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We explored interactions among human activities, landscape development and changes in biotic proxies in two small calcareous spring fens in the Slovak Eastern Carpathians. These date back to cal. a.d. 930. Results of pollen, plant macrofossil, and mollusc analyses were compared with the settlement history. The regional pollen record reflected historical events and changes in the settlement density very well at both study sites. The natural mixed fir-beech-spruce forests with fern undergrowth were suppressed and replaced by light-demanding trees in the periods of high human impact (e.g. Wallachian colonization). The study area was affected several times by wars and raids followed by a consequent decline in the settlement density. Some of these events are well reflected in the pollen records that document tree recovery and decline of cereals, weeds, and pasture indicators. In comparison, only some landscape changes were reflected in the local fen development. Both spring fens originated after deforestation, Roskovce around a.d. 1347 and Mirol'a around a.d. 929. The most pronounced change involving the water regime stabilization and undisturbed development of plant and mollusc communities took place after the decline in human impact. We conclude that humans were the main drivers of landscape transformation in the last millennium; they directly created spring-fen ecosystems through deforestation and influenced fen species composition through husbandry activities.

Using plant macrofossil and mollusc analyses of 50 basal samples and three representative profiles we illustrate the most common developmental types of calcareous fens: (i) fens originating in the Lateglacial, having an open or semi-open character during the whole Holocene; (ii) open fens originating as wooded wetlands; and (iii) open fens starting their development de novo in the late Holocene. Human activities were responsible for the formation of a high number of calcareous fens, especially in the Outer Western Carpathians, and became important drivers of fen biodiversity development. Only a few recently existing calcareous fens contain old sequences of calcareous deposits.

Pseudofusulus varians (C. Pfeiffer, 1828) is one of the most endangered land snail species in the Czech Republic. It is a relict species from Atlantic period of the Holocene, inhabiting exclusively nature beech and scree forests. Originally it was known from 16 sites in the Krušné Hory Mts. (Ore Mts.) (NW Bohemia, Czech Republic) and one site in the Moravskoslezské Beskydy Mts. (East Moravia, Czech Republic). The occurrence of the snail was recently confirmed only at seven sites in the Krušné Hory Mts. Remaining sites were destroyed due to human impacts, mainly acid rains and insensive forest management. Therefore its populations survived only in forest patches hidden in hardly accessible places. P. varians is strictly dendrophilous species, so the main threat is dead wood removing and clear cutting. As it is endangered in the whole Europe (Austria, Croatia, Germany, Slovakia and the others), it is very important to protect its modern sites.