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The level and determinants of technical efficiency in milk-producing households are examined in connection with households’ level of commercialization. A sample of 469 milk producers are modeled using Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA). Average Technical Efficiency (TE) is estimated to be 80%, with variation among regions and generally reflecting levels of commercialization. Results show that assuming milk producers are rational, TE is increased by increasing the number of cattle, cows, and crossbreeds, and by additinal veterinary and feed inputs. These results support much existing research, and our contribution is the extension of analysis to actions and characteristics of the value chain due to commercial behaviors. We identify both direct and indirect potential effects of commercialization and identify mechanisms for their operation in development programs for commercial value chains. We find that credit access, training, group membership, market participation, and female household all improve TE while non-cattle income would reduce TE. We present sub-groups of households to better contrast levels of productivity and compare a limited number of the sub-groups' characteristics and actions. We provide commentary and explanation regarding commercialization and its direct and indirect connections to productivity. Recommendations include partnerships and facilitating actions that support commercialization, in association with improving efficiency in Tanzanian dairy.

Demonstrating how agricultural research contributes to development outcomes is difficult but necessary given competing demands for scarce resources. This article summarises an adaptation of...

One of the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 2 is to double agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers through, among other things, improving access to financial services including credit. However, designing appropriate mechanisms for increasing access to credit by poor households remains a challenge, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. This paper argues that technology adoption and collective action could provide pathways to enhancing access to credit. Evidence from milk-producing households in Tanzania suggests that group membership increases the probability of borrowing and the amount of funds borrowed by households, while adoption of artificial insemination increases the amount of funds borrowed. Two major conclusions are that public policy for increasing rural households’ access to credit should promote collective action, and that the likely increase in amount of funds demanded by households due to technology adoption and collective action will require policy to address issues pertaining to credit rationing of rural households.

The study evaluates the impact of risk on enterprises of male, female and young farmers operating in the formal and informal smallholder dairy value chains in Tanzania. It also examines the effect of uncertainty on the decision to invest in milk production in the two value chains. Results indicate that youths in the informal dairy value chain face the greatest level of risk followed by men in the formal value chain, and then men in the informal value chain. Women in both value chains and youths in the formal value chain face relatively low risk. Overall, milk production in the informal value chain is found to be substantially riskier than production in the formal chain. Optimal investment triggers are found to be much larger than the conventional triggers and are sensitive to volatility of returns. The results’ managerial and policy implications for inclusive dairy industry development in Tanzania are highlighted.

Summary Marketing, transporting, processing, and consuming dairy products contribute significantly to the livelihoods of many poor Kenyan households. This study analyzes the impact of recent research supporting policy changes to liberalize informal milk markets. The study found that behavioral changes in dairy sector participants arising from the research evidence-supported policy and regulatory changes led to an average 9% reduction in milk-marketing margins, and a significant increase in the number of licensed small-scale milk vendors. High welfare benefits arising from the policy change, with a net present value of US$230 million, are captured by consumers, producers, and milk vendors.

The objective of this study was to quantify the effects of gastrointestinal nematodosis on live weight gain (LWG) of sheep and goats kept in smallholder farms in Kenya. A total of 307 sheep and goats from smallholder farms were sampled using a 2-stage cluster and systematic random approach. Sampled farms were visited once a month for nine months during which a health and production survey questionnaire was administered, animals weighed and fecal samples taken for fecal egg count. Descriptive statistics and a generalized linear mixed model were performed in SAS. The mean LWG of suckling kids and lambs was low (mean = 46 g/day). High fecal egg count and lack of feed supplementation were identified as the main factors limiting growth. Improved helminth control and nutrition are required to optimize production.

We carried out a study to assess the risk associated with the presence of Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC) in informally marketed unpasteurized milk in urban East Africa. Data for the risk models were obtained from on-going and recently completed studies in Kenya and Uganda. Inputs for the model were complemented with data from published literature in similar populations. A fault-tree scenario pathway and modular process risk model approach were used for exposure assessment. Hazard characterization was based on a socioeconomic study with dose-responses derived from the literature. We used a probabilistic approach with Monte Carlo simulation and inputs from farm and household surveys. The qualitative analysis suggested a low to moderate risk of infection from consuming milk and that the widespread consumer practice of boiling milk before consumption was an important risk mitigator. Quantitative analysis revealed that two to three symptomatic STEC infections could be expected for every 10,000 unpasteurized milk portions consumed, with a possible range of 0 to 22 symptomatic cases. Sensitivity analyses to assess the uncertainty and variability associated with the model revealed that the factor with the greatest influence on disease incidence was the prevalence of STEC in dairy cattle. Risk assessment is a potentially useful method for managing food safety in informal markets.

The study was carried out to identify risk factors associated with bacterial contamination of locally produced raw milk and its adulteration with water. A total of 419 respondents of different categories of milk agents in the study sites were sampled for data and milk collection in the dry and wet seasons. The data collected focused on milk marketing factors and handling practices likely to affect milk quality, while the milk samples were analysed to determine the extent of bacterial contamination and adulteration with water. The proportion of milk samples adulterated was 18%. While 23.5% of the milk samples had unacceptably high total plate count (>6.3 log10 cfu/ml), all the samples had unacceptably high coliform plate count (>0.7 log10 cfu/ml). Risk factors associated with high bacterial counts were related to milk mar- keting channels (p

The study was carried out to determine the extent to which antimicrobial drugs may be translocated into milk and the associated risk of exposure by consumers. A total of 394 milk samples were collected in the study sites in dry and wet seasons, and from different categories of milk market agents, including producers (farmers), processors, wholesalers (assemblers) and retailers. The milk samples were screened for antimicrobial drug residues using the Charm Aim-96 an- timicrobial inhibition assay screening kit. Overall, 35.5% (140/394) of the milk samples collected were contaminated with one or more of the antimicrobial drugs screened. This translates into an average risk of exposure every third time a con- sumer drinks locally produced milk. There was no significant difference in contamination levels between season and area of sampling. Among market agents, contamination levels ranged from 16.6% (9/54) for wholesalers or milk assemblers to 54.2% (13/24) for milk processors. There were no significant differences in prevalence proportions of drug residues in milk from different types of traders between and within locations.

Livestock keeping is critical for many of the poor in the developing world, often contributing to multiple livelihood objectives and offering pathways out of poverty. Livestock keeping also affects an indispensable asset of the poor, their human capital, through its impact on their own nutrition and health. This paper outlines the linkages between livestock keeping and the physical well-being of the poor, and examines a number of commonly held beliefs that misrepresent livestock development issues related to these linkages. These beliefs limit the scope of intervention programs to promote livestock and limit their potential contribution to poverty reduction. Recognition of the complexity of the role livestock play in household decision-making and of the opportunities foregone due to these misconceptions can enhance the ability of livestock to contribute to human well-being in the developing world.

Concerns about food safety are increasing in developing countries where urbanization and changing life styles are associated with greater dependence on marketed foods. Ensuring the safety of animal products supplied from smallholder and pastoral systems in these countries presents a great challenge. The risk of consumer exposure to marketed milk containing antimicrobial residues was investigated by testing 986 samples of unpasteurized milk collected in dry and wet seasons from market agents along milk supply chains in and around Mwanza and Dar es Salaam in Tanzania during 1999 and 2000 and estimating the frequency of consuming such milk. With the Charm-AIM screening test kit, antimicrobial residues were detected in 36% of marketed milk samples, suggesting an average risk of about 11 exposures per month for a daily consumer of milk. The higher prevalence levels of the residues were not significantly different by site or season, as had been hypothesized. Recommendations to address this problem are (i) creation of awareness among policy makers, who are currently unaware of the milk safety problem, and development of potential interventions to address the problem, (ii) testing for the residues at milk collection centers, and (iii) further investigation of milk production practices used by the predominantly smallholder producers and market agents. Risks should be characterized and estimated to provide a basis for designing appropriate extension messages and effective management strategies for protecting the health of consumers without unnecessarily jeopardizing the livelihood benefits derived from dairying by producers and market agents.

The risk of consuming marketed milk containing antimicrobial residues was investigated by testing 854 unpasteurized and 110 pasteurized milk samples collected from contrasting locations, market outlets and consumer households in Kenya during 1999 and 2000. The Charm-AIM screening kit used detected antimicrobial residues in up to 16% of marketed milk samples, suggesting an average risk of exposure by consumers of up to five times every month. Higher prevalence levels of the residues were mainly associated with samples obtained lower in the market chain before bulking. Agreement between the Charm-AIM and Charm-SL test, that was used to specifically confirm the presence of β-lactams and tetracyclines, was poor beyond 72 h following drug administration due to differences in detectable limits of the tests.

A rapid growth in per capita consumption of livestock products is occurring in developing countries (Delgado et al., 1999; FOASTAT 1983-2002). In the last two decades and until 2020, the increase in the consumption of meat and milk has been estimated to be much higher in developing countries compared to developed countries (Delgado et al. 1999). This increase in consumption and demand is fuelling an increase in production.

Bovine mastitis and mastitis control were investigated on smallholder farms in central Kenya. After an initial observational study, a clinical trial to assess the impact of three different mastitis control strategies--(1) improved udder hygiene, (2) treatment of subclinical cases, and (3) a combination of these--was conducted on 100 randomly selected farms with 332 lactating cows. Before the implementation of control measures, the milk yield was low (mean 6.5 kg/day; median 6 kg/day) and somatic cell counts (SCC) were high, with 80% and 43% of cows having milk with SCC greater than 250 x 10(3) cells/ml and 600 x 10(3) cells/ml, respectively. Infectious pathogens were also commonly isolated, with 63% of cows being positive for pathogenic bacteria. Neither intervention strategy alone had any effect on mastitis indicators or milk yield. In combination, the measures had some impact, lowering the prevalence of contagious pathogens by 18%, but this was not reflected in a significantly increased milk yield, lowered SCC or reduced incidence of clinical mastitis.

As part of an integrated study on health and production of dairy cattle on smallholder farms in central Kenya, quarter-milk samples, survey and production data were collected monthly for one year from 210 lactating cows on 89 farms. Each of these cows was sampled at least once during the study period. Farms were selected in a 2-stage stratified random sample. Average milk yield was low (5.8 kg/day; median = 5 kg/day) and lactation length was long (20 months). Clinical mastitis risks were low (1% per month). Somatic cell counts (SCC) were high (median = 620 × 103); the previously suggested threshold of 300000 cells/ml would classify 71% of quarters as positive for subclinical mastitis. Bacteria were commonly isolated, with S. aureus the most-common pathogen isolated (22.1% of all samples). Infections with mastitis pathogens, cow-age and milk yield were associated with increases in SCC. However, S. aureus was the only mastitis pathogen associated with decreased milk yield. Few specific mastitis-control measures were applied. The only farm-level variable associated with high SCC was the method of drying off. Gradual drying off decreased SCC.

The methods used in a study of health and productivity of dairy cattle in smallholder dairy farms in Kiambu District, Kenya are described. The study sampling frame included all smallholder dairy farmers registered by one of the 14 dairy societies in Kiambu District. In a two-stage stratified random sample 90 smallholder dairy farms were selected. The farms were visited monthly over a 12 month study period (July 1991–June 1992). The overall objective of the study was to estimate health and production parameters for dairy cattle in these smallholder dairy farms. Information on general farm management, feeding and nutrition, disease status and disease prevention measures were also gathered during the study period. The initial voluntary participation rate was 98%. At conclusion of the study, 90% of the farms were still participating in the study. The median farm size was 3 acres with a median of three dairy cattle per farm.

This paper discusses the major changes in development thinking that, in our view, have characterized livestock research and extension in Africa since the 1950s. It describes the institutional and ideological environment in which research and extension was then conducted and provides examples of early successes aimed at enhancing productivity. There was then a gradual broadening of the scope of research and extension to internalize the wider contexts of the challenges of improving livelihoods. The four main over-arching changes discussed are: poverty-focus, gender-sensitivity, participation and holism. The discussion ends by speculating on directions for the future.

Over 85% of all milk sales on Kenya pass through informal channels. The extent of the risk posed by the sale of this raw milk to human health in respect to brucellosis is unknown. This paper presents the results of a study on the occurrence of antibodies to Brucella abortus in milk from households consuming raw unpasteurized milk and market agent selling the same. Four hundred thirty four (434) raw milk samples from consumer households and 508 from informal market agents were collected between January 1999 and January 2000 from Nakuru /Narok and Nairobi/Kiambu. Milk agents sampled included co-operative societies, milk collecting centers and self-help groups, milk bars, shops and kiosks and mobile traders on foot, bicycle or motorized transport. In addition, 147 samples from the formal market chain (pasteurized) were collected. All the samples from the samples were screened for antibodies to Brucella abortus using ELISA and Milk Ring Test (MRT), except for the formal milk that was tested using ELISA only. Five percent of the consumer household samples and 4% of the samples form informal milk market agents tested positive on ELISA. There was poor agreement between the two antibody surrogate tests (Kappa =0.40, 95% confidence interval =0.19-0.60). ELISA detected 3.2% more samples from consumer households and 0.4% from informal market agents than MRT. Of the formal market samples, 16.4% were positive. Ways of reducing the risk of contracting brucellosis from drinking raw milk are proposed. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 27 2004: pp. 18-21

Despite an unfavorable policy environment against informal milk markets, these market account for most milk sales in Kenya. Convenient delivery and lower prices are the principal benefits for poor consumers. Current milk handling and safety regulations in Kenya are derived from models in industrialized countries. These may not be appropriate for local market conditions. An important step in targeting policies better is to collect quantitative and qualitative information about milk-borne health risk under different market situations. Preliminary results of assessments of milk quality and handling practices of informal milk market agents and consumers in central Kenya show very low apparent prevalence of zoonotic health hazards in milk from smallholder herds o[that contribute most marketed milk. Higher bacterial counts were associated with longer market chains and distance to urban areas. Most (up to 80%) of samples did not meet national bacterial quality standards. Over 96% of consumes boiled milk before consumption mainly to lengthen shelf life but also for health reasons. The most important health risks were judged to be from antimicrobial residues found in up to 16% of milk samples tested. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 27 2004: pp. 15-17

As part of a study to assess zoonotic milk-borne health risks, seasonal survey data and unpasteurized milk samples were collected between January 1999 and February 2000 from randomly selected informal milk market agents (220 and 236 samples in the dry and wet seasons, respectively) and from households purchasing raw milk (213 and 219 samples in the dry and wet seasons, respectively) in rural and urban locations in central Kenya and screened for antibodies to Brucella abortus (B. abortus) and presence of Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157:H7. The latter was assessed based on samples from consumer households only. Antibodies to B. abortus were screened using the indirect antibody Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and the Milk Ring Test (MRT). The presence of E. coli O157:H7 was assessed by culture, biochemical characterisation, serological testing for production of verocytotoxin one (VT1) and two (VT2) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis for the presence of genes encoding for the toxins. The prevalence of antibodies to B. abortus varied considerably ranging from none in milk sold in small units and originating from intensive production systems to over 10% in samples that were bulked or originating from extensive production systems. E. coli O157:H7 was isolated from two samples (0.8%), one of which produced VT1. All urban consumers (100%) and nearly all rural consumers (96%) of marketed milk boiled the milk before consumption, mainly in tea, thus greatly reducing chances of exposure to live pathogens and potential health risks.