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Urban flying-fox camps are a major source of human–wildlife conflict, producing noise, odour, vegetation damage, property damage, and concerns about disease. Although there is a significant demand in many communities for bat camps to be dispersed, there is limited information on how such dispersal can be conducted effectively. Determining the habitat characteristics flying-foxes use when selecting a camp site is key to understanding why they establish camps where they do and to where they might move if dispersed. We characterised little red flying-fox (LRFF) camp habitat at two spatial scales: floristics and vegetation structure at the local scale, and climatic and landscape characteristics at the broad scale. We found weak associations with local-scale tree and shrub height and cover, and stronger associations with increased Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (a measure of ‘greenness’) and decreased distance to nearest watercourse. These relationships were not strong enough to explain all variation in the model, suggesting that there are other factors, such as social cues, that could also influence camp site selection. Our results suggest that minor modifications to existing or proposed camp sites will be unlikely to repel or attract LRFFs, as other factors are likely to play key roles in the formation of camp sites for this species.

The legacy of deliberate and accidental introductions of invasive alien species to Australia has had a hefty economic toll, yet quantifying the magnitude of the costs associated with direct loss and damage, as well as for management interventions, remains elusive. This is because the reliability of cost estimates and under-sampling have not been determined. We provide the first detailed analysis of the reported costs associated with invasive species to the Australian economy since the 1960s, based on the recently published InvaCost database and supplementary information, for a total of 2078 unique cost entries. Since the 1960s, Australia has spent or incurred losses totalling at least US$298.58 billion (2017 value) or AU$389.59 billion (2017 average exchange rate) from invasive species. However, this is an underestimate given that costs rise as the number of estimates increases following a power law. There was an average 1.8–6.3-fold increase in the total costs per decade since the 1970s to the present, producing estimated costs of US$6.09–57.91 billion year-1 (all costs combined) or US$225.31 million–6.84 billion year-1 (observed, highly reliable costs only). Costs arising from plant species were the highest among kingdoms (US$151.68 billion), although most of the costs were not attributable to single species. Of the identified weedy species, the costliest were annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum), parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus) and ragwort (Senecio jacobaea). The four costliest classes were mammals (US$48.63 billion), insects (US$11.95 billion), eudicots (US$4.10 billion) and monocots (US$1.92 billion). The three costliest species were all animals – cats (Felis catus), rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta). Each State/Territory had a different suite of major costs by species, but with most (3–62%) costs derived from one to three species per political unit. Most (61%) of the reported costs applied to multiple environments and 73% of the total pertained to direct damage or loss compared to management costs only, with both of these findings reflecting the availability of data. Rising incursions of invasive species will continue to have substantial costs for the Australian economy, but with better investment, standardised assessments and reporting and coordinated interventions (including eradications), some of these costs could be substantially reduced.

Knowledge of the factors shaping the foraging behaviour of species is central to understanding their ecosystem role and predicting their response to environmental variability. To maximise survival and reproduction, foraging strategies must balance the costs and benefits related to energy needed to pursue, manipulate, and consume prey with the nutritional reward obtained. While such information is vital for understanding how changes in prey assemblages may affect predators, determining these components is inherently difficult in cryptic predators. The present study used animal-borne video data loggers to investigate the costs and benefits related to different prey types for female Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus), a primarily benthic foraging species in the low productivity Bass Strait, south-eastern Australia. A total of 1,263 prey captures, resulting from 2,027 prey detections, were observed in 84.5 h of video recordings from 23 individuals. Substantial differences in prey pursuit and handling times, gross energy gain and total energy expenditure were observed between prey types. Importantly, the profitability of prey was not significantly different between prey types, with the exception of elasmobranchs. This study highlights the benefit of animal-borne video data loggers for understanding the factors that influence foraging decisions in predators. Further studies incorporating search times for different prey types would further elucidate how profitability differs with prey type.

Aim: Observed, realized niche space often underestimates species’ physiological tolerances due to interactions with other species, dispersal constraints, and because some combinations of influential environmental factors do not currently exist in the real world. Conversely, correlative ecological niche models rely on the assumption that the range of environmental conditions encompassed by a species’ geographic distribution accurately reflects their environmental tolerances, including community-level approaches like generalized dissimilarity modelling (GDM). We extend GDM to better understand what effect broader environmental tolerances could have on compositional turnover under climate change. Innovation: We show how GDM can be adjusted as a function of best-available estimates of the average ratio between realized and potential niche widths to modify projected temporal turnover. We demonstrate this approach by using the estimated niche ratios of Australian plant species (n = 7,184) relative to thermal extremes, and the rate at which this ratio varied with temperature. The modified GDMs showed existing thermal tolerance could reduce the turnover predicted by standard models under climate change by up to 11%. We further show how the reduction in expected turnover by 2090 will influence where a greater proportion of the current community will persist in a region. Main conclusions: We suggest that standard spatial GDMs and their modified versions represent the extremes of ecological niche perspectives (i.e., realized and potential) and the range of tolerance communities may have when responding to environmental change. GDM projections therefore identify the range of uncertainty associated with a critical model assumption, and as climate change continues, ongoing community monitoring could be used to validate the balance between the two possibilities.

The highly dynamic nature of the marine environment can have a substantial influence on the foraging behaviour and spatial distribution of marine predators, particularly in pelagic marine systems. However, knowledge of the susceptibility of benthic marine predators to environmental variability is limited. This study investigated the influence of local-scale environmental conditions and large-scale climate indices on the spatial distribution and habitat use in the benthic foraging Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus; AUFS). Female AUFS provisioning pups were instrumented with GPS or ARGOS platform terminal transmitter tags during the austral winters of 2001–2019 at Kanowna Island, south-eastern Australia. Individuals were most susceptible to changes in the Southern Oscillation Index that measures the strength of the El Niño Southern Oscillation, with larger foraging ranges, greater distances travelled and more dispersed movement associated with 1-yr lagged La Niña-like conditions. Additionally, the total distance travelled was negatively correlated with the current year sea surface temperature and 1-yr lagged Indian Ocean Dipole, and positively correlated with 1-yr lagged chlorophyll-aconcentration. These results suggest that environmental variation may influence the spatial distribution and availability of prey, even within benthic marine systems.

Substantial variation in foraging strategies can exist within populations, even those typically regarded as generalists. Specializations arise from the consistent exploitation of a narrow behavioral, spatial or dietary niche over time, which may reduce intraspecific competition and influence adaptability to environmental change. However, few studies have investigated whether behavioral consistency confers benefits at the individual and/or population level. While still recovering from commercial sealing overexploitation, Australian fur seals (AUFS; Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) represent the largest marine predator biomass in south‐eastern Australia. During lactation, female AUFS adopt a central‐place foraging strategy and are, thus, vulnerable to changes in prey availability. The present study investigated the population‐level repeatability and individual consistency in foraging behavior of 34 lactating female AUFS at a south‐east Australian breeding colony between 2006 and 2019. Additionally, the influence of individual‐level behavioral consistency on indices of foraging success and efficiency during benthic diving was determined. Low to moderate population‐level repeatability was observed across foraging behaviors, with the greatest repeatability in the mean bearing and modal dive depth. Individual‐level consistency was greatest for the proportion of benthic diving, total distance travelled, and trip duration. Indices of benthic foraging success and efficiency were positively influenced by consistency in the proportion of benthic diving, trip duration and dive rate but not influenced by consistency in bearing to most distal point, dive depth or foraging site fidelity. The results of the present study provide evidence of the benefits of consistency for individuals, which may have flow‐on effects at the population level., Low‐moderate level population‐level repeatability and individual‐level consistency were identified in female Australian fur seal foraging behaviors. Despite this, greater individual consistency in some behaviors was associated with greater foraging success and efficiency of benthic dives. The results of the present study provide evidence of the benefits of consistency for individuals, which may have flow‐on effects at the population level.

Understanding the factors which influence foraging behaviour and success in marine mammals is crucial to predicting how their populations may respond to environmental change. The Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus, AUFS) is a predominantly benthic forager on the shallow continental shelf of Bass Strait, and represents the greatest biomass of marine predators in south-eastern Australia. The south-east Australian region is experiencing rapid oceanic warming, predicted to lead to substantial alterations in prey diversity, distribution and abundance. In the present study, foraging effort and indices of foraging success and efficiency were investigated in 138 adult female AUFS (970 foraging trips) during the winters of 1998–2019. Large scale climate conditions had a strong influence on foraging effort, foraging success and efficiency. Foraging effort and foraging success were also strongly influenced by winter chlorophyll-a concentrations and sea-surface height anomalies in Bass Strait. The results suggest increasing foraging effort and decreasing foraging success and efficiency under anticipated environmental conditions, which may have population-level impacts.

Degradation and loss of natural habitat is the major driver of the current global biodiversity crisis. Most habitat conservation efforts to date have targeted small areas of highly threatened habitat, but emerging debate suggests retaining large intact natural systems may be just as important. We reconcile these perspectives by integrating fine-resolution global data on habitat condition and species assemblage turnover, to identify Earth’s high-value biodiversity habitat. These are areas in better condition than most other locations once supporting a similar assemblage of species, and are found within both intact regions and human dominated landscapes. However, only 18.6 % of this high-value habitat is currently protected globally. Averting permanent biodiversity loss requires clear spatially explicit targets for retaining these unprotected high-value habitats.

In Australia, a multi-million-dollar industry is based on viewing the Australian fur seal (Arctocephaluspusillusdoriferus), predominantly through boat visits to breeding colonies. Regulation of boat approaches varies by site and no systematic investigations have been performed to inform management guidelines. To investigate possible effects of disturbance, experimental boat approaches were made to a colony at Kanowna Island in northern Bass Strait and seal responses were monitored using instantaneous scan sampling. Colony attendance (individuals remaining ashore) was found to be influenced by approach distance and time of day, but was not affected by environmental variables or season, whereas onshore resting behavior was influenced by approach distance, time of day, ambient temperature and wind direction. Onshore resting behavior decreased following experimental boat approaches to 75 m, but changes in abundance of individuals ashore were not observed at this distance. In contrast, approaches to 25 m elicited a strong response, with a steep decline in the number of individuals ashore. This response was strongest when approaches occurred in the morning, with a decline of approximately 47% of individuals, compared to a decline of 21% during afternoon approaches. With regard to onshore resting behavior, afternoon approaches to 75 m led to minimal response. The remaining three combinations of approach distance and time of day had a similar pattern of reductions in the proportion of individuals engaging in onshore resting behavior. The strongest response was again seen during approaches to 25 m conducted in the morning. These behavior changes suggest that unrestricted boat-based ecotourism at Australian fur seal colonies has the potential to increase energy expenditure and reduce the number of seals ashore. Increasing minimum approach distances to ≥75 m and/or restricting visits to afternoons may minimize these impacts at Kanowna Island during the post-molt and non-breeding seasons. As several studies have demonstrated considerable intra-species variation in seal responses to boat approaches, research at other colonies is needed before these findings can be generalized to the remainder of the Australian fur seal population.

The Sirex woodwasp, Sirex noctilio, is a significant pest of exotic stands of Pinus species in the southern hemisphere, and an emerging threat in north-eastern America. The potential global distribution of S. noctilio was assessed using the process-oriented niche modelling software CLIMEX. Model parameters were inferred from S. noctilio’s known native distribution in Eurasia and northern Africa, its exotic range in Brazil, New Zealand and South Africa, and from ecophysiological laboratory observations of both S. noctilio and its symbiotic wood-decay fungus, Amylostereum areolatum. Model predictions were validated using independent distribution data from Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the Americas. Damage significance and spatial distribution data of S. noctilio infestations in New Zealand were compared with growth and suitability outputs of the model, to explore if the impact of S. noctilio could be related to climate. However, no correlation between modelled climate suitability and field infestation severity were found. The resulting model indicated that S. noctilio is currently occupying a fraction of its potential climatic niche in the regions it has invaded. Taking into account areas where suitable hosts occur, results suggest that S. noctilio could further extend its range into additional plantations in southern Queensland in Australia and central Brazil, and into native and exotic stands of Pinus throughout north-east America. Stands of Pinus that are isolated at present from current S. noctilio infestations, such as those in California, Central America and Western Australia, may also be at risk if control measures are ineffective in preventing its spread. Differences in parameter selection and risk projections of our model and a previously published CLIMEX model of S. noctilio are discussed.

Similarity or dissimilarity between 2 individuals that have formed a pair to breed can occur in morphology, behaviour and diet. Such patterns influence partners’ cooperation when rearing their offspring, consequently influencing reproductive success. They may confer different benefits, depending on species and contexts. However, the extent to which breeding partners are more similar in morphology, behaviour, and diet is poorly documented. Furthermore, the relationship between behavioural consistency and mate choice is particularly poorly understood. To investigate these issues, Kerguelen shags Phalacrocorax verrucosus, which are monogamous with high mate fidelity across years, were studied. Partners were equipped with GPS and diving behaviour loggers. Feather and blood samples were analysed for stable isotopes (δ13C, a proxy of foraging habitat, and δ15N, a proxy of diet/trophic position). Generalized linear mixed effects models and permutation tests were used to investigate pair similarity in morphology, foraging behaviour, behavioural consistency, overlap in foraging areas, and diets/foraging habitats. Mates were found not to exhibit size-assortative mating, but were more similar in foraging behaviour. They did not show assortative or disassortative mating based on foraging behavioural consistency. Furthermore, they followed more similar bearings and overlapped more in foraging areas. In accordance with this, partners were more similar in δ15N. Given the lack of assortative mating by morphology, the similarity in behaviour could be due to individuals selecting mates with similar foraging abilities, linked with individual quality, and/or subsequently using information gained from their partners’ foraging strategies (e.g. local enhancement). This could help breeding pairs increase their foraging efficiency and reproductive success.

Increased efforts are required to prevent further losses to terrestrial biodiversity and the ecosystem services that it provides1,2. Ambitious targets have been proposed, such as reversing the declining trends in biodiversity3; however, just feeding the growing human population will make this a challenge4. Here we use an ensemble of land-use and biodiversity models to assess whether—and how—humanity can reverse the declines in terrestrial biodiversity caused by habitat conversion, which is a major threat to biodiversity5. We show that immediate efforts, consistent with the broader sustainability agenda but of unprecedented ambition and coordination, could enable the provision of food for the growing human population while reversing the global terrestrial biodiversity trends caused by habitat conversion. If we decide to increase the extent of land under conservation management, restore degraded land and generalize landscape-level conservation planning, biodiversity trends from habitat conversion could become positive by the mid-twenty-first century on average across models (confidence interval, 2042–2061), but this was not the case for all models. Food prices could increase and, on average across models, almost half (confidence interval, 34–50%) of the future biodiversity losses could not be avoided. However, additionally tackling the drivers of land-use change could avoid conflict with affordable food provision and reduces the environmental effects of the food-provision system. Through further sustainable intensification and trade, reduced food waste and more plant-based human diets, more than two thirds of future biodiversity losses are avoided and the biodiversity trends from habitat conversion are reversed by 2050 for almost all of the models. Although limiting further loss will remain challenging in several biodiversity-rich regions, and other threats—such as climate change—must be addressed to truly reverse the declines in biodiversity, our results show that ambitious conservation efforts and food system transformation are central to an effective post-2020 biodiversity strategy. To promote the recovery of the currently declining global trends in terrestrial biodiversity, increases in both the extent of land under conservation management and the sustainability of the global food system from farm to fork are required.

The endangered Galapagos sea lion (GSL, Zalophus wollebaeki) exhibits a range of foraging strategies utilising various dive types including benthic, epipelagic and mesopelagic dives. In the present study, potential prey captures (PPC), prey energy consumption and energy expenditure in lactating adult female GSLs (n = 9) were examined to determine their foraging efficiency relative to the foraging strategy used. Individuals displayed four dive types: (a) epipelagic (100 m; MP) with a characteristic V-shape or U-shape diving profile; and (c) shallow benthic (100 m; DB) with square or flat-bottom dive profiles. These dive types varied in the number of PPC, assumed prey types, and the energy expended. Prey items and their energetic value were assumed from previous GSL diet studies in combination with common habitat and depth ranges of the prey. In comparison to pelagic dives occurring at similar depths, when diving benthically, GSLs had both higher prey energy consumption and foraging energy expenditure whereas PPC rate was lower. Foraging efficiency varied across dive types, with benthic dives being more profitable than pelagic dives. Three foraging trip strategies were identified and varied relative to prey energy consumed, energy expended, and dive behaviour. Foraging efficiency did not significantly vary among the foraging trip strategies suggesting that, while individuals may diverge into different foraging habitats, they are optimal within them. These findings indicate that these three strategies will have different sensitivities to habitat-specific fluctuations due to environmental change.

Summary Freshwater ecosystems appear to be sensitive to even minor climatic shifts, and the dendritic nature of rivers as well as patchy distribution of habitats within the terrestrial landscape could limit the ability of species to track suitable climate conditions. Although the importance of dispersal is recognised in theory, there is great uncertainty when quantifying the capacity of species to shift their distributions in response to climate change. The influence of dispersal capacity on species’ vulnerability to climate change was assessed, using the modelled projections of 527 freshwater species in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Species’ future ranges were calculated by iteratively identifying colonisation of accessible habitats and loss of suitable habitats within network models. The accessibility of new habitats was based on a given dispersal mode (aquatic, semi-terrestrial and aerial). The relative impact of dispersal parameters on projected range were evaluated alongside other known sources of uncertainty (climate and emissions scenarios, modelling algorithm and biological group), analysed collectively in a generalised additive mixed-model, and spatially to locate regions of NSW where projections are associated with the most uncertainty. Our simulations (1.4 million scenario combinations) suggest at least a third of species will lose more than half their range under climate change. Nevertheless, we emphasise the broad uncertainty that any average encapsulates. Dispersal capacity only had a minor impact on projected range shifts relative to other modelling assumptions but the network-pathways and maps of uncertainty have value for conservation planning at large scales. Projected range losses initially decreased rapidly as dispersal rates increased but the benefits are reduced above 2–3 km year−1. Taxa restricted to dispersal within the stream network (aquatic) were more vulnerable to climate change than taxa with semi-terrestrial or aerial dispersal and maps of variation due to dispersal mode and rate indicate where habitat connectivity would be most beneficial. This study demonstrates the breadth of uncertainties that challenge plans for improving ecosystem adaptation under climate change and highlights where in the landscape those differences were consistent. We emphasise the need for freshwater conservation studies to be ecologically representative, to focus on broad-scale connectivity for taxa that can move between catchments, and an accessible network of refugia for taxa with more limited dispersal.

Dive characteristics and dive shape are often used to infer foraging success in pinnipeds. However, these inferences have not been directly validated in the field with video, and it remains unclear if this method can be applied to benthic foraging animals. This study assessed the ability of dive characteristics from time-depth recorders (TDR) to predict attempted prey capture events (APC) that were directly observed on animal-borne video in Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus, n=11). The most parsimonious model predicting the probability of a dive with ≥1 APC on video included only descent rate as a predictor variable. The majority (94%) of the 389 total APC were successful, and the majority of the dives (68%) contained at least one successful APC. The best model predicting these successful dives included descent rate as a predictor. Comparisons of the TDR model predictions to video yielded a maximum accuracy of 77.5% in classifying dives as either APC or non-APC or 77.1% in classifying dives as successful verses unsuccessful. Foraging intensity, measured as either total APC per dive or total successful APC per dive, was best predicted by bottom duration and ascent rate. The accuracy in predicting total APC per dive varied based on the number of APC per dive with maximum accuracy occurring at 1 APC for both total (54%) and only successful APC (52%). Results from this study linking verified foraging dives to dive characteristics potentially opens the door to decades of historical TDR datasets across several otariid species., Summary: We assessed the ability of dive characteristics in Australian fur seals to predict foraging behavior and success that were directly observed on video. TDR data was able to reliably predict presence of prey as well as total successful prey captured per dive.

Empirical testing of optimal foraging models on diving air-breathing animals is limited due to difficulties in quantifying the prey field through direct observations. Here we used accelerometers to detect rapid head movements during prey encounter events (PEE) of free-ranging benthic-divers, Australian fur seals, Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus. PEE signals from accelerometer data were validated by simultaneous video data. We then used PEEs as a measure of patch quality to test several optimal foraging model predictions. Seals had longer bottom durations in unfruitful dives (no PEE) than those with some foraging success (PEE ≥ 1). However, when examined in greater detail, seals had longer bottom durations in dives with more PEEs, but shorter bottom durations in bouts (sequences of dives) with more PEEs. Our results suggest that seals were generally maximizing bottom durations in all foraging dives, characteristic of benthic divers. However, successful foraging dives might be more energetically costly (e.g. digestive costs), thus resulting in shorter bottom durations at the larger scale of bouts. Our study provides a case study of how the foraging behaviour of a central place forager foraging in a fairly homogeneous environment, with relatively high travel costs, may deviate from current foraging models under different situations. Future foraging models should aim to integrate other aspects (e.g. diet) of the foraging process for more accurate predictions.

An important element of the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Aichi Target 15 – i.e. to enhance “ecosystem resilience … through conservation and restoration” – remains largely unaddressed by existing indicators. We here develop an indicator addressing just one of many possible dimensions of ecosystem resilience, by focusing on the capacity of ecosystems to retain biological diversity in the face of ongoing, and uncertain, climate change. The Bioclimatic Ecosystem Resilience Index (BERI) assesses the extent to which a given spatial configuration of natural habitat will promote or hinder climate-induced shifts in biological distributions. The approach uses existing global modelling of spatial turnover in species composition within three broad biological groups (plants, invertebrates and vertebrates) to scale projected changes in composition under a plausible range of climate scenarios. These projections serve as filters through which to analyse the configuration of habitat observed at a given point in time (e.g. for a particular year) – represented as a grid in which cells are scored in terms of habitat condition. BERI is then calculated, for each cell in this grid, as a function of the connectedness of that cell to areas of natural habitat in the surrounding landscape which are projected to support a similar composition of species under climate change to that currently associated with the focal cell. All analyses are performed at 30-arcsecond grid resolution (approximately 1 km cells at the equator). Results can then be aggregated to report on status and trends for any desired set of reporting units – e.g. ecoregions, countries, or ecosystem types. We present example outputs for the Moist Tropical Forest Biome, based on a habitat-condition time series derived from the Global Forest Change dataset. We also describe how BERI is now being extended to cover all biomes (forest and non-forest) across the entire terrestrial surface of the planet.

Global biodiversity indicators are often derived by intersecting observed or projected changes in anthropogenic pressures with underlying patterns in the distribution of biodiversity. However these patterns are typically delineated at a coarser resolution than the key ecological processes shaping both land-use and biological distributions. The ‘Biogeographic modelling Infrastructure for Large-scaled Biodiversity Indicators’ (BILBI) integrates advances in macroecological modelling, informatics, remote sensing and high-performance computing to assess spatio-temporal change in collective properties of biodiversity, particularly beta diversity, at ~1 km grid resolution across the entire terrestrial surface of the planet. BILBI greatly refines the mapping of biodiversity patterns relative to more traditional surrogates such as ecoregions and species range maps. This capability is already proving of considerable value in informing global assessments through: 1) generation of indicators of past-to-present change in biodiversity resulting from habitat transformation or protection; and 2) projection of potential future change in biodiversity resulting from alternative global-change scenarios.

Reducing the rate of global biodiversity loss is a major challenge facing humanity1, as the consequences of biological annihilation would be irreversible for humankind2–4. Although the ongoing degradation of ecosystems5,6 and the extinction of species that comprise them7,8 are now well-documented, little is known about the role that remaining wilderness areas have in mitigating the global biodiversity crisis. Here we model the persistence probability of biodiversity, combining habitat condition with spatial variation in species composition, to show that retaining these remaining wilderness areas is essential for the international conservation agenda. Wilderness areas act as a buffer against species loss, as the extinction risk for species within wilderness communities is—on average—less than half that of species in non-wilderness communities. Although all wilderness areas have an intrinsic conservation value9,10, we identify the areas on every continent that make the highest relative contribution to the persistence of biodiversity. Alarmingly, these areas—in which habitat loss would have a more-marked effect on biodiversity—are poorly protected. Given globally high rates of wilderness loss10, these areas urgently require targeted protection to ensure the long-term persistence of biodiversity, alongside efforts to protect and restore more-degraded environments. Wilderness areas with minimal levels of human disturbance promote the persistence of biodiversity by acting as buffers against species loss, and therefore represent key targets for environmental protection.

Phenotypic variation and individual experience can create behavioural and/or dietary variation within a population. This may reduce intra-specific competition, creating a buffer to environmental change. This study examined how intrinsic variation affects foraging behaviour of Australian fur seals. Foraging movements of 29 female Australian fur seals were recorded using FastLoc GPS and dive behaviour recorders. For each individual, body mass, flipper length and axis length were recorded, a tooth was sampled to determine age, and milk was collected for diet analysis. Clustering of fatty acid dietary analysis revealed 5 distinct groups in the population. Behaviour was described using 19 indices, which were then reduced to 7 principal components (>80% of the behavioural variation). Bayesian mixed effect models were developed to describe the relationship between these components and intrinsic variation. No association was found between diet and age or body shape; however, age had a negative relationship with component 1 (27% of variation). Older females spent less time at-sea and foraged nearer to the colony. Age had an effect on component 5 (7% of variation), which represented haul-outs and dive depth; older females made fewer visits to haul-out sites and dived deeper to the benthos. This suggests that as animals age they are able to utilise prior knowledge to exploit nearby foraging sites that younger animals are either unaware of, or have yet to gain the experience required to efficiently utilise. Mass had a negative effect on components representing the directedness of a foraging trip, suggesting heavier individuals were more likely to travel directly to a foraging site.

Aim Agricultural intensification and urbanization are important drivers of biodiversity change in Europe. Different aspects of bee community diversity vary in their sensitivity to these pressures, as well as independently influencing ecosystem service provision (pollination). To obtain a more comprehensive understanding of human impacts on bee diversity across Europe, we assess multiple, complementary indices of diversity. Location One Thousand four hundred and forty six sites across Europe. Methods We collated data on bee occurrence and abundance from the published literature and supplemented them with the PREDICTS database. Using Rao's Quadratic Entropy, we assessed how species, functional and phylogenetic diversity of 1,446 bee communities respond to land‐use characteristics including land‐use class, cropland intensity, human population density and distance to roads. We combined these models with statistically downscaled estimates of land use in 2005 to estimate and map—at a scale of approximately 1 km2—the losses in diversity relative to semi‐natural/natural baseline (the predicted diversity of an uninhabited grid square, consisting only of semi‐natural/natural vegetation). Results We show that—relative to the predicted local diversity in uninhabited semi‐natural/natural habitat—half of all EU27 countries have lost over 10% of their average local species diversity and two‐thirds of countries have lost over 5% of their average local functional and phylogenetic diversity. All diversity measures were generally lower in pasture and higher‐intensity cropland than in semi‐natural/natural vegetation, but facets of diversity showed less consistent responses to human population density. These differences have led to marked spatial mismatches in losses: losses in phylogenetic diversity were in some areas almost 20 percentage points (pp.) more severe than losses in species diversity, but in other areas losses were almost 40 pp. less severe. Main conclusions These results highlight the importance of exploring multiple measures of diversity when prioritizing and evaluating conservation actions, as species‐diverse assemblages may be phylogenetically and functionally impoverished, potentially threatening pollination service provision.

For predators foraging within spatially and temporally heterogeneous marine eco- systems, environmental fluctuations can alter prey availability. Using the proportion of time spent diving and foraging trip duration as proxies of foraging effort, a multi-year dataset was used to assess the response of 58 female Australian fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus to inter- annual environmental fluctuations. Multiple environmental indices (remotely sensed ocean colour data and numerical weather predictions) were assessed for their influence on inter-annual varia- tions in the proportion of time spent diving and trip duration. Model averaging revealed strong evidence for relationships between 4 indices and the proportion of time spent diving. There was a positive relationship with effort and 2 yr-lagged spring sea-surface temperature, current winter zonal wind and southern oscillation index, while a negative relationship was found with 2 yr- lagged spring zonal wind. Additionally, a positive relationship was found between foraging trip duration and 1 yr-lagged spring surface chlorophyll a. These results suggest that environmental fluctuations may influence prey availability by affecting the survival and recruitment of prey at the larval and post-larval phases while also affecting current distribution of adult prey.

Nest predation is considered to be one of the most significant biotic threats to marine turtle populations globally. The introduction of feral predators to nesting beaches has dramatically increased nest predation, reaching near total egg loss in some regions. We monitored a 48 km stretch of beach along western Cape York Peninsula, Australia, from June – November 2018. We recorded a total of 360 nests comprising 117 flatback and 243 olive ridley nests. We installed plastic meshing (90 cm × 100 cm) on 110 olive ridley nests (45.2% of total olive ridley clutches laid) within the study area. We classified all nest predation attempts into three categories: complete, partial, or failed predation events. In total, 109 (30.2%) of all marine turtle nests were depredated by a variety of predators, including feral pigs, dingoes, goannas, and humans. The addition of plastic meshing reduced the likelihood of dingoes gaining access to eggs, but not goannas or feral pigs. Further, we found no difference in the proportion of hatchling emergence between meshed and un-meshed nests. Additionally, while hatchling emergence was reduced in nests that had been partially depredated, these nests still produced live hatchlings and contributed to recruitment. The success of particular predator control methods is often predator, and/or regionally, specific. Our findings highlight a thorough understanding of predator guilds and their relative impacts is required to deploy targeted and predator-specific strategies to maximize conservation results. We present a strong case for data-driven adaptive management that has implications for designing optimal predator management plans.

Condition indices correlating body lipid content with mass and morphometric measurements have been developed for a variety of taxa. However, for many large species, the capture and handling of enough animals to obtain representative population estimates is not logistically feasible. The relatively low cost and reduced disturbance effects of UAVs make them ideal for the rapid acquisition of high volume data for monitoring large species. This study examined the imagery collected from two different UAVs, flown at 25 m altitude, and the subsequent georeferenced orthomosaics as a method for measuring length and axillary girth of Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) to derive an index of body condition. Up to 26% of individuals were orientated correctly (prostrate/sternal recumbent) to allow for body measurements. The UAV-obtained images over-estimated axillary girth diameter due to postural sag on the lateral sides of the thorax while the animals are lying flat in the sternal recumbent position on granite rocks. However, the relationship between axillary girth and standard length was similarly positive for the remotely- and physically-obtained measurements. This indicates that residual values from the remotely-obtained measurements can be used as a relative index of body condition.

To detect and monitor long-term ecosystem responses to environmental variability, managers must utilize reliable and quantitative techniques to predict future ecosystem responses. Canine teeth from 67 male Australian fur seals (aged 2–19 yr), collected at Seal Rocks, between 1967 and 1976, were measured for relative growth within the dentine growth layer groups (GLGs), as an index of body growth. Fluctuations in relative growth were apparent during 1956–1971, suggesting interannual variation in prey resources within Bass Strait. These were positively correlated with the Southern Oscillation Index and negatively with the Indian Ocean Subtropical Dipole, both on a 2 yr lag. The observed delay may reflect the time required for the nutrient cascade to filter through to the predominantly benthic prey of Australian fur seals. Stable isotope analysis (δ15N/δ13C) was also used to investigate whether fluctuations in growth were associated with differences in diet. Relative growth was found to be negatively correlated with δ15N, suggesting years of greater resource availability may be associated with individuals consuming proportionally more prey biomass of lower isotopic value. This study demonstrates that fluctuations in the dentine GLGs of male Australian fur seals are related to environmental parameters, suggesting variation in body growth is mediated by changes in prey resources.

To examine the factors influencing birth site selection and territory location in Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus), habitat variables (slope, substrate, and elevation) were quantified in seven zones within a breeding colony on Kanowna Island (39o15′S, 146o18′E), southeastern Australia. Distribution across the colony was not uniform with zones at low elevations (i.e., close to water) being preferred areas, having earlier occupancies and greater female densities. Body length of females and territorial adult males was assessed using laser-metrics. Average female length increased throughout the breeding season, within zones and across the colony, with larger females arriving to give birth later. Larger females also occupied areas of lower elevation close to water. Adult male body length had no influence on territory size, but was positively correlated with the number of females in harems (r2 = 0.70, P

Regular monitoring of seabird populations is necessary to improve our understanding of their responses to environmental change and inform conservation management. However, given the difficulty in accessing remote breeding sites and the limited resources typically available to land managers, conducting regular, extensive surveys of seabird populations is often not feasible. Our objective was to determine the minimum survey effort required to obtain accurate and precise population estimates of Short-tailed Shearwaters (Ardenna tenuirostris) and Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor), two abundant burrowing seabird species in southeastern Australia, by comparing bootstrapped means and confidence intervals under different sampling regimes on four islands. We found that, in many cases, survey effort (the proportion of transects and quadrats along transects surveyed) could be reduced. For Short-tailed Shearwaters, reducing the number of transects resulted in a maximum difference of 15% between the means at full survey effort and two levels of reduced survey effort. Means differed by

Crossing “safe” limits for biodiversity loss The planetary boundaries framework attempts to set limits for biodiversity loss within which ecological function is relatively unaffected. Newbold et al. present a quantitative global analysis of the extent to which the proposed planetary boundary has been crossed (see the Perspective by Oliver). Using over 2 million records for nearly 40,000 terrestrial species, they modeled the response of biodiversity to land use and related pressures and then estimated, at a spatial resolution of ∼1 km 2 , the extent and spatial patterns of changes in local biodiversity. Across 65% of the terrestrial surface, land use and related pressures have caused biotic intactness to decline beyond 10%, the proposed “safe” planetary boundary. Changes have been most pronounced in grassland biomes and biodiversity hotspots. Science , this issue p. 288 ; see also p. 220

Protected areas are widely considered essential for biodiversity conservation. However, few global studies have demonstrated that protection benefits a broad range of species. Here, using a new global biodiversity database with unprecedented geographic and taxonomic coverage, we compare four biodiversity measures at sites sampled in multiple land uses inside and outside protected areas. Globally, species richness is 10.6% higher and abundance 14.5% higher in samples taken inside protected areas compared with samples taken outside, but neither rarefaction-based richness nor endemicity differ significantly. Importantly, we show that the positive effects of protection are mostly attributable to differences in land use between protected and unprotected sites. Nonetheless, even within some human-dominated land uses, species richness and abundance are higher in protected sites. Our results reinforce the global importance of protected areas but suggest that protection does not consistently benefit species with small ranges or increase the variety of ecological niches., Protected areas are thought essential for biodiversity conservation, but few studies confirm that protection benefits species. Here, Gray and Hill et al. analyse a global, taxonomically broad database to show that local species richness and abundance are higher inside protected areas than outside.

Estimating the degree of individual specialisation is likely to be sensitive to the methods used, as they record individuals’ resource use over different time-periods. We combined animal-borne video cameras, GPS/TDR loggers and stable isotope values of plasma, red cells and sub-sampled whiskers to investigate individual foraging specialisation in female Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) over various timescales. Combining these methods enabled us to (1) provide quantitative information on individuals’ diet, allowing the identification of prey, (2) infer the temporal consistency of individual specialisation, and (3) assess how different methods and timescales affect our estimation of the degree of specialisation. Short-term inter-individual variation in diet was observed in the video data (mean pairwise overlap = 0.60), with the sampled population being composed of both generalist and specialist individuals (nested network). However, the brevity of the temporal window is likely to artificially increase the level of specialisation by not recording the entire diet of seals. Indeed, the correlation in isotopic values was tighter between the red cells and whiskers (mid- to long-term foraging ecology) than between plasma and red cells (short- to mid-term) (R 2 = 0.93–0.73 vs. 0.55–0.41). δ13C and δ15N values of whiskers confirmed the temporal consistency of individual specialisation. Variation in isotopic niche was consistent across seasons and years, indicating long-term habitat (WIC/TNW = 0.28) and dietary (WIC/TNW = 0.39) specialisation. The results also highlight time-averaging issues (under-estimation of the degree of specialisation) when calculating individual specialisation indices over long time-periods, so that no single timescale may provide a complete and accurate picture, emphasising the benefits of using complementary methods.

Recently, there has been a surge in interest in how beta-diversity is defined and applied (e.g., [1]). Socolar et al. [2] have rightly recognised the fundamental importance of considering beta-diversity for conserving biodiversity, and clearly explain the various ways in which beta-diversity may respond to contrasting ecological and anthropogenic forces. However, there are many ways in which beta-diversity already underpins much of modern conservation science and practice, although differences in terminology means that this may not always be explicit.

Recent studies have documented that little penguins (Eudyptula minor) associate at sea, displaying synchronised diving behaviour throughout a foraging trip. However, previous observations were limited to a single foraging trip where only a small number of individuals were simultaneously tracked. Consequently, it is not known whether coordinated behaviour is consistent over time, or what factors influence it. In the present study, breeding adults were concurrently instrumented with GPS and dive behaviour data loggers for at least 2 consecutive foraging trips during guard and post-guard stage at two breeding colonies (London Bridge and Gabo Island, south-eastern Australia) of contrasting population size (approximately 100 and 30,000–40,000, respectively). At both colonies, individuals were sampled in areas of comparable nesting density and spatial area. At London Bridge, where individuals use a short (23 m) common pathway from their nests to the shoreline, > 90% (n = 42) of birds displayed foraging associations and 53–60% (n = 20) maintained temporally consistent associations with the same conspecifics. Neither intrinsic (sex, size or body condition) nor extrinsic (nest proximity) factors were found to influence foraging associations. However, individuals that departed from the colony at a similar time were more likely to associate during a foraging trip. At Gabo Island, where individuals use a longer (116 m) pathway with numerous tributaries to reach the shoreline, few individuals (< 31%; n = 13) from neighbouring nests associated at sea and only 1% (n = 1) maintained associations over subsequent trips. However, data from animal-borne video cameras indicated individuals at this colony displayed foraging associations of similar group size to those at London Bridge. This study reveals that group foraging behaviour occurs at multiple colonies and the pathways these individuals traverse with conspecifics may facilitate opportunistic group formation and resulting in foraging associations irrespective of nesting proximity and other factors.

Across an individual's life, foraging decisions will be affected by multiple intrinsic and extrinsic drivers that act at differing timescales. This study aimed to assess how female Australian fur seals allocated foraging effort and the behavioural changes used to achieve this at three temporal scales: within a day, across a foraging trip and across the final six months of the lactation period. Foraging effort peaked during daylight hours (57% of time diving) with lulls in activity just prior to and after daylight. Dive duration reduced across the day (196 s to 168 s) but this was compensated for by an increase in the vertical travel rate (1500-1600 m·h(-1)) and a reduction in postdive duration (111-90 s). This suggests physiological constraints (digestive costs) or prey availability may be limiting mean dive durations as a day progresses. During short trips (2.9 d) effort increased up to 2-3 d and then decreased. Dive duration decreased at the same rate in short and long trips, respectively, before stabilising (long trips) between 4-5 d. Suggesting that the same processes (digestive costs or prey availability) working at the daily scale may also be present across a trip. Across the lactation period, foraging effort, dive duration and vertical travel rate increased until August, before beginning to decrease. This suggests that as the nutritional demands of the suckling pup and developing foetus increase, female effort increases to accommodate this, providing insight into the potential constraints of maternal investment in this species.

The introduction of pathogens into populations of animals with no previous exposure to them and, therefore, no immunologic protection, can result in epizootics. Predicting the susceptibility of populations to infectious diseases is crucial for their conservation and management. Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) have a relatively small population size, a restricted range, and form dense aggregations. These factors make this species vulnerable to epizootics of infectious diseases that spread by direct animal-to-animal contact. Blood samples were collected from 125 adult female Australian fur seals between 2007 and 2009 and tested for exposure to selected pathogens. The testing protocol was based on pathogens important to marine mammal health or those significant to public and livestock health. No antibodies were detected to morbilliviruses, influenza A viruses, six Leptospira serovars, Mycobacterium tuberculosis-complex species, or Toxoplasma gondii. Overall antibody prevalence to an unidentified Brucella sp. was 57% but varied significantly (P0.02) between 2007 (74%) and 2008 (53%). The findings indicate Brucella infection may be enzootic in the Australian fur seal population. Further investigations are required to isolate the bacteria and establish if infection results in morbidity and mortality. Australian fur seals remain vulnerable to the threat of introduced disease and should be managed and monitored accordingly.

Within a heterogeneous environment, animals must efficiently locate and utilise foraging patches. One way animals can achieve this is by increasing residency times in areas where foraging success is highest (area-restricted search). For air-breathing diving predators, increased patch residency times can be achieved by altering both surface movements and diving patterns. The current study aimed to spatially identify the areas where female Australian fur seals allocated the most foraging effort, while simultaneously determining the behavioural changes that occur when they increase their foraging intensity. To achieve this, foraging behaviour was successfully recorded with a FastLoc GPS logger and dive behaviour recorder from 29 individual females provisioning pups. Females travelled an average of 118 ± 50 km from their colony during foraging trips that lasted 7.3 ± 3.4 days. Comparison of two methods for calculating foraging intensity (first-passage time and first-passage time modified to include diving behaviour) determined that, due to extended surface intervals where individuals did not travel, inclusion of diving behaviour into foraging analyses was important for this species. Foraging intensity 'hot spots' were found to exist in a mosaic of patches within the Bass Basin, primarily to the south-west of the colony. However, the composition of benthic habitat being targeted remains unclear. When increasing their foraging intensity, individuals tended to perform dives around 148 s or greater, with descent/ascent rates of approximately 1.9 m•s-1 or greater and reduced postdive durations. This suggests individuals were maximising their time within the benthic foraging zone. Furthermore, individuals increased tortuosity and decreased travel speeds while at the surface to maximise their time within a foraging location. These results suggest Australian fur seals will modify both surface movements and diving behaviour to maximise their time within a foraging patch.

Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) are conspicuous, top-level predators in coastal waters of south-eastern Australia that were over-harvested during the 1800s and have had a delayed recovery. A previous species-wide estimate of live pups in 2002 recorded a near-doubling of annual pup production and a 5% annual growth rate since the 1980s. To determine if pup production increased after 2002, we estimated live pup numbers in 2007. Pups were recorded at 20 locations: 10 previously known colonies, three newly recognised colonies and seven haul-out sites where pups are occasionally born. Two colonies adjacent to the Victorian coast accounted for 51% of live pups estimated: Seal Rocks (5660 pups, 25.9%) and Lady Julia Percy Island (5574 pups, 25.5%). Although some colonies were up and some were down in pup numbers, the 2007 total of 21 882 ± 187 (s.e.) live pups did not differ significantly from a recalculated estimate of 21 545 ± 184 in 2002, suggesting little change to overall population size. However, the colonisation of three new sites between 2002 and 2007 indicates population recovery has continued.