and survival in aquaculture; however, there is limited information on the metabolic responses of spiny lobsters to stress. This study determined oxygen consumption rate ( M ˙ O 2 ) and ammonia-N excretion of juvenile spiny lobsters Sagmariasus verreauxi in response to handling, anaesthesia, anaesthesia then force feeding, and exercising to exhaustion in order to determine the recovery time and amount of oxygen required to recover from common sources of stress in aquaculture. Lobsters required 0.29 ± 0.24 mg O2 g DM− 1 over a period of 2.5 ± 1.40 h to recover from handling. Anaesthesia with 2-phenoxyethanol immobilised lobsters but they required 0.72 ± 0.36 mg O2 g DM− 1 over a period of 4.5 ± 1.77 h to recover, indicating that 2-phenoxyethanol causes substantial stress. Force feeding lobsters anaesthetised with 2-phenoxyethanol or clove oil did not result in a higher increase of M ˙ O 2 compared to 2-phenoxyethanol anaesthesia alone. Recovery from exercise to exhaustion required 1.84 mg O2 g DM− 1 over a period of 10.17 ± 0.70 h. Ammonia-N excretion, measured 24 h post-treatment, and atomic O:N ratios were not significantly different between treatments and indicated lobsters in all groups had reached the same level of recovery 24 h post-treatment. Overall, the study demonstrated that lobsters recover rapidly from handling. Conversely, the increase in M ˙ O 2 induced by 2-phenoxyethanol demonstrated this is not an effective anaesthetic for reducing recovery periods and physiological stress associated with handling. However, 2-phenoxyethanol and clove oil eliminated further stress associated with force feeding, indicative of an invasive research procedure. Exercise to exhaustion resulted in the largest magnitude increase in M ˙ O 2 and longest recovery period. It is therefore recommended that aquaculture handling procedures take precautions to limit activity and are carried out without anaesthesia to facilitate more rapid recovery of lobsters.

Intraspecific analyses of the relationship between metabolic rate and mass have rarely been considered during complete ontogeny. Spiny lobsters are fascinating candidates to examine metabolic changes during ontogeny because their life cycle includes an extended planktonic, nektonic, and benthic life stages. The effect of body mass on metabolic rates, aerobic scope, and ammonia-N excretion of Sagmariasus verreauxi juveniles were examined to determine energetic demands through juvenile development. Mass-independent routine oxygen consumption increased allometrically during juvenile development with a mass scaling exponent of 0.83. The mass scaling exponent of active metabolism (0.81) was reduced compared to standard metabolism (0.91) of juvenile lobsters. The aerobic scope of juvenile lobsters decreased with larger body mass. To examine if the mass scaling exponent varies with ontogeny, we compared our data with previous measurements made with larvae of the same species. Comparison between mass scaling exponents showed they were higher for phyllosoma (0.97) compared to juvenile (0.83) development. Higher scaling exponents for phyllosoma may be attributed to increased growth rates of phyllosoma compared to juveniles, which increase oxygen consumption due to the higher energy cost of growth. The mass scaling exponent for complete ontogeny (0.91) of S. verreauxi was larger than the commonly cited 0.67 (1/3) and 0.75 (3/4) mass scaling exponents, indicating that species-specific differences can be a large factor affecting allometric relationships of animals.

Stocking density is a critical factor affecting performance of aquatic organisms in culture, however, its influence on energy utilisation has rarely been considered. Energy partitioning is particularly important for spiny lobster phyllosoma, which must accumulate sufficient energy reserves for metamorphosis and the non-feeding puerulus stage. The current study is the first to examine the energetics of spiny lobsters throughout the entire phyllosoma phase and determined the physiological influence of density. Growth and development, oxygen consumption and ammonia–N excretion rates were measured in Sagmariasus verreauxi phyllosoma that were cultured at High Density (HD) and Low Density (LD) from hatch to puerulus. Phyllosoma growth and development was more advanced in LD phyllosoma after 108 day in culture and mass of LD instar 17 phyllosoma was greater. There were no differences in routine metabolic rate ( R r ) and ammonia–N excretion of phyllosoma between densities. However, the O:N ratio decreased in final instar phyllosoma demonstrating a shift towards higher protein catabolism. Routine metabolic rate also increased in late stage phyllosoma, possibly due to higher energy requirements in preparation for metamorphosis and increased swimming activity. The R r of spiny lobster larvae was significantly lower than that of other crustacean larvae, which may be a characteristic of their extended larval phase, slower growth rate, and larger body size. The study demonstrated late stage phyllosoma have higher weight specific energy requirements than the preceding larval stages and exhibit a metabolic shift towards protein catabolism, suggesting an increased importance of storing lipid as an energy reserve for the puerulus stage.

Stocking density is an important factor affecting the competency of later stage lecithotrophic spiny lobster larvae, yet its influence on biochemical composition has rarely been considered. Biochemical analysis of phyllosoma during ontogeny provides information on the energy storage requirements of late instar phyllosoma and their ability to survive metamorphosis and achieve the energetic demands of the puerulus stage. The current study is the first to examine biochemical composition of spiny lobsters through the entire larval phase. Survival, growth, development, and biochemical composition were measured in Sagmariasus verreauxi phyllosoma that were cultured at High Density (HD) and Low Density (LD) from hatch to puerulus. Protein measured directly by Lowry was considerably lower than crude protein as calculated from nitrogen (N) content using N×6.25, suggesting that a conversion factor of 6.25 was too high. Survival of phyllosoma was significantly higher in the HD treatment after instar 9 due to high mortalities of LD phyllosoma caused by high ozonation during instar 9. However, HD phyllosoma were less susceptible to the high ozonation event possibly due to the larger biomass in HD tanks. Phyllosoma growth and development were more advanced in LD phyllosoma after 108 d. Instar 17 LD phyllosoma were also significantly larger than instar 17 HD phyllosoma. The C:N ratio confirmed proportionally more lipid than protein was accumulated during larval development before a significant decrease in lipid reserves between instar 17 and the puerulus stage by over 21% to fuel the process of metamorphosis and the non-feeding puerulus stage. The study demonstrated the larval phase of S. verreauxi is important for accumulating lipid reserves to fuel metamorphosis and the puerulus stage and provides a more complete picture of the culture requirements of spiny lobsters during ontogeny, particularly for the rarely studied late phyllosoma instars.

Sourcing energy for reproduction is a major driver of the life-history characteristics of animals. Unlike other molluscs, cephalopods do not appear to have significant glycogen stores, and energy is either sourced directly from ingested food or mobilized from protein stores in the muscle. Given the importance of protein to cephalopods, this study quantified changes in protein turnover in the muscle tissue in reproductively immature and maturing/mature individuals. Quantifying protein accretion and protein synthesis allowed an assessment of protein turnover in immature and maturing individuals of the southern dumpling squid (Euprymna tasmanica), which has fast nonasymptotic growth, has a short generation time, and does not use lipid stores. This study found that protein turnover slowed in the mantle muscle tissue with gonad growth, suggesting an adaptive response to the energy demands associated with reproduction but one that allows for continued somatic growth and muscle function in these animals. However, the cost of reproduction may be indirect, with less energy available for somatic repair, and therefore may be responsible for the rapid senescence typical of many cephalopod species.