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Los pueblos originarios no son escuchados en México. Ante esta falta de escucha, la primera transformación que puede hacerse es empezar a escuchar. La escucha, para ser de verdad transformadora, deberá evitar al menos tres vicios: el de la objetivación practicada por el científico, el exceso de comprensión del portavoz y la obstinación de los mineros del alma que arrancan las palabras, fuerzan y controlan o deciden la comunicación, y convierten la escucha en un interrogatorio. Después de criticarse estos tres vicios, el artículo propone una escucha en silencio y en respeto, pero en la que hay lugar para el diálogo, recordándose lo que los pueblos originarios han dicho en el pasado e intentando escuchar su voz indígena en el rumor silenciado y ahora silencioso de nuestra propia voz mestiza.

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 10 (SCA10) is a repeat expansion disease occurring mostly in Latin America, suggesting that the mutation spread with the peopling of the Americas, or that Amerindian populations, have a higher ATXN10 mutability. High frequency of large normal alleles is associated with prevalence and relative frequency of other repeat expansion diseases. To test whether the allele distribution of the SCA10-causing ATXN10 microsatellite in an Amerindian Peruvian population differs from that of other populations. The ATXN10 allele distribution in a Quechua Peruvian population from Puno, Peru, is similar to that of Finland. Mean allele size and mode were also similar to those of Mexico, Japan, and white Europeans. ATXN10 allele distribution in a healthy Amerindian population from Peru does not differ from that of other populations.

RESUMEN El descubrimiento de América y, posterior, proceso de expansión colonial hispana, generaron sendos viajes de exploración, por vía marítima o terrestre. Estas travesías generaron abundante información del paisaje, de la flora y fauna y de sus pobladores autóctonos. El artículo aborda el uso de estas fuentes en la historiografía, que explica ese proceso y reconstruye las características culturales de los aborígenes. Se busca hacer una revaloración crítica y debatir su utilidad, basándose en el diario de viaje elaborado por José de Escandón en 1747. Otro objetivo consiste en develar aquellas bases que influyeron en la descripción de los indígenas del Nuevo Mundo, con base en el enfoque de la otroedad. La indagación ha permitido plantear supuestos teóricos y metodológicos que posibilitan un análisis más reflexivo sobre las fuentes y su uso. Así como elementos para acceder a una mejor comprensión del significado y utilidad que la información recopilada tuvo en el contexto de sus autores. ABSTRACT The discovery of America and, subsequently, the process of Hispanic colonial expansion, generated two exploration journeys, by sea or land. These journeys generated plenty of information about the landscape, flora and fauna, and its native inhabitants. The article discusses the use of these sources in historiography, which explains this process and reconstructs the cultural characteristics of Aboriginal people. It seeks to make a critical revaluation and debate its usefulness, based on the travel diary prepared by José de Escandón in 1747. Another objective is to uncover those foundations that influenced the description of the indigenous people of the New World, based on the approach of the other. The inquiry has made it possible to raise theoretical and methodological assumptions that allow a more thoughtful analysis of the sources and their use. As well as elements to access a better understanding of the meaning and usefulness that the information collected had in the context of its authors. RESUMO A descoberta da América e, posteriormente, o processo de expansão colonial hispânica, geraram duas viagens de exploração, por mar ou terra. Essas viagens geraram informações abundantes sobre a paisagem, flora e fauna e seus habitantes nativos. O ar- tigo discute o uso dessas fontes na historiografia, o que explica esse processo e reconstrói as características culturais dos povos aborígenes. Busca fazer uma reavaliação crítica e debater sua utilidade, a partir do diário de viagem elaborado por José de Escandón em 1747. Outro objetivo é desvendar as bases que influenciaram a descrição dos povos indígenas do Novo Mundo, a partir da abordagem do outro. A indagação possibilitou levantar premissas teóricas e metodológicas que permitam uma análise mais criteriosa das fontes e seu uso. Além de elementos para acessar uma melhor compreensão do significado e utilidade que as informações coletadas tinham no contexto de seus autores.

Elucidation of the human genome has increased understanding of human body responses to drug administration (Oprea et al., 2018; Nabirotchkin et al., 2020). Likewise, recent studies on human genetic diversity have shown that it is still necessary to delve into individual genetic differences, the adverse effects associated with drug metabolism, drug response variability with the diet, and even the human microbiome (Sharma et al., 2019). Access to biological samples in Latin America is essential to further understanding the presence of genes that may be associated with adverse effects and pharmacological interactions due to their diversity of populations and in anticipating the effects of new treatments. The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has reinforced the urgent need to study the genetic differences among people with mild symptoms and those with complex responses to the disease (Ovsyannikova et al., 2020). During the pandemic, different drugs have been studied in the search for therapeutic alternatives to combat it, mainly due to the “Solidarity Trial” and “Repurposing Drugs” initiatives of the World Health Organization (OMS) (Harrison, 2020). Similarly, new drugs for actual and future diseases can be designed by using pharmacogenetic information. As an example, due to the diversity of therapeutic action mechanisms of a drug, it is necessary to in parallel study human cell susceptibility to the entry of SARS-CoV-2 in genetic world populations. Pharmacogenetics studies of their allele variants are essential. This approach is imperative in enabling national health systems to make informed decisions about the therapeutic strategies used, especially in countries with multiple ethnic groups. Examples that illustrate the importance of understanding therapeutic effectiveness responses in target groups include the premature administration of hydroxychloroquine based on affect glycosylation of angiotensin converting enzyme-2, without information on genetic variability (Ferner and Aronson, 2020) and remdesivir administration (Beigel et al., 2020). Research on ethnic group pharmacogenetics in Latin America is still scarce (Sosa-Macias et al., 2016; Leitao et al., 2020), but there is evidence of pharmacogenetic differences (Suarez-Kurtz and Parra, 2018). For example, Mestizo populations are not considered a unique group for these types of studies, since miscegenation varies in each Latin American country (Botton et al., 2019).The COVID-19 pandemic has shown us that data and access to pharmacogenetic information are required for making clinical decisions in a prioritized and sometimes urgent ways. The reservoirs of genetic material in biobanks in the United Kingdom (McInnes and Altman, 2020) and even in Africa (Matimba et al., 2008), allow researchers to quickly access information on the allelic distributions of important pharmacogenetic markers. However, in Latin America, biobanks for pharmacogenetic research purposes have had only slight development. The bioethical and legal aspects must be considered, and access to biomedical sample information is necessary in a region with high ethnical diversity and little-studied ancestral Amerindian populations.

CYP3A5 metabolizes endogenous substrates and ~30% of prescription drugs. The CYP3A5 gene contains an active CYP3A5*1 allele, and a non-functional version, the CYP3A5*3 (rs776746), with consequences for drug therapeutic responses and side effects. Both CYP3A5*1 and *3 have been associated with hypertension. The frequency of CYP3A5*3 varies between populations of different ancestries, with Europeans having the highest allele frequency (> 90%). Given the importance of CYP3A5*3 in drug response and hypertension development, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the frequency of this polymorphism and its association with hypertension in vulnerable indigenous populations in Mexico. A total of 372 subjects were recruited from eight ethnic groups in Northwest Mexico. Systolic (SBP), diastolic (DBP), and median (MBP) blood pressures as well as body mass index (BMI) were measured. Ancestry was evaluated through STR analysis, and the CYP3A5*1/*3 polymorphisms were identified using real-time PCR with TaqMan® probes. Higher frequencies of CYP3A5*1 and *3 were observed in groups with higher (>90%) and lower (

À l’heure de la « dématérialisation », le domaine de la conservation-restauration est concerné par l’émergence d’outils numériques mettant notamment l’utilisation de la 3D à la portée de tous. Outre son utilisation pour la restitution d’éléments, qui s’avère prometteuse, la modélisation 3D nous a également intéressée dans le cas des roches gravées de la Carapa (Kourou, Guyane française). Ce site, classé monument historique en 1993, a fait l’objet d’une campagne d’étude et de constat d’état sur support numérique entre 2013 et 2017. Son ampleur, le développé important de la roche et la présence d’une couverture empêchant une vue globale du dessus ont rendu cette tâche difficile, les méthodes désormais « classiques » de relevés sur support photo numérique s’avérant chronophages voire inadaptées sous certains aspects. C’est cela qui a motivé l’expérimentation d’un système de relevé et d’annotation sur support 3D développé par le laboratoire MAP (CNRS/MC). Ainsi, grâce au financement de la DAC (Direction des Affaires culturelles) de Guyane et à la collaboration du CNP (Centre national de préhistoire), nous avons pu tester la plateforme « Aïoli » en évaluant son intérêt pour nos travaux de conservation-restauration sur le site de la Carapa. Cet article est un retour d’expérience, mettant d’abord en relief les limites du relevé 2D élaboré sur Photoshop® Elements, puis de quelle façon et dans quelle mesure Aïoli® pourrait y remédier. In our age of ‘dematerialisation’, the field of conservation is also affected by the emergence of digital tools, among which 3D modelling is now becoming easily accessible for everybody. In addition to its promising use for the restitution of elements of sculpture or of buildings, 3D modelling also seemed interesting to us in the case of the engraved stones of Carapa, at Kourou in French Guiana. This site, classified as a historic monument in 1993, has been subjected to a full study and to digital condition reports since 2013. The size of the site, the numerous folds of the rock and the presence of a roof made the creation of an overall view from above very difficult. The now ‘classic’ method involving the annotation of a digital picture proved time-consuming and even inappropriate. This gave rise to the experimentation of a new 3D surveying and annotation system, developed by the CNRS-MAP laboratory (CNRS/MC). Thanks to funding from French Guiana’s DAC (Direction of Cultural Affairs) and the collaboration of the CNP (National Centre of Prehistory), we had the chance to test and evaluate the ‘Aïoli’ platform during our conservation work on the site. This article is an account of that experimentation, highlighting the limitations of the 2D survey undertaken on Photoshop® Elements, then detailing how and to what extent Aïoli® can solve these problems.

Despite the limitations of a small study, our results evidence higher resilience of the gut microbiota with respect to dietary manipulation in adults than in children and urge further studies to understand the extent of microbiota plasticity in response to dietary changes and the mechanisms underlying microbiota resilience. These studies are relevant to the potential of future human pre- and probiotics in preventing or curing microbiota-associated diseases., People living traditional lifestyles have higher gut microbiota diversity than urban subjects. We hypothesized that shifting lifestyles from an urban environment to a traditional rainforest village would lead to changes in the microbiota of visitors, which would become more similar to the microbiota of villagers. Here, we characterized at different time points the microbiota of 7 urban visitors (5 adults and 2 children) staying in a rainforest Amerindian village for 16 days and compared them with a reference collection of samples from age-matched local villagers. We performed a 16S rRNA gene survey of samples from multiple body sites (including fecal, oral, nasal, and skin samples) using Illumina MiSeq sequencing. The main factor segregating the microbiotas of each body site was the human group (i.e., visitors versus villagers), with the visitor microbiota tending to have lower alpha diversity; the lowered alpha diversity was statistically significant in the microbiota of skin and in the children’s fecal and oral microbiota. During the rainforest period, all visitors experienced microbiota changes within their personal cloud of variation. For all body sites, the microbiota conformations in the visitor children better matched the microbiota conformations in villagers of the same age than did those of the visitor adults, which showed a lower “microbiota age” than the microbiota of the villagers. The results suggest higher stability in the adult microbiota, with the less resilient children’s microbiota responding more to dietary changes. IMPORTANCE Despite the limitations of a small study, our results evidence higher resilience of the gut microbiota with respect to dietary manipulation in adults than in children and urge further studies to understand the extent of microbiota plasticity in response to dietary changes and the mechanisms underlying microbiota resilience. These studies are relevant to the potential of future human pre- and probiotics in preventing or curing microbiota-associated diseases.

Objective.To define whether Amerindian genetic ancestry correlates with clinical and therapeutic variables in admixed individuals with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) from Latin America.Methods.Patients with RA (n = 1347) and healthy controls (n = 1012) from Argentina, Mexico, Chile, and Peru were included. Samples were genotyped for the Immunochip v1 using the Illumina platform. Clinical data were obtained through interviews or the clinical history.Results.Percentage of Amerindian ancestry was comparable between cases and controls. Morning stiffness (p < 0.0001, OR 0.05), rheumatoid factor (RF; p < 0.0001, OR 0.22), radiographic changes (p < 0.0001, OR 0.05), and higher number of criteria were associated with lower Amerindian ancestry after Bonferroni correction. Higher Amerindian ancestry correlated only with weight loss (pBonferroni < 0.0001, OR 2.85). Increased Amerindian ancestry correlated with higher doses of azathioprine (p < 0.0001, OR 163.6) and sulfasalazine (p < 0.0001, OR 48.6), and inversely with methotrexate (p = 0.001, OR 0.35), leflunomide (p = 0.001, OR 0.16), and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (pBonferroni = 0.001, OR 0.37). Only the presence of RF and weight loss were modified after confounders adjustment.Conclusion.Amerindian ancestry protects against most major clinical criteria of RA, but regarding the association of RF with increased European ancestry, age, sex, and smoking are modifiers. Ancestry also correlates with the therapeutic profiles.

This paper seeks to employ rural Mapuche ideas about language to cast new light on the nature of agency and authority in lowland South America and elsewhere. Through ethnographic analysis, I demonstrate the need to account for the roles of priest, chief, and shaman—all present in the Mapuche ngillatun fertility ritual—from the perspective of their differential modes of relating through language. For language, as understood by rural Mapuche, emerges not solely from the intentions of individual speakers, but equally from the force— newen —constitutive of all being. Priests, chiefs, and shamans all seek to align themselves through speech to this force which instantiates itself through them. Such an observation forms the basis of a critique of both Clastres’ understanding of the relationship between chiefs and language, and of the recent post-humanist rejection of the so-called “linguistic turn.”

Available evidence suggests a Polynesian origin of the Easter Island population. We recently found that some native Easter Islanders also carried some common American Indian (Amerindian) human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles, which probably were introduced before Europeans discovered the island in 1722. In this study, we report molecular genetic investigations of 21 other selected native Easter Islanders. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome markers showed no traces of an Amerindian contribution. However, high-resolution genomic HLA typing showed that two individuals carried some other common Amerindian HLA alleles, different from those found in our previous investigations. The new data support our previous evidence of an Amerindian contribution to the gene pool on Easter Island.

Background Limited information is available about the prevalence, ethnic disparities, and risk factors of hypertension within developing countries. We used data from a nationwide study on non-communicable disease (NCD) risk factors to estimate, explore, and compare the prevalence of hypertension overall and in subgroups of risk factors among different ethnic groups in Suriname. Method The Suriname Health Study used the World Health Organization Steps design to select respondents with a stratified multistage cluster sample of households. The overall and ethnic specific prevalences of hypertension were calculated in general and in subgroups of sex, age, marital status, educational level, income status, employment, smoking status, residence, physical activity, body mass index (BMI), and waist circumference (WC). Differences in the prevalence between ethnic subgroups were assessed using the Chi-square test. We used several adjustment models to explore whether the observed ethnic differences were explained by biological, demographic, lifestyle, or anthropometric risk factors. Results The prevalence of hypertension was 26.2 % (95 % confidence interval 25.1 %-27.4 %). Men had higher mean values for systolic and diastolic blood pressure compared to women. Blood pressure increased with age. The prevalence was highest for Creole, Hindustani, and Javanese and lowest for Amerindians, Mixed, and Maroons. Differences between ethnic groups were measured in the prevalence of hypertension in subcategories of sex, marital status, education, income, smoking, physical activity, and BMI. The major difference in association of ethnic groups with hypertension was between Hindustani and Amerindians. Conclusion The prevalence of hypertension in Suriname was in the range of developing countries. The highest prevalence was found in Creoles, Hindustani, and Javanese. Differences in the prevalence of hypertension were observed between ethnic subgroups with biological, demographic, lifestyle, and anthropometric risk factors. These findings emphasize the need for ethnic-specific research and prevention and intervention programs.

Fecal, oral, and skin biomes of isolated Amerindians show higher human bacterial diversity including antibiotic resistance genes., Most studies of the human microbiome have focused on westernized people with life-style practices that decrease microbial survival and transmission, or on traditional societies that are currently in transition to westernization. We characterize the fecal, oral, and skin bacterial microbiome and resistome of members of an isolated Yanomami Amerindian village with no documented previous contact with Western people. These Yanomami harbor a microbiome with the highest diversity of bacteria and genetic functions ever reported in a human group. Despite their isolation, presumably for >11,000 years since their ancestors arrived in South America, and no known exposure to antibiotics, they harbor bacteria that carry functional antibiotic resistance (AR) genes, including those that confer resistance to synthetic antibiotics and are syntenic with mobilization elements. These results suggest that westernization significantly affects human microbiome diversity and that functional AR genes appear to be a feature of the human microbiome even in the absence of exposure to commercial antibiotics. AR genes are likely poised for mobilization and enrichment upon exposure to pharmacological levels of antibiotics. Our findings emphasize the need for extensive characterization of the function of the microbiome and resistome in remote nonwesternized populations before globalization of modern practices affects potentially beneficial bacteria harbored in the human body.

We investigated Individual differences in susceptibility to methylmercury (MeHg) contamination and its relationship with polymorphisms of the detoxifying enzyme glutathione S-transferase (GST). In Brazil, some Amerindian tribes from the Amazon region have an increased level of mercury in their hair. Samples of hair and blood were taken from inhabitants of two villages in the Kayabi and Munduruku Amerindian communities to investigate mercury levels in association with genetic polymorphism of GSTs. Other molecular biological markers were also studied, such as hemoglobin, haptoglobin and glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PDH). Higher levels of mercury contamination were found in the Kayabi villagers, who had a null genotype (GSTM1 0/0, also denominated GSTM1 null) frequency of 26%, than in the Munduruku villagers, for which the null genotype frequency was 0%. Individuals with the GSTM1 null phenotype had higher concentrations of mercury in their hair than individuals with GSTM1+/+ phenotypes (F = 21.51, p < 0.0001). No association with other markers studied was observed. This study suggests that GSTM1 may be involved in the biotransformation of mercury in humans.

Très peu utilisée dans les échanges traditionnels des Yucuna, la monnaie colombienne n’est présente que dans certaines de leurs transactions marchandes avec les Blancs. Les Indiens entretiennent alors avec ces derniers diverses modalités d’échanges, comme les avances, le troc ou le métayage, qui ont la particularité de ne pas requérir obligatoirement la monnaie, même si elles se montrent dépendantes du marché, en faisant référence au système des prix locaux. Face à ces transactions imposées par les Blancs, les formes d’échange traditionnelles sont encore principalement constituées de dons et de contre‑dons en raison des règles spécifiques de leur organisation sociale. Mais, en dépit du fait que la monnaie et le marché ont eu un impact limité sur le système social yucuna, ils ont néanmoins eu des effets sur ses différentes sphères, en particulier en libérant l’accès aux marchandises à des Indiens habituellement contraints par la division des tâches. Very rarely used in Yucuna traditional exchanges, the Colombian currency is only found in certain of their market transactions with Whites. The Indians maintain diverse modes of exchange with the latter, such as advances, bartering or the métayage system, which have the particularity of not necessarily requiring currency, although they are dependent on the market with respect to the local price system. In the face of these transactions imposed by Whites, traditional forms of exchange are still mainly composed of gifts and counter-gifts according to the specific rules of their social organisation. However, in spite of the fact that currency and the market have had a limited impact on the Yucuna social system, they have nevertheless affected its different spheres, in particular by freeing access to commodities for Indians who were habitually constrained by division of tasks.

This brief essay, which represents the third editorial of the series "Recollections, Reflections, and Revelations: Ethnobiologists and their First Time in the Field", captures a few memories of the author's first fieldwork in the Venezuelan rainforest. It is a collage of objects, subjects, feelings, spaces, and events that pendulate in spheres of meaning straddling between the author's identities as both a student and a woman. The author's evocations of fifteen years ago are diluted in lasting reflections about what could be ethnoecology embraced by spaces of interactions and associations between organisms and their surroundings.

We analyzed the frequency of four mitochondrial DNA haplogroups in 424 individuals from 21 Colombian Amerindian tribes. Our results showed a high degree of mtDNA diversity and genetic heterogeneity. Frequencies of mtDNA haplogroups A and C were high in the majority of populations studied. The distribution of these four mtDNA haplogroups from Amerindian populations was different in the northern region of the country compared to those in the south. Haplogroup A was more frequently found among Amerindian tribes in northern Colombia, while haplogroup D was more frequent among tribes in the south. Haplogroups A, C and D have clinal tendencies in Colombia and South America in general. Populations belonging to the Chibcha linguistic family of Colombia and other countries nearby showed a strong genetic differentiation from the other populations tested, thus corroborating previous findings. Genetically, the Ingano, Paez and Guambiano populations are more closely related to other groups of south eastern Colombia, as also inferred from other genetic markers and from archeological data. Strong evidence for a correspondence between geographical and linguistic classification was found, and this is consistent with evidence that gene flow and the exchange of customs and knowledge and language elements between groups is facilitated by close proximity.

The peopling of the Americas has been the subject of extensive genetic, archaeological and linguistic research; however, central questions remain unresolved. One contentious issue is whether the settlement occurred by means of a single migration or multiple streams of migration from Siberia. The pattern of dispersals within the Americas is also poorly understood. To address these questions at a higher resolution than was previously possible, we assembled data from 52 Native American and 17 Siberian groups genotyped at 364,470 single nucleotide polymorphisms. Here we show that Native Americans descend from at least three streams of Asian gene flow. Most descend entirely from a single ancestral population that we call First American. However, speakers of Eskimog-Aleut languages from the Arctic inherit almost half their ancestry from a second stream of Asian gene flow, and the Na-Dene-speaking Chipewyan from Canada inherit roughly one-tenth of their ancestry from a third stream. We show that the initial peopling followed a southward expansion facilitated by the coast, with sequential population splits and little gene flow after divergence, especially in South America. A major exception is in Chibchan speakers on both sides of the Panama isthmus, who have ancestry from both North and South America. © 2012 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved. Fil: Reich, David. Harvard Medical School; Estados Unidos. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Estados Unidos Fil: Patterson, Nick. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Estados Unidos Fil: Campbell, Desmond. Colegio Universitario de Londres; Reino Unido. The University Of Hong Kong; Hong Kong Fil: Tandon, Arti. Harvard Medical School; Estados Unidos. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Estados Unidos Fil: Mazieres, Stéphane. Colegio Universitario de Londres; Reino Unido Fil: Ray, Nicolas. Universidad de Ginebra; Suiza Fil: Parra, Maria V.. Colegio Universitario de Londres; Reino Unido. Universidad de Antioquia; Colombia Fil: Rojas, Winston. Colegio Universitario de Londres; Reino Unido. Universidad de Antioquia; Colombia Fil: Duque, Constanza. Universidad de Antioquia; Colombia. Colegio Universitario de Londres; Reino Unido Fil: Mesa, Natalia. Universidad de Antioquia; Colombia. Colegio Universitario de Londres; Reino Unido Fil: García, Luis F.. Universidad de Antioquia; Colombia Fil: Triana, Omar. Universidad de Antioquia; Colombia Fil: Blair, Silvia. Universidad de Antioquia; Colombia Fil: Maestre, Amanda. Universidad de Antioquia; Colombia Fil: Dib, Juan C.. Fundación Salud Para El Tró Pico; Colombia Fil: Bravi, Claudio Marcelo. Colegio Universitario de Londres; Reino Unido. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular. Provincia de Buenos Aires. Gobernación. Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular; Argentina Fil: Bailliet, Graciela. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular. Provincia de Buenos Aires. Gobernación. Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular; Argentina Fil: Corach, Daniel. Universidad de Buenos Aires; Argentina Fil: Hünemeier, Tábita. Colegio Universitario de Londres; Reino Unido. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Brasil Fil: Bortolini, Maria Cátira. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Brasil Fil: Salzano, Francisco M.. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; Brasil Fil: Petzl Erler, María Luiza. Universidade Federal do Paraná; Brasil Fil: Acuña Alonzo, Victor. National Institute Of Anthropology And History; México Fil: Aguilar Salinas, Carlos. Instituto Nacional de la Nutrición Salvador Zubiran; México Fil: Canizales-Quinteros, Samuel. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; México Fil: Tusié Luna, Teresa. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; México Fil: Riba, Laura. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; México Fil: Rodríguez Cruz, Maricela. Umae Hospital de Pediatría Centro Medico Nacional Siglo Xxi; México Fil: Lopez Alarcón, Mardia. Umae Hospital de Pediatría Centro Medico Nacional Siglo Xxi; México Fil: Coral Vazquez, Ramón. Instituto Politécnico Nacional; México

CYP2D6 differences have already been demonstrated within Latin American populations by the CEIBA.FP Consortium of the Ibero-American Network of Pharmacogenetics (RIBEF, as per the acronym in Spanish). However, within the population of Costa Rica, no research has been conducted until now, even though this population has a trihybrid component ancestry that represents an interesting condition. Thus, the present study was aimed to determine the frequency of Ultra-rapid Metabolizers (UMs) and Poor Metabolizers (PMs) in a Costa Rican population, as well as to determine whether there are differences in the CYP2D6-predicted phenotype frequencies among three Costa Rican groups with different ethnic backgrounds. Additionally, these frequencies of PMs and UMs obtained were compared with Ibero-American populations published data. Finally, we also aimed to describe allele frequencies among different Costa Rican ethnic groups. This research has been undertaken within the framework of the RIBEF CEIBA Consortium studies on Latin American populations. A total of 385 individuals were included in the study: 139 mestizos, 197 Amerindians, and 49 Afro-Caribbeans. CYP2D6 genotypes were determined by XL-PCR and Real-Time PCR. The CYP2D6 variant alleles *2, *3, *4, *5, *6, *10, *17, *29, *35 and *41 were also determined. For the entire Costa Rican population, the frequency of PMs and UMs was 6% and 6.5%, respectively. The percentage of UMs in the mestizo population was higher than in the Amerindian population. CYP2D6 UMs vary from 3.6% to 10.1% and PMs from 1.4% to 10.2% among three Costa Rican groups. The highest frequencies of UMs (10.1%) and PMs (10.2%) were found in the mestizo and Amerindian populations, respectively. In conclusion, the frequencies of UMs and PMs for CYP2D6 varied widely across the mestizo, Amerindian and Afro-Caribbean Costa Rican populations. Future research in this population should be oriented to identify new CYP2D6 variants through sequencing methods, as well as to determine CYP2D6 phenotype, in order to establish the phenotype-genotype relation. Finally, further studies involving genetic markers of ancestry are needed in the Costa Rican population. Carolina Céspedes-Garro1,2, Gerardo Jiménez-Arce1, María-Eugenia G. Naranjo2, Ramiro Barrantes1* and Adrián LLerena2*; CEIBA Consortium of the Ibero-American Network of Pharmacogenetics & Pharmacogenomics RIBEF.

On the basis of comprehensive RFLP analysis, it has been inferred that approximately 97% of Native American mtDNAs belong to one of four major founding mtDNA lineages, designated haplogroups "A"-"D." It has been proposed that a fifth mtDNA haplogroup (haplogroup X) represents a minor founding lineage in Native Americans. Unlike haplogroups A-D, haplogroup X is also found at low frequencies in modern European populations. To investigate the origins, diversity, and continental relationships of this haplogroup, we performed mtDNA high-resolution RFLP and complete control region (CR) sequence analysis on 22 putative Native American haplogroup X and 14 putative European haplogroup X mtDNAs. The results identified a consensus haplogroup X motif that characterizes our European and Native American samples. Among Native Americans, haplogroup X appears to be essentially restricted to northern Amerindian groups, including the Ojibwa, the Nuu-Chah-Nulth, the Sioux, and the Yakima, although we also observed this haplogroup in the Na-Dene-speaking Navajo. Median network analysis indicated that European and Native American haplogroup X mtDNAs, although distinct, nevertheless are distantly related to each other. Time estimates for the arrival of X in North America are 12,000-36,000 years ago, depending on the number of assumed founders, thus supporting the conclusion that the peoples harboring haplogroup X were among the original founders of Native American populations. To date, haplogroup X has not been unambiguously identified in Asia, raising the possibility that some Native American founders were of Caucasian ancestry.

Con ocasión del Quinto Centenario del "descubrimiento" de América, el artículo examina la problemática que trajo consigo ese encuentro con las culturas amerindias. Luego, propone un diálogo intercultural, como una democracia de culturas. Para ello es necesario un mayor conocimiento y reconocimiento de la realidad india, histórica y contemporánea., In light of the Quincentenary of America's discovery, the article examines the problems created by the European encounter with American Indian cultures. It proposes an intercultural dialogue as a democracy of cultures. It is necessary to expand knowledge and recognition of the historical and contemporary Indian reality., Grupo de Investigación Antropología y Filosofía (SEJ-126). Universidad de Granada

America First Inhabitants population (Amerindians, Na Dene and Eskimos) underwent a drastic population reduction and gene exchange after Europeans and Africans arrival after 1492 AD. Barranquilla population may be a good model to study present day population admixture in South America. HLA-A, -B and -DRB1 DNA typing has been performed in 188 unrelated individuals originated in the area and speak Spanish language; they showed apparent European/African and mixed characters. HLA genetic European/African features were found and only 1.85% Amerindian one. This contrasts with neighboring Cuban population where 10% HLA Amerindian characters appear.