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Nowadays, the research in the fields of conservation and restoration is focusing on recording large amounts of data and information in order to obtain highly accurate surveys that include most details of constructions. Documenting and surveying are fundamental activities in achieving the successful preservation of cultural heritage, but also in implementing efficient strengthening interventions of structures. The applications of methods and techniques that link the disciplines of geometrical surveys and structural analyses are still fragmented, and further research is necessary to fully transfer site information into structural models. In this article, the authors propose a methodology with which to link different restoration fields, with the aim of highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of the interoperability between surveys (carried out through detailed restitution from point clouds), heritage building information modeling (HBIM), and structural analyses to connect three different disciplines. The goal is to find a synthesis model that brings together historical and geometric characteristics, but also physical–mechanical properties, for a structural evaluation through a finite element model (FEM). The case study of the Escuela José Mariano Méndez is analyzed, an extremely damaged historical adobe building in Santa Ana, the second largest city of El Salvador; it is considered fundamental to the national economy, particularly after the “coffee boom” in the late 1800s. The site, located near the historic center, is also known as “Antigua Escuela de Artes y Oficios” and embodies the architectural traditions of the region, being built in adobe and stone. Roma Tre University and the Secretaría de Cultura de la Presidencia (SECULTURA) are partners in this research project to document and restore the historical and cultural value of this site.

Four different consolidants for adobe buildings conservation were synthetized and evaluated. Adobe bricks materials tested from several Mining Haciendas of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries located in Guanajuato, Mexico; these materials were characterized using XRD analysis, granulometry, porosity, moisture content, and mechanical resistance. The four consolidants synthetized are formulations based on TEOS (F1); TEOS with silica nanoparticles (F2); TEOS with PDMS-OH (F3) and hybrid consolidant formed by TEOS, PDMS, and nanoparticle silica (F4). The consolidants were tested and evaluated by porosity changes, absorption, and durability. The results show that colloidal silica improves the fulfill porosity by TEOS gels and the PDMS improves the flexibility on TEOS gel avoiding the crack. Thus, the addition of both components to TEOS gel results as an excellent consolidant treatment to adobe materials.

The ASHRAE-55 adaptive model is considered one of the best-known thermal comfort assessment methods in naturally ventilated buildings. This type of building reflects the climatic architecture and is not based on energy consumption as in modern conceptions, especially in hot and dry regions. To study the thermal comfort in old buildings naturally ventilated, built in adobe with a compacted urban tissue known as the Ksar, we carried out a field study to evaluate the thermal comfort and climatic adaptation on the population of a hot and arid region in southern Algeria. This study was based on the adaptive model of ASHRAE-55. The results showed that the old building constructed in adobe is characterized by a bioclimatic architecture built with local materials, allowing high thermal insulation from the severe outdoor environment. As a result, the building offers thermal and humidity comfort to the inhabitants during a period of extreme heat, compared to modern concrete buildings. We registered a neutral temperature of 31.52 °C with a neutral humidity of around 20%. We also proved significant climate adaptation according to the residence time in traditional dwellings built in adobe, representing the best urban planning solution in the desert environment.

This paper aims to develop thermal model of a vault roof building integrated with earth to air heat exchanger (EAHE). The building under consideration is made of brick vault and adobe (or mud) structures. The methodology adopted for developing thermal model of this building with six interconnected rooms is presented in this paper. The energy balance equations were solved simultaneously using fourth order Runge–Kutta numerical technique. The results from the thermal model were validated using experimental observed data. Experimental results showed that the room air temperature during winter was found 5–15 °C higher as compared to ambient air temperature while lower during summer months. The results show that annual energy saving potential of the building before and after integration of EAHE were 4946 kWh/year and 10321 kWh/year respectively. The seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) for EAHE was determined as 2–3. This considerable increase in annual energy savings potential of building due to EAHE leads to mitigation of CO2 emissions about 16 tons/year and the corresponding annual carbon credit of building was estimated as € 340/year. The life cycle cost (LCC) analysis shows that the payback period is less than 2 years for the investment on EAHE system.

Tez (Yüksek Lisans) -- İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 2002, Thesis (M.Sc.) -- İstanbul Technical University, Institute of Science and Technology, 2002, Yapı malzemeleri için durabilite, malzemenin özelliklerini zamana ve tüm etkenlere karşı koruyabilirlik ve sürdürülebilirlik derecesidir. Malzemenin performansını istenen süreç boyunca sağlayabilmesi, uygun şartlar altında kullanılmasıyla mümkündür. Malzeme kullanımında en doğru kararların verilebilmesi için, malzeme özellikleri bilinmeli ve performansına etki eden ve hasar oluşturan faktörler incelenmelidir. Bu nedenle durabilite ve hasar kavramları tez kapsamında birlikte ele alınmaktadır. Bu tez çalışması kapsamında, yapı malzemeleri için durabilite ve hasar kavramları araştırılmış, elde edilen bilgiler ışığında alçı katkılı kerpiç bir yapıda hasar analizi yapılmıştır. Çalışma dört ana bölümden meydana gelmektedir. Giriş bölümünde, durabilite kavramının yapı malzemeleri için günümüzde kazandığı önem anlatılmak istenmiştir. Tezin ikinci bölümünde, malzemelerin durabilitelerini belirleyen özellikleri araştırılmıştır. Malzemelerin atomik yapıları incelenmiş, fiziksel, kimyasal, biyolojik ve teknolojik özelliklerine değinilmiştir. Tezin üçüncü bölümünde, hasar kavramı incelenmiş olup yapı malzemelerinde hasar oluşturan etkenler araştırılmıştır. Ayrıca bu bölümde malzemelerin yapı elemanları içinde kullanılış şekillerine göre oluşan hasar türleri de incelenmiştir. Tezin dördüncü bölümünde ise önceki bölümlerden elde edilen bilgiler ışığında, alker (alçı katkılı kerpiç) malzemenin özellikleri incelenmiş, alker bir binada hasar analizi yapılmıştır., For the building materials, durability defines resisting and sustaining properties of building materials against to the time and to all factors. Material can maintain own properties, if it is used only in suitable conditions. In order to obtain best of materials available, it is important to understand either properties of materials or factors which influence their performance and durability. Therefore durability and failure concepts should be examined together. In this study, durability and failure concepts are described for the building materials. Afterwards a building, formed with gypsum stabilized adobe is examined as a sample and failure analysis was made on the example building. The study consists of four main sections. In the introductory section, importance of durability for building materials is described. In the second section, atomic structures of materials is examined. For understanding durability, properties of materials (Physical, Chemical, Biological and Technological) are described. In the third section reasons, which causes failure on building materials is examined. Behaivours of materials in building components and failures are described. In the fourth section, properties of gypsum stabilized adobe examined. A building, formed with gypsum stabilized adobe is examined as a sample and failure analysis was made on the example building. For this examination, old knowledge, learned at the previous sections were used., Yüksek Lisans, M.Sc.

Adobe buildings usually are characterized by having walls with small and uniform slenderness ratios; nevertheless, there are some historical adobe buildings with existing large walls, where the influence of the aspect ratio becomes quite important in the seismic behavior. This article analyzes the seismic behavior of adobe buildings with larger walls in one axis than the other orthogonal axis. Also, the influence of the aspect ratio of the wall height respects on the wall length is analyzed by varying the wall length. Finite element models were elaborated using the concrete damaged plasticity model to study the influence of the aspect ratio on the seismic behavior of adobe buildings. Four models of buildings having different aspect ratios, varying in length from eight meters to fifty-two meters have been considered. Nonlinear time history analyses with three Peruvian seismic records are conducted. Regarding material, information was collected on the parameters necessary for finite element modeling for adobe masonry. From the non-linear simulations, the cracking patterns of the four buildings were identified. The influence of the aspect ratio in the seismic capacity of these kind of adobe buildings is analyzed. Finally, the results obtained in the numerical models are compared with the evidence of damage caused by past earthquakes. RESUMEN Los edificios de adobe por lo general se caracterizan por tener muros con relaciones de esbeltez pequeñas y uniformes; sin embargo, existen algunas edificaciones históricas de adobe con grandes muros existentes, donde la influencia de la relación de aspecto cobra bastante importancia en el comportamiento sísmico. Este artículo analiza el comportamiento sísmico de construcciones de adobe con muros más grandes en un eje que en el otro eje ortogonal. Además, la influencia de la relación de aspecto de la altura de la pared con respecto a la longitud de la pared se analiza variando la longitud de la pared. Se elaboraron modelos de elementos finitos utilizando el modelo de plasticidad dañada del concreto para estudiar la influencia de la relación de aspecto en el comportamiento sísmico de las edificaciones de adobe. Se han considerado cuatro modelos de edificios con diferentes relaciones de aspecto, que varían en longitud desde los ocho metros hasta los cincuenta y dos metros. Se realizan análisis de historia del tiempo no lineal con tres registros sísmicos peruanos. En cuanto al material, se recopiló información sobre los parámetros necesarios para el modelado de elementos finitos para mampostería de adobe. A partir de las simulaciones no lineales, se identificaron los patrones de agrietamiento de los cuatro edificios. Se analiza la influencia de la relación de aspecto en la capacidad sísmica de este tipo de construcciones de adobe. Finalmente, los resultados obtenidos en los modelos numéricos se comparan con la evidencia de daños causados por terremotos pasados.

Adobe construction is considered to be an important feature of the international architectural heritage. To achieve the effective preservation of culturally significant adobe structures, the factors that cause their deterioration should be recorded and understood and the result of potential restoration interventions should be evaluated. This study reviews the pathology of adobe structures and the various restoration methods currently in use. Focus is given on the main agents of adobe deterioration and commonly encountered decay mechanisms. The applicability and efficiency of several repair and strengthening techniques currently used in practice or proposed by academic researchers is critically discussed and the gaps that occur in the field of earthen masonry retrofitting are highlighted. An extensive list of references, which reflects the international knowledge and experience on the topic, is also provided. ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER] Copyright of International Journal of Architectural Heritage: Conservation, Analysis & Restoration is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.) 7 2 165 188

Sustainable development is an essential approach to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs. Civil engineering is an integral part of sustainable development, as it plays a significant role in shaping the built environment. The incorporation of environmentally-friendly solutions into engineering projects is incredibly important for promoting sustainability and protecting our planet's natural resources. This approach involves a shift towards designing and constructing buildings and infrastructure that minimize waste, conserve energy, and reduce emissions. Incorporating sustainable solutions can also lead to cost savings in the long run by reducing energy consumption and minimizing water use. Furthermore, by incorporating these solutions, engineers are taking responsibility for their impact on the environment and working towards creating a better future for generations to come. 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Earthen structures made of adobe bricks are complex systems making the calculation of their behavior difficult, especially when they have to sustain lateral forces such as seismic. This paper presents a numerical investigation for the assessment of the structural response of unreinforced adobe masonry structures and how the installation of wooden ring beams contributes to their resistance. In the framework of the numerical investigation, finite element models were created to simulate the response of an adobe building with and without the implementation of wooden ring beams. The test building is located in Cyprus, in the South Eastern Mediterranean region which is a seismic area. The models were subjected to various earthquakes performing time history analyses for the calculation of pertinent displacements and stresses. The results show that the installation of the wooden ring beams vastly changes the response of the building not only in terms of the magnitude of the displacements and stresses but also their distribution pattern.

Tez (Yüksek Lisans) -- İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 2002, Thesis (M.Sc.) -- İstanbul Technical University, Institute of Science and Technology, 2002, Bu çalışmada, alçı bağlayıcılı hazır sıvayla toprak karışımının hasarlı kerpiç yapılarda onarım harcı olarak kullanılabilmesi incelenmiştir. Çalışma, altı ana bölümden oluşmaktadır. Giriş bölümünde, kerpiç yapı duvar dış yüzeylerinde kullanılabilecek onarım harcı araştırmasının amacı, kapsamı ve yöntemi anlatılmaktadır. İkinci bölümde, ülkemizde varolan kerpiç yapı mimari kültürü ve varlıkları, yapı malzemesi olarak kerpiçin özellikleri ve bu malzemenin yapılarda görülen kullanış biçimleri, kerpiç yapılar konu başlığı altında incelenmiştir. Üçüncü bölümde, kerpiç yapı dış kabuklarında meydana gelen hasarların nedenleri, bu hasarların oluşma biçimleri ve mekanizmaları, yapıyı oluşan bu hasarlardan koruma amacıyla yapılabilecek çalışmalar ve aşınmadan dolayı oluşan hasarlar için kullanılabilecek onarım şekilleri incelenmiştir. Dördüncü bölümde, kerpiç yapı dış kabuğunda kullanılmak üzere toprak ve alçı bazlı malzemelerden oluşan bir onarım harcı araştırması yapılmıştır. Bu amaçla, harcı oluşturan ham malzemelerin, bu malzemelerin farklı oranlarda karıştırılmasıyla oluşturulan taze harçların ve bunların kalıplanıp kurutulmasıyla elde edilen prizma numunelerin mekanik ve fiziksel özellikleri laboratuar ortamında incelenmiştir. Sonuç kısmında ise onarım harcında kullanılacak en uygun karışım oranı tespit edilmiştir.Beşinci bölümde, önerilen karışım oranına sahip harcın, İ.T.Ü. Maslak Kampüsü’ nde bulunan alçı katkılı kerpiç yapının dış kabuğunda meydana gelen aşınma hasarlarının onarımı için yerinde uygulanması yapılmıştır.Son bölümde, araştırma ve uygulama aşamalarındaki sonuçlar derlenmiş ve öneriler açıklanmıştır., In this study, an experimental mortar research by mixing gypsum based material with soil in order to use this mortar on a dameged adobe building exterior surface to repair. This study is based on six main parts. The aim, scope and method of the study is mentioned in the first section. In the second section, adobe architecture, the properties of adobe as a construction material and the types of adobe construction techniques has mentioned under the title of adobe structures. The third section is mainly based on, the reasons and the outcomes of damages, the protection tips and repairs in adobe building exterior wall surfaces. In the laboratory, experimental mortar research has made by mixing gypsum based ready plaster with soil in order to repair damaged adobe building exterior walls. The raw materials than fresh mortars that are composed of different ratios of raw materials and finally prismatic samples, which are the products of moulded fresh mortars, are examined in terms of mechanical and physical properties. In the conclusion of fourth section, the adequate mix ratio of the mortar is determined in order to use in the field. In the fifth section, the mortar which has the mix ratio, suggested in the previous section, is applied in order to repair erosion damages of gypsum stabilized adobe building in the Campus of İ.T.Ü. in Maslak. In the last section, conclusions and suggestions are gathered. The mortar, which is carried out, is determined adequate for the repairs of adobe building walls., Yüksek Lisans, M.Sc.

This paper aims at presenting a methodology that integrates reverse engineering tools with a combination of advanced and simplified analytical methods to perform predictive analysis of the structural behavior of historical adobe buildings under seismic loads. This methodology proposes the joint use of terrestrial laser scanner and photogrammetry to obtain accurate geometrical models. The methodology also proposes the in-situ measurement of structural system properties through experimental modal tests. All the collected information is used to create representative Finite Element models which are then considered for performing predictive non-linear analyses and identifying the most probable collapse mechanisms. Limit analysis method is finally used to complement the analysis and to assess the structural performance of the adobe building under study considering different seismic scenarios. The methodology proposed in this paper is validated in the church of San Juan Bautista de Huaro, located in Cusco, Peru. This church was built in the 16th century and is known for its impressive mural paintings covering the entire indoor surface of the church. The results of the seismic assessment methodology proposed in this paper allowed to estimate the global behavior and possible damage patterns in the church during seismic events, showing that the most probable failure mechanisms would be the global rocking of the facade and the partial collapse of tympanum of the facade. The application of this methodology also allowed defining the performance levels of this church when facing different seismic scenarios. The results showed that the church should stay in a safe state until occasional earthquakes with a return period of 72 years. However, the results also indicate that rare earthquakes (return period of 475 years) will produce an unsafe structural condition with partial collapses of structural elements.

Adobe buildings have been in used over a long period of time in many parts of the world, more especially in the African continent. It has been used to satisfy the shelter need for human comfort, animals comfort and preservation of food crops that are very important for human lives. To prevent the heat from the sun radiation to have a severer effect on the items, Adobe building was used for its ability to control temperature and humidity fluctuations within the building. In this work, two rooms were constructed one with adobe and the other with an additives material to the adobe. A study on the thermal performance of the two rooms was carried out to compare the inside rooms temperature and relative humidity. It was found that the average differences in the inside temperature and relative humidity were -2 degrees and +1 percent respectively, which shows that averagely the temperature of the improved room is lower than that of the control room while the converse is the case for the relative humidity.

For existing structures, the development of seismic vulnerability studies requires the availability of information related to geometry, boundary conditions, material properties, and accumulated damage. In the case of historical constructions, modern conservation criteria recommend carrying out a comprehensive structural assessment that involves the use of concurrent experimental diagnosis complemented with numerical and analytical approaches for structural analysis. This paper presents a proposal for a comprehensive integration of these perspectives by the application of several tools for the seismic performance analysis of an iconic Andean historical adobe building: the 'San Pedro Apostol Church' located in Andahuaylillas, Southern Peru. In this church, several non-destructive techniques for geometrical and damage assessment were combined with structural exploration tools, nonlinear numerical modeling, and simplified analytical tools for performing predictive seismic analysis. The results indicate the feasibility of the integration of these techniques for studying existing earthen buildings and their capacity to properly predict observed damage in past earthquakes (i.e. failures of bell towers, facade walls, tympani, and triumphal arches). In particular, the analyses allowed the identification of high seismic vulnerability of the studied church in occasional earthquakes (earthquakes with a return period of 72 years) due to the activation of collapse mechanisms consisting of rocking of the facade walls and out-of-plane overturning of the lateral walls.

Summary This paper presents the results of an experimental work in order to evaluate the performance of a novel proposed retrofitting technique on a typical dome-roof adobe building by shaking table tests. For this purpose, two specimens, scaled 2:3, were subjected to a total of nine shaking table tests. The unretrofitted specimen, constructed by common practice, is designed to evaluate seismic performance and vulnerability of dome-roof adobe houses. The retrofitted specimen, exactly duplicating the first specimen, is retrofitted based on the results obtained from unretrofitted specimen tests, and the improvement in seismic behavior of the structure is investigated. Zarand earthquake (2005) Chatrood Station is selected as the input ground motion that was applied consecutively at 25, 100, 125, 150 and 175% of the design-level excitation. At 125% excitation level, the roof of the unretofitted specimen collapsed due to the walls' out-of-plane action and imbalanced forces. The retrofitting elements consist of eight horizontal steel rods drilled into the walls, passed through the specimen and bolted on the opposite wall surfaces. To improve walls in-plane seismic performance, welded steel mesh without using mortar, covered less than half area of walls on the external face of the walls, is used. In addition to strain gauges for recording steel rod responses, several instrumentations including acceleration and displacement transducers are implemented to capture response time histories of different parts of the specimens. The corresponding full-scaled retrofitted prototype tolerated peak acceleration of 0.62 g almost without any serious damage. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The urgency of global climate change has drawn significant attention to the building industry over the last few years. Today, the building sector is responsible for the emission of about 23–40% of the world greenhouse gases. This is plausible owing to the various non environmental friendly materials used by modern building industry and the palpable contemporary design construct. Unlike modern buildings, traditional building materials are proven to be earth conscious and have nearly zero carbon footprints. Yet, the modernist building sector with its insatiable drive for autonomy has relegated lessons from traditional building to being primitive. Moreover, the absence of objects of industrialisation has been defined as forming conformity with poverty. Hence, this research seeks to scientifically examine Adobe as one of the traditional building materials. In that vein, the environmental impact of the use of adobe will be studied. The study also purports to adequately examine the advantages and disadvantages of the use of adobe in modern construction. Methodologically, owing to the aims of this research, a qualitative computer based simulation approach is adopted. A typical traditional Adobe building in Louroujina—North Cyprus, will be simulated through a parametric computer based simulation done using Revit Architecture, with a green studio plug-in. Software acknowledge by the United State Department of Energy (DOE 2015). This simulation procedure models the carbon emission of the building and the yearly energy consumption. Summarily, this paper posits that the successful fusion of traditional building materials such as Adobe and modern design construct will not only give birth to earth conscious building, but will also be energy efficient. Moreover, it will be a substitute building material the building industry can adopt at as a contributing solution to the omniscient global warming malady.

In the framework of this study, a 1:2 scaled replica of a traditional single-storey adobe building was constructed and tested at the laboratories of the University of Cyprus. The main objectives of the exper-imental program were to evaluate the structural performance of adobe buildings under horizontal loads (simulating seismic action) and to investigate the effectiveness of cracking repair by means of injection with a compatible grout. The model was initially subjected to a series of monotonic static lateral loading cycles that led to the development of extensive cracking damage and to significant reduction of the load-bearing capacity and overall stiffness. A compatible clay-based grout was then developed using the same soil as the one composing the model’s adobes. This material was injected into the cracked sec-tions of the masonry and the repaired model was re-tested. The clay-based grout successfully restored structural continuity, precluding the re-opening of injected cracks during subsequent loading cycles. The recorded load-deformation response revealed that the grout repair reinstated the original stiffness of the structure and recovered more than 90% of the initial lateral strength. The results indicate that clay-based grouts can be used for re-establishing the stability of adobe constructions under static loads., POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007633; POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016737; PTDC/ECM-EST/2777/2014

The city of Leon, Nicaragua is a stunning example of Spanish colonial architecture. The historic buildings of Leon were built using adobe construction, which was typical of the nineteenth and early twentieth century, and the city is working hard to preserve their historical architectural heritage. Unfortunately, the Office of Historic Preservation in the town of Leon, Nicaragua received a call that an adobe wall had collapsed. Fortunately no one was injured, but this was not an ordinary wall. The city of Leon lost a portion of an important historic structure. The historic adobe building was being carefully remodelled. The walls were to remain intact while the inside structure was removed and replaced with a new structure. The guidelines instructed them to leave 70 cm of foundation next to the adobe walls while excavating the basement. This was not sufficient and the weight of the wall caused a breach in the basement portion of the wall and the wall collapsed by sliding out like an avalanche. This ...

Earth construction is one of the oldest and most widespread construction system. Around 30% of world population lives in earth buildings. About 50% of population in developing countries, including the majority of rural areas, and at least 20% of urban and marginal urban areas, lives in earth buildings. The main general objectives of this study are the behaviour characterisation of adobe and rammed earth constructions along with the research for the development of retrofitting and seismic performance enhancement solutions, considering the relevant earthen heritage built in Portugal. In fact, until the first half of the last century, earth was commonly adopted as a construction material in Portugal. Adobe was used in almost all types of construction in littoral centre, particularly in Aveiro region. The consolidation of the knowledge on this technique and on the mechanical behaviour of adobe masonry will play a fundamental role on the preservation of the earthen built heritage. In addition, it may contribute to the development of innovative earth construction solutions for new buildings, following current concerns but also respecting structural safety demands, which will allow accommodating the increasing interest on this type of building solutions. The mechanical properties of adobe units and mortars were studied and a series of tests for the characterization of the adobe masonry behaviour were carried out, in the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Aveiro, namely: (i) bond strength and (ii) joint shear tests. Additionally, a full-scale adobe building model was subjected to monotonic and cyclic horizontal lateral loads until failure. The present paper present the main results and conclusions of the experimental campaign developed.

This paper describes the results of a numerical study of a full-scale adobe building model tested on a shaking table. Material properties of adobe masonry were calibrated to represent the wall in-plane seismic behavior, based on a prior numerical analysis of an adobe wall carried out by the authors. The inelastic part of the constitutive model was represented by a softening curve in tension and by a hardening/softening behavior in compression; thus, the fracture energy is a key issue in the modeling process. A finite element model that relies on a homogenous continuum approach was developed in Abaqus/Explicit software. The damage evolution in the numerical simulation represented fairly well the experimental crack pattern, for in-plane and out-of-plane seismic effects. Overall, the calibrated material properties and the explicit solution scheme proved to be appropriate for simulating the seismic behavior and predicting capacity of unreinforced adobe structures subjected to seismic loading.

Thoron ( 220 Rn) is the second most abundant radon isotope in our living environment. In some dwellings it is present in significant amount which calls for its identification and remediation. Indoor thoron originates mainly from building materials. In this work we have developed and tested an experimental technique to measure thoron generation rate in building material samples using RAD7 radon-thoron detector. The mathematical model of the measurement technique provides the thoron concentration response of RAD7 as a function of the sample thickness. For experimental validation of the technique an adobe building material sample was selected for measuring the thoron concentration at nineteen different sample thicknesses. Fitting the parameters of the model to the measurement results, both the generation rate and the diffusion length of thoron was estimated. We have also determined the optimal sample thickness for estimating the thoron generation rate from a single measurement.

The work described in this paper uses the Holmquist-Johnson-Cook equation of state and constitutive model for concrete and appropriate material parameters derived from mechanical test data to perform numerical simulations of penetration and perforation of adobe building material. Experimental results from the literature are modeled, and two-dimensional numerical simulations are carried out using the CTH Eulerian shock physics code. Two groups of simulations were performed in accordance with the experimental results. The first group is tungsten rod penetrators, with impact velocities ranging from 340 to 820 m/s, perforating adobe targets with thicknesses ranging from 71 to 497 mm, and comparison of the residual velocities predicted by the numerical simulations with the available experimental results. The second group is steel spheres, with impact velocities ranging from 500 to 3230 m/s, penetrating into adobe targets of semi-infinite thickness, and comparison of the depths of penetration predicted by the numerical simulations with the available experimental results. The technique described in this paper for modeling and simulation of adobe penetration and perforation is able to adequately predict the residual velocities and depths of penetration for the conditions modeled.

Bu çalışma geleneksel yapı türü olan kerpiç yapılarda, duvar elemanı olarak kullanılan kerpicin yüzeyine uygulanan kil bağlayıcılı sıvaların fiziksel ve mekanik özelliklerinin incelenmesi üzerinedir. Kerpiç yapılarda duvar yüzeylerinin dış ortam koşullarından korunabilmesi ve olumsuz etkilere karşı direnç göstermesi, koruyuculuk işlevini yerine getirmesi bakımından önemlidir. Kerpiç duvar yüzeyini örten ve yapının duvarını dış çevresel etkenlere karşı koruyan kil esaslı dış sıvalarda oluşabilecek hasarların en az düzeye indirgenebilmesi, kullanılan sıvanın özelliklerinin belirlenmesi ile mümkün olabilmektedir. Bu amaçla yapılan çalışmada Diyarbakır ili, Bismil ilçesi, Yuvacık köyündeki kerpiç bir yapıdan kil bağlayıcılı dış sıva numuneleri alınarak, malzemenin fiziksel ve mekanik özellikleri deneysel yöntemlerle incelenmiştir. Yapılan deneysel inceleme ile kil bağlayıcılı sıvaların dış çevresel etmenlere karşı koruyuculuk işlevi açısından performansı değerlendirilmiştir., This study is about the investigation of the physical and mechanical properties of the clay bound plasters applied on the surface of adobe used as wall element in one of traditional building type, adobe buildings. The protection of wall surfaces against outdoor conditions and the resistance against adverse effect in adobe buildings is important in respect to fulfill the protective function. It's possible to minimize the damage that can occur in clay-based exterior plasters covering the surface of mud-wall and protecting the building's wall against outdoor conditions, by determining properties of the plaster used. In the study made for this purpose, physical and mechanical properties of the material have been investigated by experimental methods by taking clay bound exterior plaster samples from an adobe building in Diyarbakir province, Bismil district, Yuvacik village. Performance of clay bound plasters against outdoor conditions in terms of protective function is evaluated through the experimental study.

This study analyses and calculates the heat transfer coefficient values of the 134 years old historical building in the walled city of Nicosia. The build ing is the typical example of the Tradit ional Turkish House and built by the tradi- tional adobe materials and stones. The ceiling, external walls, roof and the windows of the building were analysed to esti- mate the heat transfer coefficient values of the house and to demonstrate the influence of the climate conditions of Cyprus on the physics of the building. The estimated U values of this old building are, 0,49 W/m 2 K for the e xterior adobe walls , 0,27 W/m 2 K for the ceiling, 0, 13 W/m 2 K for the roof and 2,0 W/m 2 K for the windows. The co mparison of these values with the modern concrete build ing under the same climatic conditions demonstrate that the adobe building p rovides better inner environment for the house life and also decreases the energy costs for the thermal insulation.

A village of Yubei, the typical area of north of Henan Province was selected. A field study was conducted in the traditional adobe house and newly built brick house, indoor and outdoor temperature, relative humidity and other indoor thermal environment parameters were obtained in winter. The results indicated that the indoor thermal environment in new and old folk houses were all lower than the local residential building thermal environment standard. Test data show that open the north door and one font design is the main reason leading to the adobe building indoor thermal environment is poor, and brick house around the main room layout features of "disposition" design is the main reason to maintain its good indoor thermal environment. The results provided the basis for the improvement of indoor thermal environment and the design of new residential buildings in this area, which provided the basis for the energy saving and sustainable development of rural residential buildings.

Tegucigalpa, Honduras, December 2001. A city bus--retired from its former life as a school bus in Minnesota--crawls along with the traffic, pumping out diesel exhaust. Under the driver's side window is a bumper sticker whose message, like the other messages in this landscape, offers some insight into the contemporary thought and culture of Honduras. Its message is also, I believe, pertinent to a consideration of forest issues and perception in Honduras: "We'd better plant some trees or we're screwed." A repeat-photography study I conducted in Honduras examined landscape change in a portion of the country between 1957 and 2001 (Bass 2003; see Figure 1). The photographic pairs generated for each site, separated by a period of forty-four years, can be compared to assess change. (1) One basic finding of this project was that all of the photographic pairs, including those of town plazas, show increased numbers of trees. As public spaces, plaza landscapes offer insights into both the observed increase in trees and some of public discourse on forest issues and change. The underlying thesis of this study of landscape and environmental perception is that plazas in Honduras also serve as landscapes of environmental communication and play a role in communicating specific messages about forests and forest issues in the country. The plazas' success in disseminating forest messages is reflected in the contrast that exists between actual landscapes and how people perceive and talk about them. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] PUBLIC SENTIMENT AND THE FORESTED LANDSCAPE One day, while conducting the repeat-photography study, I was sitting on some boxes of vegetable oil and rice on the back of an oxcart parked in front of a dusty, white adobe building in the village of Yarula, high in the mountains of southwestern Honduras, where life is slow, quiet, and windy. The food was donated by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and was so labeled. The man who had built the oxcart, a member of the indigenous Lenca group, was about to take food home. Don Leonidas, who had just signed the food out to the cart owner, stood next to me. We talked about the place, about the landscape spread out below us--a mosaic of dibble-planted cornfields and forest patches of pines and broad-leaved tree species. Knowing that I was interested in the past and that I had a photograph of the place from 1957, Don Leonidas held forth on what had changed in the ensuing half-century. Conditions had improved, he said, citing the coming of the road in the 1980s, electricity in 1992, bus service in 2000--"before that we had only Toyotas"--and better health care, houses, and schools. "Life is better here now," he repeated, noting the efforts of foreign-aid groups--nongovernmental organizations (NGOS) from Ireland, Germany, and the United States, to name just a few. Pointing to a nearby house constructed of cement blocks and roofed with sheets of corrugated metal, he said, "There are no more bajareques (2) here either. Yes, in the country there are, but not here. It's better." However, he also asserted that one aspect of life had worsened. "In the 1950s there were more clouds. And more rain. The crops were better. Because there was more rain. Now, because of all the deforestation around here, there are fewer clouds and less rain." He pointed out across the hills below us toward El Salvador to the south. "It's a problem." I looked out across the landscape at which he was pointing and compared it with the 1957 photograph of the Yarula countryside. I saw what seemed to be more trees, not fewer. Although the nearest weather station recorded a 17 percent decrease in precipitation, from an annual average of about 71 inches in the 1951-1954 period to 59 inches between 1987 and 1990 (Zuniga Andrade 2000), Don Leonidas's assessment of deforestation seemed at odds with the comparison reflected in the photograph. …

Among the rich diversity of Chinese vernacular buildings, adobe building is a special kind of building using rammed earth for its external walls. The primary aim of this study is to examine quantitatively the thermal and moisture properties of the rammed earth. This paper presents the experimental results of these properties, which include the density, thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, moisture sorption isotherms and the surface absorption/desorption mass flux rates.

The city of Djenné (Mali) is famous for its mosque which is the world's largest adobe building. Djenné is considered to be one of the most interesting cities in Western Africa from an architectural point of view. Since 1988, Djenné is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In the 1990s, a drinking water supply network was provided by foreign development organisations. However, no facilities were provided for the disposal of wastewater, resulting in an increase of waterborne diseases. This paper describes the urban drainage problem in Djenné and discusses the systematic evaluation of possible solutions and the subsequent pilot project for the local infiltration of sullage. The infiltration of sullage proved to be an appropriate technology for solving the urban drainage problem in Djenné.

The 28 March 1996 earthquake ( Mw =5.7) produced extensive damage in Pujili, a small town located in the central part of the Inter-Andean valley of Ecuador. Variations in the damage rate of adobe constructions throughout the city let us suppose a ground motion amplification related to site effects. A site effect study using the H / V spectral ratio confirmed the good agreement with geological formations and showed that a second peak in some soil response appears at sites that are located over a zone of alluvial deposits, in the most damaged area of the city. This second peak is in the frequency range 5–7 Hz, close to the natural response of adobe building frequency. Thus, the second peak seems to increase the damage rate of adobe buildings and may be related to superficial alluvial deposits of a river, acting independently of the rest of the soil column.

This paper presents an adaptation of the Integral Masonry System (IMS) developed in Europe under the “AllWall System” trade name for concrete or clay, block or brick masonry walls using just mortar. In this case the system is modified for an adobe block infill to allow the construction of earthquake resistant housing in developing countries. When adobe block is employed as an infill it is impossible to transfer the bond stresses of the reinforcement bars as these structures are not bonded with mortar and the reinforcement then has to transfer the stresses purely within the reinforcement. The truss-shaped reinforcement may intersect in the three spatial directions and allow the construction of reinforced walls and slabs. It is then only necessary to infill with locally made adobe blocks or flooring in order to provide sufficient rigidity to the structure. A two-storey, 6x6x6 m, adobe building employing the IMS system has been tested for earthquake resistance at half scale at the PCUP (Pontificia Universidad Católica del Peru) in Lima in collaboration with the UPM (Universidad Politécnica de Madrid) to test the viability of this new type of building construction for seismic areas in the Third World. The test results have shown that the IMS system with adobe block remained stable without significant cracking even under 130 mm displacement seismic movement, equivalent to 10.0 on the Richter magnitude scale. Este artículo presenta una aplicación del Sistema de Albañilería Integral (SAI), desarrollado en Europa bajo la marca “AllWall System” para muros de albañilería de ladrillo o bloque, cerámico o de hormigón, empleando sólo mortero. En este caso el sistema se modifica para adaptarlo al adobe y permitir la construcción de viviendas sismorresistentes en países en desarrollo.Cuando el relleno empleado es de adobe, es imposible transferir las tensiones de los refuerzos por adherencia de las barras debido a que estas estructuras carecen de mortero. Se hace necesario que las armaduras transmitan los esfuerzos entre sí. Las armaduras, en forma de cercha, se pueden cruzar en las tres direcciones del espacio, lo que permite la construcción de muros y forjados. De esta manera sólo se necesita un posterior relleno con bloques de adobe o el tablero del forjado para que el conjunto tenga la rigidez suficiente. Para verificar la seguridad de este nuevo tipo de edificación para su construcción en zonas sísmicas del tercer mundo, se ha ensayado a sismo un prototipo realizado con el sistema SAI con adobe, de 6x6x6 m y dos plantas a escala 1/2 en la PUCP (Pontificia Católica Universidad del Perú) de Lima en colaboración con la UPM (Universidad Politécnica de Madrid). Los resultados de este ensayo muestran que el SAI con adobe permanece estable sin grietas significativas ante un sismo severo de 130 mm de desplazamiento (equivalente a un sismo de 10º en la escala de Richter).

Located in the heart of the Andes, Peru, with over 28 million inhabitants in 2006, is characterized by sharp geographical contrasts and a wide variety of cultures and languages. Almost twice the size of Texas, Peru has three clearly distinguishable regions: the Andes mountain range, the Amazon jungle, and the coast. The Andes build up from the coast and slope down into the Amazon jungle in the east. In the south, they stretch out and turn into a large fl at altiplano that covers most of southeastern Peru and borders on Bolivia. Lake Titicaca is shared by both countries. Most of the Andean inhabitants speak Quechua, the lingua franca of the Inca empire. The other major Indian language of Peru is Aymara, spoken in the southern Altiplano and in Bolivia. The coast is a thin line running from Ecuador to Chile in the south. A largely barren desert, it is irrigated by rivers and streams that come down from the mountains. The coastal cities are largely white and mestizo. The capital, Lima, is a sprawling metropolis with over 7 million inhabitants. It has grown dramatically since World War II when it had around 600,000 inhabitants. The Amazon region comprises 61% of Peru’s territory. It is home for a million and a half inhabitants who include colonizers from the coast and numerous native tribes which speak 12 different languages, unrelated to either Quechua or Aymara. These geographical and linguistic factors help to explain many of Peru’s educational problems. Quechua, Aymara, and the jungle languages are the mother tongues for 19% of Peruvians. The Andean region is also the poorest part of Peru, but this poverty extends to the coastal shanty towns where many highland dwellers have migrated. In 2005 only 27.2% of the population in rural and Andean Peru had fi nished secondary school, as opposed to 48.8% in urban areas.1 The typical school in the Andes consists of a one story adobe building with tin shingles for a roof. Usually there is one teacher in charge of several

[ES] La reconstrucción virtual del edificio de adobes localizado en el Carambolo (Camas, Sevilla), un complejo santuario consagrado a la diosa Astarté, ha supuesto una reflexión teórica y metodológica sobre cómo llevar a cabo la propuesta de restitución más adecuada. En esta ponencia se presenta escuetamente esta experiencia científica, llevada a cabo entre especialistas en infografía y realidad virtual y expertos en arqueología fenicia., [EN] The virtual reconstruction of the adobe building located in El Carambolo (Camas, Seville), a complex sanctuary devoted to the goddess Astaré, has meant a methodological and theoretical reflection about how to carry out the most suitable reconstruction proposal. This paper shows briefly this scientific experience, developed by experts on both infography and virtual reality, and Phoenician archaeology.

(The lights rise on the freight yards in Mesa City. On one side, we see a field heaped with fine-grained coal, and, beyond that, on the same side, a small adobe bungalow used as a resthouse and office for railroad men. In the accessible interior of this bungalow, there are: an old woodstove; wall lockers; a plain rectangular table; some straightbacked, wooden chairs; a few railroad lanterns hung on the wall behind a square, heavy oak desk; a water pitcher with a glass draped over its spout; an old axe, and a poster with the rules of the resthouse. Upstage, toward the center, a well-appointed private car sits, on a track, in state. Beyond this, there is the vague outline of a large adobe building, the city train station.

Weekly storage of coolness in heavy walls (walls with large thermal inertia or large characteristic time constants or low Fourier numbers) was investigated numerically by considering one-dimensional heat conduction through the walls. The study consisted of first analyzing the heat flow through a single wall and considering various boundary conditions on the inside. The boundary conditions were: constant inside air tempeture throughout the day, variable inside air temperature on a 24-hour cycle, and variable inside air temperature on a 48-hour cycle. Next, the heat flow through walls was studied through a thermal network analysis of a simple building. In this case it was assumed that the ambient air temperature (following a periodic distribution) was increased suddenly and followed this new distribution for many days thereafter. It was concluded that walls with high thermal inertia or time constant can store coolness for several days. The larger the time constant of the wall (for example adobe as compared with brick) the longer it takes for the wall temperature to reach a steady periodic distribution after the change has occurred. However, because of low thermal conductivity of adobe, the retrieval of the stored coolness in these walls is slow, and the mean daily temperature of the room air in the adobe building does not change appreciably beyond seven days after the change. Increase of the wall thickness beyond 50 cm does not improve the thermal performance of the building significantly.

were employed to chase the birds away from the orchards and vineyards. Writing in his diary for 1775-76, Father Font reports that at San Luis Obispo a married soldier served as majordomo of the mission, and his wife had charge of the girls. She kept them around her during the day, teaching them, and letting them go to visit in the village but not beyond its limits. At night she locked them in a large adobe building where they were "secure against insult." This building was furnished with heat, and a candle burned in it all night. Here the girls stayed until marriage. This was called the "nunnery" by the Indians, a d, according to Father Zephyrin Engelhardt, O.F.M., historian of the missions, it was the first "institution" of the mission system which the enemies of the missions abolished.

Mestrado em Engenharia Civil Em Portugal existe um vasto património construído em alvenaria de adobe que perdurou ao longo dos tempos, localizado sobretudo na zona litoral centro, particularmente na região de Aveiro. Devido ao acentuado estado de degradação que grande parte deste património apresenta, cresceu a necessidade da sua reabilitação. Esta dissertação de mestrado aborda o tema do comportamento térmico das construções em alvenaria de adobe, face à actual regulamentação térmica que apresenta novos desafios no que respeita à utilização da terra crua em novas construções, bem como na determinação das suas propriedades nos processos de reabilitação térmica e energética de edifícios existentes. São apresentados os resultados de uma campanha experimental que consistiu na construção de três células de teste em alvenaria de adobe com diferentes características à escala ¼ do real. Dos resultados obtidos para as três células de teste foi avaliada e quantificada a inércia térmica e a condutibilidade térmica da terra das respectivas paredes de adobe. Urge adaptar as nossas construções em terra a condições de habitabilidade e de conforto térmico aos níveis de exigência pretendidos nos dias correntes, melhorando a performance e a atractividade das construções em terra. In Portugal, there is a vast built heritage of adobe masonry which has prevailed through the ages, located mainly near the center coastline, particularly in the region of Aveiro. Due to their advance state of degradation of these earth constructions, the need for their rehabilitation has grown. This thesis deals with the topic of the thermal behavior of adobe masonry buildings, given the actual thermal code that presents new challenges regarding the use of earth in new construction, as well as in determining their properties in processes of energy and thermal rehabilitation of existing buildings. The results of an experimental campaign carried out, which consisted of the construction of three test cells in adobe masonry with different characteristics at a quarter of the real scale are presented. From the obtained results for the three test cells, thermal inertia was evaluated and quantified and the thermal conductivity of the earth of the adobe masonry walls was determined. It is urgent to adapt the existent adobe building stock to actual and desired housing conditions and thermal comfort levels, improving the overall performance and attractiveness of earth constructions.