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When writing about the history of the internet, it is important to note that aerospace was among the significant pioneers in computer networking computer network for private was used in first airline reservation system “SABRE” in 1960 for American airlines. While sage was the first computer system in the world, its deficiencies led to the development of ARPANET. These systems formed the foundations for the internet and the development of other computer programs in aerospace, any deficiency led to the invention of a new program, giving birth to programming, CAD, and CAM that brought about simulations. Aerospace computing has evolved over the years and is now carrying the whole weight of the aerospace industry. Before the launch of any space vehicle or satellite, simulation has become a necessary step, checking for weaknesses for corrections to be done on the ground. Besides, computer simulation has been essential in training, facilitating the training of pilots worldwide. This article presents more information regarding the application of AI in aerospace computing, flight simulations, and their advantages in the aerospace industry.

EACH MARCH, JULY, AND NOVEMBER, we are I reminded that the Internet is not quite the mature, stable technology that it seems to I be. We rely on the Internet as an essential tool for our economic, social, educational, and political lives. But when the Internet Engineering Task Force meets every four months at an open conference that bounces from continent to continent, more than 1,000 people from around the world gather with change on their minds. Their vision of the global network that all humanity shares is dynamic, evolving, and continuously improving. Their efforts combine with the contributions of myriad others to ensure that the Internet always works but is never done, never complete.

The Domain Name System (DNS) was the major milestone in the Internet between the advent of the IP/TCP, internet, and the web. Any Internet user gets a glimpse of it every time they see a URL. What is perhaps less realized is how much the creation of the DNS enabled development and evolution of the Internet and Internet applications such as the World Wide Web (Web) - something that has become manifestly clear to us through our several decades of research on the origins of the Internet. The following contribution to the history of DNS consists of descriptions by Paul Mockapetris, Mike Roberts, Vint Cerf, Steve Crocker, and Tin Wee Tan. The authors outline how the aforementioned experienced the origins of the governance of DNS and expansion of the TLD space and sketch the DNS' origin and evolution. Origin refers to its history up to the time when the first machines came to rely on it as a production system, roughly 1986. The evolution phase takes us to the current decade. Also covered are DNS security issues and the internationalization of the DNS, which created a big movement to drive the change of the DNS to the next level. The DNS absolutely changed the development of the Internet and its evolution continues. As the inventor Mockapetris has said about the origin of DNS, "I built the first floor and maybe the second floor and then people came along and added about 20 more floors."

Arpanet, Internet, Internet of Services, Internet of Things, Internet of Skills. What next? We conjecture that in a few years from now, we will have the Internet of Neurons, in which humans will be able to connect bi-directionally to the net using only their brain. The Internet of Neurons will provide new, tremendous opportunities thanks to constant access to unlimited information, but it will also bring along enormous challenges, especially concerning security, privacy and trust. In this paper we discuss the main technological (and neurological) breakthroughs required to enable the Internet of Neurons, the new opportunities it provides and the security challenges it raises. We also elaborate on the novel system models, threat models and security properties that are required to reason about privacy, security and trust in the Internet of Neurons.

In order to avoid, double link failure in the optical network, we proposed a rapid connection recovery scheme for the survivable double link in elastic optical network (EON). The elastic optical network provides very high and flexible bandwidth as per the user’s requirement. Larger network have more number of failure probability. To control such failure, our proposed strategy provides a alternate backup light path by using minimum resources. Our proposed recovery scheme (PRS) provide better results in terms of recovery time, bandwidth blocking probability (BBP), and bandwidth provisioning ratio, when compared with the existing shared path protection (SPP) and dedicated path protection (DPP) schemes. ARPANET and COST239 topologies are considered for simulation.

Today to access high end applications, there is need of high bandwidth which can be contented through a switching paradigm, optical burst switched networks. Optical burst switched (OBS) networks are buffer less in nature hence there is more probability of congestion. It rapidly degrades the performance of the network due to burst loss during medium and high traffic load. Thus, it is essential to minimize the congestion in OBS network to improve the performance and quality of service (QoS) .In this paper, swarm based Spider Monkey Optimization (SMO) is presented for QoS aware routing and wavelength allocation (RWA) to minimize congestion in OBS network. The performance of the network is evaluated on various network scenarios such as ARPANET, NFSNET, RANDOM12 and TORUS9 on the basis of hop count, congested links and burst loss probability and it is found that our proposed method outperforms the existing methods and improves the quality of service of OBS network.

In this interview, the man who first managed the ARPANET project and made the network come in to existence, Dr. Lawrence G. Roberts, gives his account of how the ARPANET came to be. He contributes his perspective on the many other innovations made to computer science by ARPA in the 1960s and 1970s, and shares his view on the contentious origin narratives surrounding the Internet, ARPANET and packet switching. He also talks about his life-long friendship and collaboration with another Internet/ARPANET pioneer, Leonard Kleinrock.

The end of Moore's law has been proclaimed on many occasions and it's probably safe to say that we are now working in the post-Moore era. But no one is ready to slow down just yet. We can view Gordon Moore's observation on transistor densification as just one aspect of a longer-term underlying technological trend - the Law of Accelerating Returns articulated by Kurzweil. Arguably, companies became somewhat complacent in the Moore era, happy to settle for the gains brought by each new process node. Although we can expect scaling to continue, albeit at a slower pace, the end of Moore's Law delivers a stronger incentive to push other trends of technology progress harder. Some exciting new technologies are now emerging such as multi-chip 3D integration and the introduction of new technologies such as storage-class memory and silicon photonics. Moreover, we are also entering a golden age of computer architecture innovation. One of the key drivers is the pursuit of domain-specific architectures as proclaimed by Turing award winners John Hennessy and David Patterson. A good example is the Xilinx's AI Engine, one of the important features of the Versal? ACAP (adaptive compute acceleration platform) [1]. Today, the explosion of AI workloads is one of the most powerful drivers shifting our attention to find faster ways of moving data into, across, and out of accelerators. Features such as massive parallel processing elements, the use of domain specific accelerators, the dense interconnect between distributed on-chip memories and processing elements, are examples of the ways chip makers are looking beyond scaling to achieve next-generation performance gains. Next, the growing demands of scaling-out hyperscale datacenter applications drive much of the new architecture developments. Given a high diversification of workloads that invoke massive compute and data movement, datacenter architectures are moving away from rigid CPU-centric structures and instead prioritize adaptability and configurability to optimize resources such as memory and connectivity of accelerators assigned to individual workloads. There is no longer a single figure of merit. It's not all about Tera-OPS. Other metrics such as transfers-per-second and latency come to the fore as demands become more real-time; autonomous vehicles being an obvious and important example. Moreover, the transition to 5G will result in solutions that operate across the traditional boundaries between the cloud and edge and embedded platforms that are obviously power-conscious and cost-sensitive. Future workloads will require agile software flows that accommodate the spread of functions across edge and cloud. Another industry megatrend that will drive technology requirements especially in encryption, data storage and communication, is Blockchain. To some, it may already have a bad reputation, tarnished by association with the anarchy of cryptocurrency, but it will be more widely relevant than many of us realize. Who could have foreseen the development of today's Internet when ARPANET first appeared as a simple platform for distributed computing and sending email? Through projects such as the open-source Hyperledger, Blockchain technology could be game-changing as a platform for building trust in transactions executed over the Internet. We may soon be talking in terms of the Trusted Internet. The predictability of Moore's law may have become rather too comfortable and slow. The future requires maximizing the flexibility, agility, and efficiency of new technologies. With Moore's Law now mostly behind us, new adaptable and scalable architectures will allow us to further provide exponential return from technology in order to create a more adaptable and intelligent world.

Our paper focuses on the Interface Message Processor (IMP), an important device in the history of ARPANET. Designed as the interface between ARPANET nodes and the common carrier telephone system, t...

The Internet as we currently recognise it was institutionally established in 1983 when all hosts connected to the then ARPANET were required to have adopted the relatively new Transmission Control ...

In December of 2010, I visited Professor Leonard Kleinrock in his office at UCLA. It was not the first time I had done so. I had already completed a round of interviews in 2004 with several ARPANET...

More than 40 years ago, on 3 May 1978, a computer vendor in the US sent the first spam email in history. It was sent by marketing manager Gary Thuerk to a list of 320 people who were active at that time on Arpanet, a predecessor of today's Internet, and was to invite them to the launch of a new computer in Los Angeles and San Mateo.

Reports on the celebration of the ARPANET 50th Anniversary that was recognized at the AAAS Annual Meeting.

In this paper, a reactive defragmentation rerouting and spectrum assignment (RDRSA) strategy when existing connection requests terminated and network resources released is presented. In RDRSA with spectrum conversion (SC), the existing connections are re-established to new route or reassigned to new frequency slots. Defragmentation has three advantages over the conventional RSA: (1) at the time of connection setup, shorter routes may be unavailable, but after the termination of the existing requests; possibility of re-assignment of shorter route becomes high, (2) fragmentation of network also reduces which results load balancing over the entire network, (3) network resource utilization increases due to more connection acceptance. The performance of RDRSA-SC is compared with the conventional RSA with spectrum conversion (SC), and non spectrum conversion (NSC). The simulation results on NSFNET and ARPANET network topologies show that the proposed RDRSA-SC has lower fragmentation and bandwidth blocking probability, and more utilization of network capacity than the existing RSA-SC and RSA-NSC.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to understand the emerging challenges of cybersecurity governance by analyzing the internet’s early history. Design/methodology/approach Tracing the design and management of early internet and network security technologies in the USA in the 1970s and 1980s. Findings The US Department of Defense separated the research and management regimes for networks and network security, with the latter restricted to military networks. As such, the absence of cybersecurity technologies on the early internet was not an oversight, but a necessary compromise. This ordering of networks and security had enduring technological, political and even cultural consequences, which are breaking down today. Social implications Political, technological and metaphoric distinctions between networks and security should be challenged; cybersecurity will transform internet governance. Originality/value New historical sources and analysis provide a novel perspective on contemporary challenges of cybersecurity governance.

The engineers who built routers for the fledgling ARPANET in 1969 never dreamed that networking technology would upend journalism. Nor did anyone guess that cellular communication would make people ignore one another at the dinner table. Early users of email had no idea of spam. Henry Ford did not foresee the traffic jam. . Technology has unintended consequences. Sometimes they are large and tumultuous. It is often well worth the trouble of trying to figure them out ahead of time.

Hitherto, several algorithms have been proposed for routing and wavelength assignment (RWA) problem on single or multifiber wavelength routed optical network (WRON) with or without wavelength converters. However, due to budget limit, we may equip only a few links in the network with multi fibers, and hence we have a sparse multifiber WRON (SM-WRON). Here, we consider the RWA problem on an SM-WRON without wavelength conversion. Different number of links are considered to equip with multi fibers to make an SM-WRON. Two basic techniques to select the required links to make them multifiber are random-choice and first-choice. The earlier one selects some links randomly and the later one selects the first numbered links. Here, in order to propose an improved algorithm, we define a cost for every link in the network, and then equip the most expensive links with multi fibers. The numerical results made on the well known benchmark networks, i.e., ARPANET and NSF topologies, show the proposed technique to be more efficient than the basic ones taking the blocking probability into account.

This interview is based on two conversations the author had with Paul Baran in 2004 and 2010. The 2010 conversation represents one of last times Baran participated in an interview before his death in March 2011. Topics discussed include how Baran drew upon inspiration from Warren McCulloch's work on neural networks to bring distributedness to communication networks and how this led to Hot Potato Routing, which later became known as packet switching. The latter, being an foundational part of Internet technology, has placed Paul Baran firmly in the histories of networking and the Internet, even if the origins of packet switching are hotly contested – a topic that is also discussed in the conversations. Finally, Baran also shares his views on technological development and determinism and what the future for the Internet holds.

Optical burst switching (OBS) is a trade-off between optical packet switching (OPS) and optical circuit switching (OCS). OBS is different than these two concepts which allow transmission of control packet separately over reserved optical channel. The most challenging task in OBS is congestion which varies as per the traffic load. In this paper, differential evolution (DE) optimization algorithm is presented for congestion control in OBS network. The performance of DE is evaluated primarily for the total number of congested links against total load and second for the total number of hops against load in the network. This was evaluated on the basis of reduction in the number of congested links. These simulations were carried out for different sparse and dense network like ARPANET, NSFNET, RANDOM-12, and TORUS-9 topology. The results of the same were compared with conventional Dijkstra’s shortest path (SP) algorithm, which is widely used as a routing technique and DE exhibits better result.

This essay examines how the US government intelligence community (IC) as well as the public and commercial sectors contributed demand-pull, in different ways, for an unregulated, privatized Internet. Demand-pull entails more demand than supply, or a shortage in supply (such as a shortage in networks and thus a demand-pull for them). It is argued that an excessive supply of Cold War era IC spy data, which required high-speed data processing, incentivized ARPANET expansion. In the public sector, people wanted expanded networks for personal computing and in the commercial sector there was demand-pull for unregulated networks that bootlegged and gifted PROMIS derived software could be harnessed to. The IC demand pulled for their own cloned and separate networks, while the public demand pulled for their own networks and commercial interests demand pulled for unregulated, privatized and expanded networks. Together these different demand-pull scenarios incentivized a speedy and unchallenged privatization of an Internet that was neither owned nor regulated by any one government or company.

Today, the internet has become a very fragmented research object that can be understood differently depending on contexts, research goals and methods. However, the internet [in this text, we write “internet” with a lower case “i”, following the process of decapitalisation of this term. The logic behind this process is that we understand internet as “computer network connecting a number of smaller networks” rather than as “the global network that evolved out of ARPANET, the early Pentagon network” (Herring S. Should you be capitalizing the word “internet”? Wired, 2015)] of a particular country is often treated by researchers as an umbrella term combining heterogeneous phenomena and practices. In this chapter we propose an alternative way of analysing the internet in Russia’s regions. Contrary to the concept of RuNet as common space, we explore diversity of what the internet is in different localities in Russia. The cases of five cities aim to illustrate the variety of histories and usage patterns of the internet in particular locations, such as in cities in Russia’s regions. Qualitative data consisting of interviews, observations, digital ethnography and archival documents have paved an additional (to more conventional quantitative data) way to explore the internet as a complex phenomenon rooted in previous development, local cultural and societal norms and political and economic situations. In particular, we stress the significance of the early internet, the diversity of basic and alternative platforms, the access and infrastructure divide as objects that are important to understand the development of the internet in a particular location.

The present research seeks to expound the effective of Internet marketing in increasing the read and awareness of consumers. Impatient the research conducted a good review about the privies literature related to the study. It leads a brief idea of the study before articulating the statement of the problem. From the statement of the problem deducting the researcher found that the social media , mobile apps and internet marketing have Promina impact with the effectiveness and in cornering the awareness of the consumer .hence the research subdivided the research problem into four different objective such translates the formation of the study states that these is no significant relationship between level of effectiveness and level of utilization of internet marketing on consumer in kingdom of Bahrain . Further the research employs multiple methodologies to a new conclusion on the particular issue, the study used convening sampling method combined with the spss software for data analyse. The study aims to assess the Effectiveness of Internet in Business to increase reach and awareness among consumers in Bahrain. Data and correspondence innovation has changed quickly in the previous 20 years with a key advancement being the development of online networking. Business, which does not utilize internet-based life, tends to lose on key client base. The rise of social media means it’s unusual to find an organization that does not reach its customers and prospects through one social media platform or another. Companies see the importance of using social media to connect with customers and build revenue. Businesses have realized they can use social media to generate insights, stimulate demand, and create targeted product offerings. This is important in traditional brick-and-motor businesses, and, obviously, in the world of e-commerce. In this research, to adequately address the research questions a variety of data collection methods and instruments were used such as questionnaire survey and t-test. From the study, the researcher concluded that there is no significant relationship between the Level of utilization & Effectiveness of Internet marketing among consumers in Bahrain. Therefore, the researchers accept the null hypothesis. The problems faced by the respondents on the Level of utilization & Effectiveness of Internet marketing among consumers in Bahrain is privacy, censorship and online security. The Internet, social media, online advertising, mobile apps etc. as a whole, can be seen as technology that has greatly enhanced our lives but should be done responsibly.

Developed around 1973 by BBN under contract from DARPA, the private line interface (PLI), a cryptographic cybersecurity device used on the Arpanet, operated with minimal modification of the existing network infrastructure, sitting at the "edge" of the network between the network switches and the connected host computers. As a result of the developmental and infrastructural trajectory set in motion by the PLI, significant cryptographic resources remain at the edges (or ends) of the networks that constitute the Internet today. This study of the PLI is an entry into the historical relationship between cryptography and packet-switched computer networks.

Raymond (Ray) Tomlinson was a computer engineer best known for developing the TENEX operating system and implemented the first email program on the Arpanet system in 1971. In its official biography, the Internet Hall of Fame states that "Tomlinson's email program brought about a complete revolution, fundamentally changing the way people communicate." This interview is the second in a two-part Annals series based on an oral history conducted by Marc Weber and Gardner Hendrie for the Computer History Museum (CHM) in June 2009.

Raymond (Ray) Tomlinson was a computer engineer best known for developing the TENEX operating system and implemented the first email program on the Arpanet system in 1971. In its official biography, the Internet Hall of Fame states that "Tomlinson's email program brought about a complete revolution, fundamentally changing the way people communicate." This interview is the first in a two-part Annals series based on an oral history conducted by Marc Weber and Gardner Hendrie for the Computer History Museum (CHM) in June 2009.

In the world of communication technology, two of the events that hold special significance are the invention of ARPANET, a computer network allowing computers to exchange data even when being geographically separate, and the rise of the Internet of Things (IoT). The latter, however, was an evolving process instead of a single event. The earliest implementations of the IoT concept occurred when a couple of Carnegie Mellon University students found a way to monitor the number of cans remaining in a vending machine by allowing devices to communicate with the external world. They did this by adding a photosensor to the device that would count every time a can left the vending machine, and thus, the number of remaining cans was calculated. These days IoT devices are capable of monitoring your heart rate, and even controlling it if required in the case of an adverse event. Moreover, some IoT devices can now serve as a source of evidence during trials in court, as seen in late 2015, when the FitBit data of a woman was used in a murder trial. Other incidents include usage of pacemaker data and Amazon Echo recordings in various court trials. The journey of IoT devices from a university dorm room to being present inside human beings is fascinating, to say the least.

The Internet is a split civilian and military entity in physical and social construction. Investigating this split entity in all its manifestations is an important venture, but this study explores the split social construction of the ARPANET’s reported history. ARPANET/Internet literature shows a division between literature that does and does not include the history of the intelligence communities (IC) working relationship with the pre-privatized ARPANET. Two different genres of literature are discussed, charted in a Table and compared to aspects of the ARPANET’s known and reported developmental and privatization history. Different origin stories are discussed in a general way; then a pattern in the literature is explored, namely, how illegally and libelous spy data gathered in 1960s intelligence community (IC) operations and processed through the pre-privatized ARPANET, is acknowledged in indirect or secondhand ways, when ARPA demonstrated feasibility of the ARPANET ; while after pyritization the literature acknowledges IC spying through the commercialized Internet in firsthand and direct ways. The study examines how earlier and contemporary literature continues contesting the role that 1960s IC spy data played in demonstrating the feasibility of the ARPANET; a prerequisite test for the privatization of the ARPANET. Findings indicate ARPANET histories have excluded direct reporting about how ARPA and the IC demonstrated ARPANET’s feasibility prior to privatization. The conclusion is that understanding history about how ARPA and the IC demonstrated ARPANET’s feasibility, makes it easier to comprehend reports about how the Internet serves counterinsurgency purposes. The study confirms ongoing debates about the social construction of Internet history.

Popular and scholarly histories of computer networking often focus on technical innovation and the social impact of those innovations. These histories are marked by a contradiction, namely, failing to explain the existence of the infrastructure that they must ultimately use as evidence for the success of innovation, and the conduit of its social impact. The story of the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Agency's (DARPA's) Arpanet, and the role of both in the invention of the modern Internet, is a central archetype of this genre. Taking our lead from recent work in infrastructure and maintenance studies, we propose a methodological and ontological inversion of Internet historiography-centering our explanation around the infrastructure that is assumed but not explained in innovation-centric accounts. We do so by focusing on the U.S. Defense Communications Agency (DCA; now the Defense Information Systems Agency), which is traditionally cast, contra DARPA, as a conservative enemy of innovation. We explore its maintenance of the financial and administrative infrastructure necessary for the Arpanet to function as a contribution to broader histories of network infrastructure.

When Douglas Engelbart presented “the Mother of All Demos” in 1968, neither the Internet nor its predecessor ARPANET yet existed. How would he make it possible to show what his colleagues were doing on their computers at Menlo Park while presenting inside an auditorium in San Francisco? It sounded like science fiction. Nothing stopped Engelbart from using the best available technologies to show his team’s research work, though. He used dedicated microwave links to share the videos of what his colleagues were doing a few kilometers away and thus demonstrated his remote collaboration tools. This successful event occurred in 1968, long before we heard of videoconferencing.

This talk will consider some of the activities involved in setting up the International Internet and its precursors. It will consider later efforts in promoting the technology in regions that it had not reached earlier. There will be consideration not only the technical development, but also the political climate which either encouraged or prevented its take-up. Moreover, the importance of personal networks at many stages of the story will be highlighted. I will consider why the first Arpanet service node was sited at UCL, how it grew to provide an international heterogeneous interconnection service until the late '80s, and how this differed from other European developments. This will include the governance put in place, the role of the Open Systems Interconnection rise and fall in Europe, and the growth of multi- agency support on both sides of the Atlantic. In parallel with the development of a UK-US service, an International Collaboration Board (ICB) was formed that fostered unclassified collaborations between certain European and American NATO defence departments. While the ICB was not very significant technically, how its success initiated broader US-European Internet extension will be described. Our emphasis on application services to the '90s will be outlined - message, directory, security and multimedia conferencing. Finally we will treat briefly the start of international networking in India around 1990, and the bringing the academics of Central Asia and the Caucasus into the Internet community.

Internet Protocol (IP) is the narrow waist of multilayeredInternet protocol stack which defines the rules for data sent across networks. IPv4 is the fourth version of IP and firstcommercially available for deployment set by ARPANET in 1983which is a 32 bit long address and can support up to 2^32 devices.In April 2017, all Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) confirmedthat IPv4 addresses are exhausted and cannot be allocatedanymore implying any new organization requesting a block ofInternet addresses will be allocated IPv6. This creates troubles of interoperability, migration and deployment, and thereforeorganizations hesitated to use IPv6 borrowing IPv4 addressesfrom other big organizations instead. Currently, when IPv4 isnot available, and IPv6 is not adopted for around 20 years,the question arises whether IPv6 will still be accepted by thecomputer society or will it have an end of life soon with alternatebetter protocol such as ID based networks taking its place. Thispaper claims that IPv6 has lost its deployment window and can besafely skipped when new ID based protocols are available which not only have simple interoperability, deployment and migrationguidelines but also provide advanced features as compared toIPv6. The paper provides answers to these questions with acomprehensive comparison of IPv6 with its available alternativesand reasons of IPv6 failures in its adoption. Finally, the paperdeclares IPv6 as a dead protocol and suggests to use neweravailable protocols in future.

The success of the current Internet architecture over the past decades has been attributed to its simple layered host-centric communication model. Unfortunately, this same design is now posing a significant challenge to newly developed applications such as media streaming, social networking and location-based services that are content- rather than host-centric. Information Centric Networks (ICNs) were introduced to address this challenge by allowing applications to retrieve contents using their names while being agnostic to their physical location. The key enabler to achieving this task is the development of efficient, robust and scalable name-based routing mechanisms. This paper discusses the main requirements of these mechanisms, analyzes existing key name-based routing approaches and highlights future research directions in that area.

We went from 56kbps wired ARPANET connections limited to the US military in the 1960s, to unimaginably fast wireless 100 Mbps connections in the 2010s. But what the future holds will certainly blow your mind 1Gbps or more and that is still an understatement LIGHT FIDELITY it is or popularly known as Li-Fi. The two-major prospect being aimed is extension or enhancement of the wireless services and to support the number of the exponentially growing user which the RF spectrum is unable to provide due to a limited spectrum of radio waves. So, Li-fi that is based on the visible light spectrum is being designed. It uses a LED and a photodiode or phototransistor to transmit and receive data respectively. Li-fi can be compared with the existing wireless technology i.e. Wi-Fi in terms of speed and security which the former provides better. The aspiration of this research paper is cunning a prototype of Li-fi transmitter and receiver to transmit data. The schematic design was made using Proteus 8 professional. Software coding was done on C language and PIC microcontroller is used. Successful transfer of image and text were achieved. As a deduction, this work gives an originative way of scheming a Li-Fi Prototype.

Since the first computer virus hit the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) in the early 1970s, the security community interest revolved around ways to expose the identities of malware writers. Knowledge of the adversarial identities promised additional leverage to security experts in their ongoing battle against those perpetrators. At the dawn of computing era, when malware writers and malicious software were characterized by the lack of experience and relative simplicity, the task of uncovering the identities of virus writers was more or less straightforward. Manual analysis of source code often revealed personal, identifiable information embedded by authors themselves. But these times have long gone. Modern day's malware writers extensively use numerous malware code generators to mass produce new variants and employ advanced obfuscation techniques to hide their identities. As a result the work of security experts trying to uncover the identities of malware writers became significantly more challenging and time consuming. To gain insight into the identity of an adversary, we turn our attention to authorship attribution research, which offers a broad spectrum of techniques for identifying an author of a document, based on the analysis of an author's writing style. Equipped with these methods, we explore attribution of Android binaries and the role of features related to the development process on the determination of Android binary authorship. Within this context, we propose an incremental approach to perform authorship attribution of Android apps. First to a set of known authors and then the generation of new profiles for unknown apps. We assess the effectiveness of our approach on several sets of malicious and legitimate Android binaries produced by actual developers, as opposed to using artificially created authors' data. We achieve 97.5% accuracy on these authors» data. We further evaluate our approach on more than 131,000 apps collected from various sources including 10 different markets around the globe.

The earliest and most widespread representation of the Arpanet were network graphs or maps that, arguably, remain its most prominent artifact. In an earlier article, the authors analyzed how the maps were created, what they represented, and how histories of the network parallel their emphases and omissions. Here, the authors begin a retooling of the maps to highlight further what is missing from them: communication flows, gateways to other networks, and hierarchies between its nodes.

In a 2011 Anecdote department article in the Annals, Alex McKenzie provided an excellent account of the events between 1974 and 1976 leading up to INWG 96, a proposed internetwork transport protocol. McKenzie's anecdote focused on the events in INWG (International Network Working Group), which this article shows were a small part of a much larger debate that was going on outside. The author places the INWG discussions in this wider context to better understand the technical points and implications, their ultimate impact, and the paradigm shift that threatened established business models.

The Web is an application running on top of the Internet. In this chapter, we briefly overview the history of the Internet, from the ARPANET project all the way to current issues of Net neutrality.

Chapter 13 describes the Internet revolution starting from ARPANET, which was a packet-switched network, to TCP/IP, which is a set of network standards for interconnecting networks and computers. These developments led to the birth of the Internet, and Tim Berners-Lee’s work at CERN led to the birth of the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee built on several existing inventions such as the Internet, hypertext and the mouse to form the World Wide Web. Applications of the World Wide Web are discussed, as well as successful and unsuccessful new economy companies. The dot-com bubble and subsequent burst of the late 1990s/early 2000 is discussed, and we briefly discuss the Internet of Things and the Internet of Money.

This article explores a 20-year series of ARPANET maps produced by the firm Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN). These BBN maps signify the earliest efforts to represent an early and central piece of the modern Internet, and they wind up as illustrations in contemporary discussions of ARPANET history and the early Internet. Once a functional tool for engineers, they now serve as an aesthetic backdrop used without explicit recognition of their intended purpose. The authors propose an excavation of their production, design conventions, and symbolic functions. They find that the maps represent a specific technological focus--the subnet--that worked well with the maps' network graph form and also aligned with the map creators' purposes during the network's early years. As a result, the continuities and systematic nature in the maps' form, one so central to the subnet, encourage us to read them from a certain technological perspective based in particular on the network's early, a view that may affect how retrospective histories depict the ARPANET's entire lifetime.

Managing Democracy in the Digital Age: Internet regulation, Social Media Use, and Online Civic Engagement represents an important contribution to our understanding of how digital communication intersects with politics in democratic nation states. The chapters in this book perfectly illustrate how far this amalgamation has come since 1960, when J. C. R. Licklider outlined the idea of ‘cooperative interaction between men [sic] and electronic computers’ in his seminal paper entitled ‘Man–Computer Symbiosis’. Later articulated as a vision of an ‘Intergalactic Computer Network’, his ideas informed the development of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), precursor to today’s Internet. But far from restricting his thinking to scientific research or military communications, Licklider envisaged interconnected computers as having a central role in all parts of society. In his book treatise Libraries of the Future, Licklider professed that ‘telecomputation can be charged in large part to the handling of everyday business, industrial, government, and professional information, and perhaps also to news, entertainment, and education’ (1965, pp. 33–34).

In the late 1970s David L. Mills began working on the problem of synchronizing time on networked computers, and NTP (Network Time Protocol) version 1 made its debut in 1980. This was at a time when the net was a much friendlier place - the ARPANET days. NTP version 2 appeared approximately a year later, about the same time as CSNET (Computer Science Network). NSFNET (National Science Foundation Network) launched in 1986. NTP version 3 showed up in 1993.

People from Bolt Beranek and Newman and others have extensively documented the Arpanet technology, including the Arpanet Interface Message Processor (IMP). This paper sketches the history (not the previously described technology) of the IMP program as originally written in 1969 for the modified Honeywell 516 computer. A sequence of other systems, evolving from the original software system and running on a variety of hardware platforms, are also enumerated. In 2013 a faded 1973 line printer listing of the IMP program was run through a special OCR program optimized to process such historical artifacts; an assembler was recreated to assemble the IMP code (looking like the modified PDP-1 Midas assembler used in 1973); and a software emulator of the original IMP hardware platform was created. This article also describes the methods used to recover a digital copy and assemble and run again the 1973 IMP code.

EDITOR'S SUMMARY On receiving the 2013 ASIS&T Research Award, Susan Herring reflected on her early interest in computer-mediated communication (CMC) in 1991, when the field was novel, limited and barely recognized. The intersection of linguistics and digital technology were intriguing and offered potential for rich discovery. Data sources have grown from the foundational ARPAnet to the World Wide Web and expanded from the exchange of basic textual messages to incorporate all modes of digitally mediated communication across unlimited platforms. The result is a vast amount of computer-mediated data, but there is still the pressing need for structured methods and theoretical frameworks for effective analysis. Herring applies discourse analysis and other linguistic approaches to CMC analysis, increasingly in combination with a big data perspective to identify communication patterns in large datasets. She is eager to see further research on new analytical methods, cultural influences and the integration of telepresence robots in CMC.

This book is intended for professionals interested in research and those who develop and build the Internet of Things (IoT) end systems. This book equally serves as a reference of context for any reader crossing among the components of IoT whether in software, hardware, networks, or security. Covers some of the following topics: physical principles and information; historical perspective of IoT; applications and architectures of machine-to-machine communications (M2M); device communication; IoT solutions; hardware support; software development, and network security. With the imminence of a greater and more connected world, we are approaching another wave of revolution in connectedness. Just as the use of the Internet came as a surprise, IoT will no doubt be the same in how it affects and presents novel ways in how we interact with each other, our machines, and our world. This book could be viewed as presenting the reader with the technical “bones” of IoT so that he/she may lay flesh on them by discerning how and why the pieces ought to fit together.

In this paper we describe the generation and utilization of metadata as part of normal network function on the early Arpanet. By using the Arpanet Host-Host Protocol and its sockets as an entry point for studying the generation of metadata, we show that the development and function of key Arpanet infrastructure cannot be studied without examining the creation and stabilization of metadata standards. More specifically, we use the Host-Host Protocol’s sockets as an example of something that, at the level of the network, functions as both network infrastructure and metadata. By presenting the function of sockets in tandem with an overview of the Host-Host Protocol and a key application built atop it, Telnet, we illustrate the necessity of studying infrastructure and metadata in tandem. Finally, we draw on Esveld (1990) to reintroduce the concept of infradata to refer specifically to data that locates data throughout an infrastructure and is required by the infrastructure to function, separating it from established and stabilized standards. We argue for the future application of infradata as a concept for the study of histories and political economies of networks.

During the 1970s, French engineer Louis Pouzin led a small team of researchers who designed an experimental packet-switching computer network they named “Cyclades.” Despite the technical successes of Cyclades—especially Pouzin’s “datagram” concept that was adopted by the American networking researchers Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn—the French authorities starved Cyclades by 1979 and split up Pouzin and his team. This article describes the opportunities that the Cyclades group pursued and the obstacles it encountered in its efforts to cooperate with peers in the United States, France, and Europe. Rather than squeezing Pouzin and Cyclades into a teleological narrative that seeks only to explain the rise of the Internet, the article suggests that its broader rubric of “networking history” allows historians to recover the political and human complexities of digital convergence—such as the bold words and disruptive work of Louis Pouzin.

From the days of ARPANET, with slightly over two hundred connected hosts involving five organizations to a massive global, always-on network connecting hosts in the billions, the Internet has become as important as the need for electricity and water. Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) could not sustain the growth of the Internet. In ensuring the growth is not stunted, a new protocol, i.e. Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) was introduced that resolves the addressing issue IPv4 had. In addition, IPv6 was also laden with new features and capabilities. One of them being address auto-configuration. This feature allows hosts to self-configure without the need for additional services. Nevertheless, the design of IPv6 has led to several security shortcomings. Duplicate Address Detection (DAD) process required for auto-configuration is prone to Denial of Service (DoS) attack in which hosts are unable to configure themselves to join the network. Various mechanisms, SeND, SSAS, and the most recent being Trust-ND, have been introduced to address this issue. Although these mechanisms were able to circumvent DoS attack on DAD process, they have introduced various side effects, i.e. complexities and degradation of performance. This paper reviews the shortcomings of these mechanism and proposes a new mechanism, Secure-DAD, that addresses them. The performance comparison between Trust-ND and Secure-ND also showed that Secure-DAD is more promising with improvement in terms of processing time reduction of 45.1% compared to Trust-ND while preventing DoS attack in IPv6 DAD process.