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Monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1; SLC16A1) is a proton-dependent cotransporter/exchanger, located on the apical membrane of cells. MCT1 is able to transport several monocarboxylates including lactate, pyruvate and acetate, which makes this protein critical in terms of the athletic performances. The rs1049434 polymorphism in theMCT1gene was frequently associated with the performance of the athletes in different populations. The present study aims to decipher any possible association of the rs1049434 polymorphism with the personal best of elite track and field athletes. A total of sixty elite athletes (31 sprint/power and 29 endurance) and twenty control/sedentary with the ages of 18-35 voluntarily participated in the study. The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) score scale was used to determine the performance levels of the personal best (PB) of the athletes. Whole exome sequencing (WES) was performed by the genomic DNA isolated from blood of the participants. Sport type, sex and PB were chosen as the parameters to compare within and between the groups by logistic regression models. The sex was not the criterion that was significantly different between or within the groups. Although PB scores were not significant within the sprint/power group, it was significant within the endurance group by the codominant (p=0.044), dominant (p=0.016) and over-dominant (p=0.048) models. The rs1049434 polymorphism in theMCT1gene may be linked to the PB of the endurance athletes. However, other genetic alterations should be regarded to conclude the effect of this polymorphism. The multi-factorial genetic background that could associate with the athletic performanceis still under investigation in our research group. Nevertheless, further studies with more participants are needed. Monokarboksilat transporter 1 (MCT1; SLC16A1), hücrelerin apikal membranında lokalize olan bir proton bağımlı birlikte taşıyıcıdır/değiştiricidir. MCT1 laktat, pirüvat ve asetat gibi monokarboksilatların transportunda görev alır ve bu durum bu proteini atletik performans açısından önemli kılar. MCT1 genindeki rs1049434 polimorfizmi, farklı popülasyonlarda atletlerin performansı ile sıkça ilişkilendirilmiştir. Sunulan çalışma, Türk popülasyonunda, elit atletlerde, atletik performans ile rs1049434 polimorfizmi arasındaki olası ilişkiyi açığa çıkartmayı amaçlamaktadır. Çalışmaya, yaşları 18-35 arası değişen ve 31 sprint/güç ve 29 dayanıklılık olmak üzere altmış elit atlet ve yirmi kontrol dahil edilmiştir. Atletlerin performans seviyeleri, kişisel en iyi dereceleri (PB) aracılığıyla Uluslararası Atletizm Federasyonu (IAAF) skor ölçeğine göre belirlenmiştir. Katılımcılardan elde edilen periferik kandan izole edilen DNA’dan tüm ekzom dizileme (WES) çalışılmıştır. Spor türü, cinsiyet ve PB, doğrusal regresyon modelleriyle gruplar içinde ve arasında analiz edilmiştir. Cinsiyet, gruplar içinde ve arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark tespit edilmemiştir. Sprint/güç grubunda PB anlamlı olmasa da dayanıklılık grubunda kodominant (p=0.044), dominant (p=0.016) ve over-dominant (p=0.048) modelleri ile anlamlı sonuçlar olduğu saptanmıştır. MCT1 genindeki rs1049434 polimorfizmi, dayanıklılık sınıfındaki atletlerin PB düzeyleriyle ilişkili olabilir. Ancak, diğer olası genetik faktörler dikkate alınmalıdır. Atletik performansı etkileyebilecek multifaktöriyel genetik arkaplan grubumuzca devam ettirilen çalışmalar arasındadır. Yine de daha fazla katılımcı ile ileri çalışmalara ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır.

In sports psychology, to improve athlete achievement, in addition to physiological factors, other factors influence an athlete's success, namely psychological factors. Psychological readiness is the readiness possessed by athletes before a match or during a match. Psychological readiness is one of the determining factors for the success of athletes in achieving achievements during matches. This study aims to analyze the determinants of the psychological readiness of athletic athletes. The research method uses descriptive qualitative methods with data collection techniques through focus group discussions. In the competition, psychological factors are needed more than physiological factors. This study showed that 90% of psychological factors affect performance in matches, and physiological factors influence 10%. This study found factors related to the psychological readiness of athletic athletes, namely coping, emotional regulation, self-regulation, and self-confidence. Athletes in training and competition need these factors. Problems that can disrupt the psychology of athletes in competing will result in achievements. This study's results can benefit trainers in integrating psychological approaches into physical exercise programs., Dalam psikologi olahraga, untuk meningkatkan prestasi atlet, selain faktor fisiologis, faktor lain yang mempengaruhi keberhasilan seorang atlet, yaitu faktor psikologis. Kesiapan psikologis adalah kesiapan yang dimiliki oleh atlet sebelum pertandingan atau saat pertandingan. Kesiapan psikologis merupakan salah satu faktor penentu keberhasilan atlet dalam meraih prestasi selama pertandingan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis determinan kesiapan psikologis atlet atletik. Metode penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif deskriptif dengan teknik pengumpulan data melalui focus group discussion. Dalam kompetisi, faktor psikologis lebih dibutuhkan daripada faktor fisiologis. Penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa 90% faktor psikologis mempengaruhi kinerja dalam pertandingan, dan faktor fisiologis mempengaruhi 10%. Penelitian ini menemukan faktor-faktor yang berhubungan dengan kesiapan psikologis atlet atletik, yaitu koping, regulasi emosi, regulasi diri, dan kepercayaan diri. Atlet dalam latihan dan kompetisi membutuhkan faktor-faktor ini. Permasalahan yang dapat mengganggu psikologi atlet dalam bertanding akan berakibat pada prestasi. Hasil penelitian ini dapat bermanfaat bagi pelatih dalam mengintegrasikan pendekatan psikologis ke dalam program latihan fisik.

article reveals the peculiarities of the development of physical qualities by means of athletics. It was determined that physical education at the current stage of the development of society plays an important role in the formation of personality, and the process of its popularization among the younger generation is complicated by insufficient interest of students in generally accepted forms of conducting practical classes on physical education on the one hand and overloading of educational programs on the other. Therefore, it is important to improve the system of physical education by means of athletics due to the improvement of their indicators of the development of physical qualities. Some high jumpers set the bar to a desired height at home and therefore get used to it. This type of psychological "setting" also contributes to successful overcoming of high altitudes. The illusion of weight is often used in the training of throwers. Unbeknownst to the athlete, while maintaining the previous shape of the lightweight device, its weight is gradually increased, bringing it to the desired level. As a result of such preparation, most throwers throw both a lightweight device and one whose weight has been imperceptibly increased far. Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not just the absence of disease or physical defects. The ability of the organism to adequately change its functional indicators and maintain optimality in various conditions is the most characteristic criterion of the norm of health. В статті розкрито особливості розвитку фізичних якостей засобами легкої атлетики. Визначено, що фізичне виховання на сучасному етапі розвитку суспільства відіграє важливу роль у становленні особистості, а процес його популяризації серед підростаючого покоління ускладняється недостатньою зацікавленістю студентства загальноприйнятими формами проведення практичних занять з фізичного виховання з одного боку і перенавантаженням навчальних програм – з іншого. Тому важливе значення має вдосконалення системи фізичного виховання засобами легкої атлетики через покращення у них показників розвитку фізичних якостей.

El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar el valor de mercado (VM) de futbolistas profesionales de las 5 mejores ligas europeas de fútbol. Se analizó el efecto de las variables independientes sobre el VM de los futbolistas, mediante una ANOVA con un nivel de significación de p 30 años. Los delanteros y centrocampistas, mostraron mayor VM en comparación con los porteros y los laterales. Los futbolistas que representaron a sus países en partidos internacionales mostraron mayor VM en comparación con los que no lo hicieron. Los futbolistas de formación juvenil en clubes de la PL y La Liga (LL) mostraron mayor VM en comparación con los futbolistas de otros clubes. En conclusión, factores intrínsecos y extrínsecos afectan el VM de los futbolistas. Los resultados de esta investigación pueden ser útiles para los directores deportivos en el proceso de selección de futbolistas profesionales. The objective of this study was analysed to the market value (MV) of professional soccer players from Top-5 European Soccer Leagues. An ANOVA analysed the effect of the independent variables on the MV of the soccer players, with p30 years. Forward and midfielders showed greater MV compared to goalkeepers and backs. Soccer players that represented their countries at international matches showed greater MV compared to those that did not. The soccer players with a youth background formation in their clubs in the Premier League and La Liga showed greater MV compared to soccer players coming from other clubs. In conclusion, intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect the MV of soccer players. Research results may be useful to the sport managers in the selection of professional soccer players. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar o valor de mercado (VM) de jogadores de futebol profissional das 5 melhores ligas europeias de futebol. O efeito das variáveis independentes sobre a VM dos futebolistas foi analisado por meio de uma ANOVA com nível de significância de p 30 anos. Os atacantes e meio-campistas mostraram maior VM em relação aos goleiros e laterais. Os jogadores de futebol que representaram seus países em jogos internacionais apresentaram maior MV em comparação com aqueles que não o fizeram. Jogadores de futebol em formação de jovens em clubes da PL e La Liga (LL) apresentaram maior VM em comparação com jogadores de futebol de outros clubes. Em conclusão, fatores intrínsecos e extrínsecos afetam a VM dos jogadores de futebol. Os resultados desta pesquisa podem ser úteis para dirigentes esportivos no processo de seleção de jogadores profissionais de futebol.

To validate the application of Corrective Adjustment Procedures for removing Relative Age Effects in youth athletic contexts, this study estimated the longitudinal relationships between decimal age (chronological and relative) and performance in male and female long jumpers. Using trendlines, Corrective Adjustment Procedures were applied, and Relative Age Effect distributions associated with performance attainment were re-examined.Retrospective longitudinal design examining competitive long-jump data between 2005 and 2019.In Part I, participants were 689 junior Italian long jumpers (age range = 11.01-17.99 years; 56.6% females) who participated in ≥three events. Longitudinal modelling and regression equations quantified the sex-specific relationships between decimal age and long jump performance. In Part II, equations were utilised to adjust individual performance within an independent sample (N = 13,639; 50.1% females) of age-matched jumpers. Relative Age Effect distributions within attainment levels (i.e., Top 25-10%) were examined based on raw and correctively adjusted performance.Irrespective of sex, Relative Age Effects were prevalent across all age-groups with medium-large effect sizes at 12-17 (males and females) and 12-17 years (females) of age (Cramer's V range = 0.07-0.28). Relative Age Effect bias magnitude also increased with attainment level (i.e., Top 25-10%). Following Corrective Adjustment Procedure application, typical Relative Age Effects were removed with non-significant deviations in relative age distributions regardless of sex or age-group or attainment level (Top 25 or 10%).Findings provide efficacy for Corrective Adjustment Procedure application to remove Relative Age Effects across youth long jumping events. Corrective Adjustment Procedures suggest potential in improving performance evaluation, identification of technically skilled performers, and sporting experiences.

The players who played in the Polish football league in the interwar period were very versatile and talented, therefore they were also successful in other sports. The aim of the study was to assess the scale of this phenomenon. The mass development of football in Poland meant that there was a shortage of talented players in the struggle involving sports games, athletics or winter sports. The high level of physical fitness of the players predisposed them to participate in the competitions in sections of sports clubs other than football. The author presents detailed lists of footballers, participants in league competitions in the years 1927–1939, who became medallists of Polish championships in ice hockey, athletics, basketball, volleyball and handball. In addition, the biographies and achievements of the most versatile athletes are included. Zawodnicy występujący w latach międzywojennych w polskiej lidze piłkarskiej byli bardzo wszechstronni i utalentowani, dlatego odnosili sukcesy sportowe także w innych dyscyplinach sportu. Celem pracy była ocena skali tego zjawiska. Masowy rozwój piłki nożnej w Polsce sprawił, że brakowało utalentowanych zawodników w zmaganiach obejmujących gry sportowe, lekkoatletykę czy sporty zimowe. Wysoka sprawność piłkarzy predystynowała ich do udziału w rywalizacji sekcji klubów sportowych, innych niż futbolowe. Przedstawiono szczegółowe wykazy piłkarzy, uczestników rozgrywek ligowych w latach 1927–1939, którzy zostali medalistami mistrzostw Polski w hokeju na lodzie, lekkoatletyce, koszykówce, siatkówce i piłce ręcznej. Ponadto zaprezentowano sylwetki i dokonania najbardziej wszechstronnych zawodników.

This study once again confirmed that in order to be successful in a specific sport, an athlete should have appropriate values of height, mass and BMI index for this sport. These values can be determined based on statistical analysis, but we can also explain the desired ranges of the above-mentioned parameters based on qualitative biomechanical analysis, which allows us to understand the biomechanical essence of the existing exceptions. This means, that sportsmen’s physical parameters should be considered in biomechanical conjunction with each other, giving us a reliable tool for the optimization of athletes’ selection and training.

In 105 BCE, the Roman consul Publius Rutilius Rufus employed gladiatorial training for his legionaries. This thesis examines the physiological and psychological consequences of this style of training on the human body in an effort to understand why these particular soldiers were so effective. I used experiential testing alongside primary and secondary source research to examine how this process better prepared Roman troops for engaging in actual combat.

Although the experiences of Black student-athletes have been an area of research in higher education as of recent, the transition from high school to college for Black student-athletes has received little attention. The transition from high school to college can be a difficult life transition; however, Black Division-I football players at predominantly White institutions (PWI) face unique and compounding challenges related to their racial, academic, and athletic identities. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the transition experiences that Black Division-I football players at a PWI go through, this study illuminates transition experiences related to the redshirt-freshman year and the perceived effects that the redshirt-freshman year can have on this demographic as they transition to a PWI. A qualitative “phenomenological” methodology undergirded by Schlossberg’s (2011) transition theory and four S’s framework was employed for data collection, and critical race theory (CRT) provided a lens for data analysis to examine participants’ experiences with redshirting as it pertains to race and racism. Findings revealed that during their redshirt-freshman year, participants felt isolated from their team, disassociated with their athletic identities, and largely unsupported by coaches and academic support staffs. Other factors that affected their experiences, such as feelings of academic inadequacy and racial microaggressions in academia, were discussed and revealed. Implications for intercollegiate athletics, recruitment processes, and student-athlete development are discussed.

This article endeavours to make a significant contribution to the broadening of local school athletics history in Cape Town. By focusing on certain historical documents, the article explores the state and scope of athletics in black schools in Cape Town prior to 1956, a largely under-researched field in South African sport history. It does so by identifying prominent administrators, outstanding athletes, and participating schools. Many of these histories have disappeared or have been erased from public consciousness. The article shows how organised school athletics in Cape Town's oppressed communities have been shaped by a myriad of teachers, politicians, and sport administrators of varying political and social backgrounds. It also provides details of the Trafalgar High School's Wiener's Day competitions. Next, a history of the Central School Sports Union and its offshoots is unpacked. Finally, the early years of the Western Province School Sports Board are overviewed. The article concludes by suggesting why it is important to reclaim this particular history. Hierdie artikel wil 'n beduidende bydrae tot die verruiming van die plaaslike skole-atletiekgeskiedenis in Kaapstad lewer. Deur op sekere historiese dokumente te fokus, ondersoek die artikel die stand en omvang van swart skole-atletiek in Kaapstad voor 1956, 'n grootliks onontginde navorsingsveld in die Suid-Afrikaanse sportgeskiedenis. Vele prominente administrateurs, uitmuntende atlete en deelnemende skole wie se geskiedenisse uit die openbare bewussyn verdwyn het of daaruit gewis is, word in die proses geïdentifiseer. Die artikel toon aan hoe georganiseerde skole-atletiek in Kaapstad se onderdrukte gemeenskappe deur 'n groot aantal onderwysers, politici en sportadministrateurs uit verskillende politieke en sosiale agtergronde gevorm is. Dit verstrek verder besonderhede oor die Trafalgar High School se Wiener's Day-kompetisies. Vervolgens word 'n geskiedenis van die Sentrale Skolesportunie en die vertakkings daarvan uiteengesit. Laastens word die beginjare van die Westelike Provinsie Skolesportraad oorsigtelik bespreek. Die artikel sluit af deur uit te wys waarom dit belangrik is dat hierdie spesifieke geskiedenis herwin word.

The establishment of women’s committees in the governance structure of sport organizations is directly connected to – and often justified as a remedy for – women’s historical exclusion from sport. While women’s committees can provide women an entryway into leadership positions, they can also restrict the influence of women’s voices and concerns in decision-making processes. Despite the proliferation of women’s committees, this tension remains largely unexplored. We therefore examine one of the first women’s committees formed in sport, the IAAF Women’s Committee, between 1990 and 2005, to shed light on the value and limitations of this type of organizational feature. Using archival materials, our analysis shows that this committee served as an avenue for women to contribute to decision-making, but one consistently beset by roadblocks. We examine how the Women’s Committee, led by Ilse Bechthold, persistently and strategically navigated the IAAF’s hierarchical structure and culture toward modest, incremental progress.

A growing body of literature attempts to estimate the economic impacts of the NCAA’s monopsony power in the labor market for college athletes in the revenue-generating sports of football and, to a lesser extent, men’s basketball. This literature is becoming increasingly pertinent as pending legislative and judicial action threatens to disrupt the NCAA’s ability to suppress wages to zero. This paper expands on past empirical research using the most comprehensive set of Power-5 college football recruiting, performance, and finance data ever compiled to first replicate two prior models estimating the marginal revenue products of players. That dataset is then used to execute a two-stage revenue-above-replacement model utilizing marginal revenue product estimations derived from a direct performance measure and position categorizations. We find significant variation in revenue-above-replacement figures between performance level and position, with a top percentile quarterback generating nearly $600k above a walk-on replacement player. We produce a matrix reporting revenue-above-replacement figures by position and percentile of performance, and make recommendations for AB 252, a bill currently moving through the California State Legislature which seeks to mandate remuneration of college athletes in revenue-generating sports.

The protocol and searches for a scoping review to explore the concept of inclusive leadership in athletics. This review seeks to answer the question: Is there literature to support a link between coach leadership and athletes’ feelings of inclusion in sport teams.

Рассмотрена структура организации тренировочного процесса в скоростно-силовых видах легкоатлетических дисциплин (прыжки и метания) на основе программного моделирования, включающего определение тренировочной направленности, величины и пиковости нагрузок. Разработаны специализированные комплексы программных моделей спортивной подготовки легкоатлетов на этапе спортивного совершенствования для повышения эффективности тренировочного процесса., The structure of the organization of the train-ing process in the speed-strength types of athletics disciplines (jumping and throwing) is considered on the basis of software modeling, including the determination of the training orientation, magnitude and peak loads. Specialized complexes of program models of sports training of athletes at the stage of sports improvement have been developed to increase the efficiency of the training process.

Uzturs Veselības aprūpe Nutrition Health Care Darba nosaukums: Latvijas vieglatlētikas vidējo un garo distanču meistaru un meistarkandidātu iespējamu ēšanas traucējumu novērtējums. Bakalaura darba autors: Laura Šulme, Rīgas Stradiņa universitātes Rehabilitācijas fakultātes profesionālās augstākās izglītības Studiju programmas “Uzturs” 4. studiju gada studējošā. Pētījuma aktualitāte: Ēšanas traucējumi ir nopietni, dzīvību apdraudoši traucējumi, kas saistīti ar cilvēku ēšanas paradumu un ar to saistīto domu, emociju izmaiņām. Vīriešiem un sievietēm sportistiem ir lielāks ēšanas traucējumu attīstības risks attiecībā pret pārējiem iedzīvotājiem. Sportistiem, kas cieš no ēšanas traucējumiem, samazinās fiziskās spējas, palielinās traumu risks un tiek traucēti ķermeņa atjaunošanās procesi. Pētījuma mērķis: Novērtēt iespējamu ēšanas traucējumu esamību Latvijas vieglatlētikas vidējo un garo distanču meistaru un meistarkandidātu vidū un to saistību ar vecumu, dzimumu un veicamo disciplīnu. Pētījuma metodes: Pētījumā piekrita iesaistīties 20 no uzrunātajiem 27 Latvijas vieglatlētikas vidējo un garo distanču meistariem un meistarkandidātiem (8 sievietes un 12 vīrieši). Dalībnieku vecums bija no 18 līdz 37 gadiem. Informācija par attieksmi un uzvedību, kas saistīta ar ēšanas traucējumiem, tika iegūta ar EDE-Q 6.0 aptaujas palīdzību. Anketas elektroniskā versija tika izveidota vietnē visidati.lv. Dati tika apkopoti un analizēti Microsoft Excel un IBM SPSS 26.0 datorprogrammās. Rezultāti: Pētījumā tika novērots, ka sievietes uzrādīja augstākus rādītājus visās apakšskalās. Statistiski nozīmīgas atšķirības tika atrastas trīs gadījumos- norūpēšanās attiecībā uz ēdienu (p=0,012); ķermeņa figūru (p=0,007) un svaru (p=0,005). Trīs dalībniekiem globālais vērtējums pārsniedza klīniski nozīmīga rezultāta robežas. Katrs ceturtais abu dzimumu pārstāvis regulāri pēdējo četru nedēļu laikā bija apēdis viņaprāt neierasti lielu ēdiena daudzumu. No šīm epizodēm 12,5% sieviešu un 16,7% vīriešu izjuta kontroles zudumu ēšanas laikā. Secinājumi: Pētījumā novēroja, ka sievietēm ir vairāk raksturīgu ēšanas traucējumu simptomu, nekā vīriešiem, ko atspoguļo visu apakšskalu rādītāji. Vairākumā gadījumu garo skriešanas distanču sportistiem novēroja klīniski nozīmīgu kopējo jeb globālo rādītāju. Salīdzinot U23 un pieaugušo vecuma grupas, tika konstatēts, ka apakšskalu rādītāji ir vienādi vai augstāki U23 grupai, kas nozīmē, ka nav būtiskas simptomātikas atšķirības starp vecuma grupām. Atslēgas vārdi: sportisti, vieglatlētika, ēšanas traucējumi, epidemioloģija, etioloģija, diagnosticēšana, ārstēšana, sekas, profilakse. Title of Bachelor’s Thesis: Prevalence of possible eating disorders symptoms among high level track and field athletes in Latvia. Author: Laura Šulme, 4th year student of the professional higher education programme "Nutrition" at the Faculty of Rehabilitation, Riga Stradins University. Background: Eating disorders are serious, life-threatening disorders associated with changes in people's eating habits and related thoughts and emotions. Male and female athletes are at higher risk of developing eating disorders compared to the general population. Athletes suffering from eating disorders have reduced physical performance, increased risk of injury and impaired recovery. Objective: To assess the prevalence of possible eating disorders among Latvian athletics middle and long distance masters and masters candidates and their association with age, gender and discipline. Methods: 20 out of 27 Latvian middle and long distance masters and masters candidates (8 females and 12 males) agreed to participate in the study. The age of the participants ranged from 18 to 37 years. Information on attitudes and behaviours related to eating disorders was obtained using the EDE-Q 6.0 questionnaire. An electronic version of the questionnaire was created on visidati.lv. Data were collected and analysed in Microsoft Excel and IBM SPSS 26.0. Results: The study observed that women scored higher in all subscales. Statistically significant differences were found in three cases: food concern (p=0.012); body shape concern (p=0.007) and weight concern (p=0.005). For three participants, the global score exceeded the limits of a clinically significant outcome. One in four of both sexes had regularly eaten what they considered to be unusually large amounts of food in the last four weeks. Of these episodes, 12.5% of women and 16.7% of men experienced a loss of control while eating. Conclusion: In this study, we observed that women had more typical symptoms of eating disorders than men, as reflected by scores on all subscales. A clinically significant global score was observed in the majority of long-distance running athletes. Comparison of the U23 and adult age groups showed that subscale scores were equal or higher for the U23 group, suggesting that there is no significant difference in symptomatology between age groups. Keywords: athletes, athletics, eating disorders, epidemiology, aetiology, diagnosis, treatment, consequences, prevention.

In contrast to the sex-segregated model that dominates sport and contributes to its tradition of hegemonic masculinity, collegiate track and field typically follows a sex-integrated structure whereby men and women train, travel, and compete together. In this article, the authors examined how six collegiate male track-and-field athletes who are part of a sex-integrated team navigate gendered norms and hierarchies with a particular focus on their understandings of gender(ed) performance and abilities. Grounded in a feminist poststructuralist framework, the authors’ analysis found that although the participants were accepting of a sex-integrated training environment and challenged some gender stereotypes and instances of sexism, they simultaneously reified these same gender stereotypes by characterizing women athletes as “emotional” or “less competitive” and advocated individual solutions to institutional sexism.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of congenital and acquired visual impairments on the international performance of Para swimmers and Para track and field athletes. We collected results from visually impaired Para athletes competing in Para swimming or Para athletic events at all IPC-labelled competitions between 2009 and 2019. The dataset contained 20,689 events results. Impairment origin was collected from the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) website. We separated impairment origin into two groups to distinguish those with a congenital impairment from those with an acquired impairment. In visual impairment sport classes (11-12-13), the performance level and the age performance relationship were investigated according to the impairment origin. In classes 11 and 12, peak performance was achieved earlier by male and female swimmers with a congenital impairment compared with those who had an acquired impairment (p 0.05). A similar performance level was observed among the two sport disciplines for each class (p > 0.05). This study demonstrated that impairment origin can influence the performance pathway among visually impaired swimmers.

Long jump is one of the important events of modern track and field sports, and it is also one of the regular events of major events. Due to the complexity and technicality of the project, the determination of the results in a formal competition is also very complicated. It is easy for athletes to invalidate their results due to fouls by stepping on the jump line. Therefore, it is very necessary to detect fouls. This paper uses a visual sensor technology to design and develop a foul detector for the situation of athletes stepping on the jump line in a long jump, which can detect fouls well. In the formal competition process, because the long jump time is relatively short, the referee is interfered by many factors and it is easy to misread the movements of the athletes and cause misjudgment. Therefore, on this basis, in order to improve the fairness of the game and create a good competition environment, the design is designed. The long jump stepping line foul detector is studied, and the visual sensor technology is used, which can judge the long jump stepping fouls during the long jump based on the feedback data.

SummaryDuring the Hellenistic and Imperial periods, Greek populations coexisted with several other cultures, which were very often more multitudinous. Those ‘Hellenes’, however, came together in big Panhellenic and smaller, local festivals to honour their gods and celebrate their common Hellenic culture. As a result, numerous new festivals and contests were founded (and older ones grew bigger or were even re-founded) after the third century BC, gradually forming a large festival network. Even though this festival network has repeatedly been at the centre of scholarly attention – and still is – the rhetoric of athletic inscriptions, i.e. how athletic Panhellenism is demonstrated and what it is prompted by still remains largely unexplored. The main contribution of this paper is to demonstrate how the accumulation of citizenships by athletes contributes to Panhellenic self-representation, by showing another way that this association with Hellenic culture was communicated and negotiated in the public discourse. The portrayal of citizenships by an array of ethnic names along with the name of the honoree, presented the athlete as a larger-than-city figure and an essential part of that Hellenic community. One of the other aims of this paper is to suggest two factors in the development of these conventions of athletic representation, whose significance has not been understood in full: the athletic synod and the formation ofPanhellenion. It is a central tenet of this paper that the study of citizenship in athletic inscriptions cannot only help us reveal more ways that Hellenicity was projected, but also better understand how all these different textual images helped shape views about what Hellas was.

Although both traditional cognitive behavioral psychological skills training (PST) interventions and mindfulness-based alternatives can lead to improvements in sport performance and athlete well-be...

Welcome to the November issue of IEEE Microwave Magazine . As I write this column, the closing ceremony of the 2020 Summer Olympics in Japan has just wrapped up. I enjoyed seeing two weeks of highly trained athletes compete in all of the sports, including major ones such as track and field and swimming, as well as events that are given coverage only every four years such as archery and table tennis.

Statement of the problem. The problem of athletes’ performance recovery is most significant due to the increased sports loads for athletes. The sport of high achievements requires huge physical and emotional strength from the athlete, while the load increases. The history of the latest sports competitions proves that the load for athletes is growing. The growth of loads initiates the development of recovery tools, tools that allow athletes to maintain their shape. The use of modern tools and methods of recovery increases the potential of an athlete at the stage of sports skills improvement. It should be noted that there are very few publications devoted to new recovery tools for athletes. In this regard, this article has a special relevance. The purpose of the article is to characterize the recovery tools of track-and- field athletes (race walkers) at the stage of their sports skill improvement. The research methodology consists of an integrated approach, a generalization method, analysis of special literature on the research problem, and content analysis. Research results. The analysis made it possible to conclude that it is necessary to increase attention to the development of the methodology and technique of recovery of a track-and-field athlete. At this time in sports, the problem of recovery is important, as is training. Consequently, the methods of restoring and relieving fatigue in an athlete are of paramount importance in the modern world. A characteristic feature of sports is training loads of significant intensity and volume, which make high demands on the body of athletes. The search for the most effective means of recovery makes it possible to increase the ability of the body. Conclusion. Improving methodological and analytical tools for the recovery process of athletes is an important and urgent problem that has not been solved methodically and methodologically. In modern conditions, it is necessary to create a model for working with an athlete, where the athlete’s recovery process will be based on a scientific approach using innovative tools.

Statement of the problem. Specialists involved in the training of track and field athletes-walkers note the need to develop recommendations for optimizing and individualizing the training process. At the same time, experts see the problem in the need to improve the methodological framework. This article presents the role of not just a methodological complex for providing training for athletes, but a methodological complex taking into account their specialization. The purpose of the article is to identify ways for improving methodological tools when training track-and-field athletes at the stage of sports skills improvement. The research methodology consists of general scientific research methods. In particular, the method of generalization, analysis, and content analysis. The analysis resulted in conclusions that determine the role of software and methodological support. Research results. As a result of the analysis, generalization of the results of a number of authors, including practitioners, the necessity of using an interdisciplinary approach to the problem of methodological support for the training of athletes was revealed. It is proposed to use digital technologies in the development and implementation of methodological tools in the practice of coaching at the stage of improving sports mastery. Conclusion. The article proposes a new approach to the development of the methodological basis of the training process. To achieve the stage of sports skills improvement, athletes and a coach need effective teaching materials, since the period of improvement coincides with the process of preparing for a competition, and such training must take into account many factors, a coach must have a significant amount of theoretical knowledge and practical skills, and this does not always correspond to reality. At the stage of improvement, effective and tested in practice software and methodological complex can solve many problems, eliminate knowledge deficits, so its importance can hardly be overestimated. The article concludes that it is necessary to introduce programming elements, to use digital technologies in the development and use of training programs for athletes. The created program will allow a trainer to track athlete’s achievements, will allow predicting, analyzing, modeling the results achieved, and, most importantly, and to take into account the characteristics of the athlete. Such a methodological complex based on the programming language and modern digital technologies is based on interdisciplinary and integrated approaches to the problem of improving sports mastery.

The 2020-2021 U.S. Supreme Court Term was expected by experts to be uninteresting, but it proved to be quite the opposite. There were surprising unanimous decisions, and some unexpectedly "highly charged issues." Several of the decisions will be important to mental health professionals (foster care and the conflict of gay and religious rights, juvenile life sentences, and "community caretaking"), and to health care providers more generally (the Affordable Care Act, Pharmacy Benefit Managers, and COVID cases). Other decisions of general interest included immigration cases, election laws, and college athletics. Some of the most important cases arose in the "Shadow Dockets," an often-ignored series of orders by the Court. The article discusses the most important cases of the Term (including those in the Shadow Docket), analyzes the meaning of the Term, and looks to the cases to be decided next Term.

This review has been prepared to evaluate the javelin throw technique in terms of biomechanics. Javelin is a field sport is made to achieve the longest shot. For the javelin throw, the vechile, the body of which is made of metal or a different homogeneous material and whose tip is sharpened, is used. Javelin throwing techniques usually consists of five components. The javelin is carried parallel to the ground over the shoulder. In order to reach maximum speed, the athlete performs a speed-up run before taking the throwing motion. Towards the end of the 10-15 step acceleration, the athlete begins to pull the javelin back. The second part is taken in diagonal steps. Immediately after the crossover steps, the transition step that takes the athlete to the shooting stage is taken. Then the transmission phase is passed. The delivery phase starts with the touch of the left foot for the right-handed athlete and ends with the javelin releasing from the hand. Unlike mainly rotational techniques such as discus throwing, hammer throwing and shot put, javelin throwing is a predominantly linear event. The fact that the javelin throw’s acceleration path is linear distinguishes it from other throwing sports. Height and arm length and shoulder width can be shown as parameters that affect the performance of the javelin throw. The heavy weight of the javelin can increase the risk of injury. In throwing sports, serious stresses are placed on the shoulders and elbows, and acute and overuse injuries of these areas are common., Bu derleme, cirit atma tekniğinin biyomekaniksel açıdan değerlendirilmesi amacıyla hazırlanmıştır. Cirit atma teknikleri genellikle beş bileşenden oluşur. Cirit omzun üzerinde yere paralel taşınır. Sporcu maksimum hıza ulaşmak için, fırlatma hareketine geçmeden önce bir hız kazanma koşusu yapar. 10-15 adımlık hızlanmanın sonuna doğru sporcu ciridi geri çekmeye başlar. Koşunun ikinci bölümü çapraz adımlarla alınır. Çapraz adımlardan hemen sonra sporcuyu atış aşamasına geçiren geçiş adımı atılır. Ardından iletim fazına geçilir. İletim fazı sağ el ile atış yapan sporcu için sol ayak dokunuşu ile başlar ve ciridin elden serbest kalmasıyla sona erer. Disk atma, çekiç atma ve gülle atma gibi esas olarak rotasyonel tekniklerin aksine, cirit atma ağırlıklı olarak doğrusal bir olaydır. Cirit atışının hızlanma yolunun doğrusal olması, onu diğer atma sporlarından ayırmaktadır. Cirit atışının performansını etkileyen parametreler olarak, boy ve kol uzunluğu ile omuz genişliği gösterilebilir. Ciridin ağırlığının fazla olması yaralanma riskini arttırabilmektedir. Fırlatma sporlarında özellikle omuz ve dirsek üzerine ciddi stresler binmekte olup bu bölgelerin akut ve aşırı kullanım yaralanmalarına sık rastlanılmaktadır.

This paper analyzes the efficacy of Title IX in the context of name, image, and likeness (NIL) and NCAA Division I athletic department expenditures. The research examines Title IX’s legislative his...

Injuries effect the performance of athletes. Severity of injuries is determined by time loss and sporting performance reduction. To treat injuries adequately, it is necessary to get an overview of varied injuries types in different sports disciplines. In a retrospective study 7.809 athletes from Germany, Switzerland and Austria competing in competitive or recreational levels of sports were included. Injury prevalence was highest in team sports (75%), followed by combat (64%), racquet (54%) and track and field (51%). Knee (28%) and shoulder (14%) were the most at risk joints. Time loss in sporting activity after injury was longest in the region of knee (26 weeks). Of all reported injuries, 48% were accompanied by a reduced level of performance. The highest injury prevalence occurred in the year 2016 (45%). More injuries occurred during training (58%) compared to competition (42%). Across Olympic disciplines, a large number of injuries occurred during training sessions. Injury frequency increased as the Olympic games drew closer. Knee and shoulder injuries were the most severe injuries with respect to time loss and reduction sporting performance.

Background Acute Type A aortic dissection can be physically and mentally stressful with little known about survivors' postrepair activity levels, exercise habits, and quality of life (QOL). This study was aimed to describe pre- and postdissection changes regarding exercise, understand physician recommendations, quantify use of cardiac rehabilitation, and assess QOL in dissection survivors. Methods A total of 295 acute Type A aortic dissection survivors were surveyed about exercise, cardiac rehabilitation, QOL, sexual activity, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with 137 (46%) respondents. Results Respondents were less likely to participate in competitive athletics after than before dissection (1/131 [0.76%] vs. 26/131 [20%], p [McNemar test] Conclusion Physicians should prescribe cardiac rehabilitation, encourage appropriate exercise, promote resumption of sexual activity, and identify and treat PTSD after surgery for acute Type A aortic dissection.

The fact that many decisions, decrees and orders are being issued by the head of our state and our government on the development of physical education and sports today serves to further develop the field.

The level of physical development of vocational college students is very important for the development of young students into a well-rounded generation.

PPARGC1A (rs8192678) gen polimorfizmi ve atletik performans arasıdaki ilişkiler konusunda sınırlı sayıda araştırma mevcuttur. Bu nedenle, bu çalışmada PPARGC1A genindeki rs8192678 polimorfizminin Türk elit atletizm sporcularının yarışma performansları ile olası ilişkisin araştırılması amaçlamaktadır. Çalışmaya 18-35 yaşları arasında toplam 60 elit sporcu (31 sprint/güç ve 29 dayanıklılık) ve 20 kontrol/sedanter gönüllü olarak katıldı. Atletlerin kişisel en iyi (PB)/yarışma performans düzeylerini belirlemek için Uluslararası Atletizm Federasyonları Birliği (IAAF) puan ölçeği kullanıldı. Tüm ekzom dizilimi (WES), katılımcıların kanından izole edilen genomik DNA tarafından gerçekleştirildi. rs8192678 polimorfizmi ile PB arasındaki ilişki, cinsiyet ve spor deneyimi ayarlaması ile tek yönlü kovaryans analizi (ANCOVA) ile incelendi. Bulgulara göre grup içi ve gruplar arasında, G/G, G/A ve A/A genotip dağılımları arasında anlamlı bir farklılık tespit edilmemiştir (p>0.05). Sonuç olarak, PPARGC1A rs8192678 polimorfizmi ile sporcuların performansı arasında anlamlı hiçbir ilişki tespit edilmemiştir. Ancak, yapılan araştırma hakkında daha net bilgi verebilmek için daha fazla katılımcı ile yapılması önerilir., Limited number of researches exist on the relationship between PPARGC1A gene polymorphism (rs8192678) and affects the athletic performance. Thus, the present study aims to decipher any possible association of the rs8192678 polymorphism in the PPARGC1A gene with the competitive performances of Turkish elite track and field athletes. A total of 60 elite athletes (31 sprint/power and 29 endurance) and 20 control/sedentary with the ages of 18-35 voluntarily participated in the study. The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) score scale was used to determine the performance levels of the personal best (PB) of the athletes. Whole exome sequencing (WES) was performed by the genomic DNA sample isolated from blood of the participants. The association between rs8192678 polymorphism and PB was examined by one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with the adjustment of sex and sport experience. According to the results, there were not any significant deviation between the wild-type (G/G), heterozygote (G/A) and homozygote (A/A) genotypes within and between the groups (p>0.05). Our results underlined that there were not any significances for association of rs8192678 polymorphism with PBs within the groups of the sprint/power and endurance athletes. However, it is recommended that similar studies be conducted with more participants to provide clearer information about the research.

In countries like South Africa, sports have the power to transcend invisible lanes of politics and race and thus inspire citizens to come together. Sport, including athletics, has been demonstrated as an instrument of solidarity of fragmented cultures. However, while sport is of such significance, it is still minimally represented in public archival holdings in South Africa. Despite the mandate to transform the archival system, evidence suggests that much of the memories of sports heroes, especially that of athletes, have not been recorded. This qualitative study utilised oral history as a research method to explore the feasibility of building inclusive archives through the collection of sports memories. Athlete participants were identified through snowball sampling and data were collected using both oral testimony interviews from athletes with firsthand information and oral tradition augmented through document analysis. The results of the study indicated that there are stories and memories of many great South African distance runners that must be told and included in the archive repositories. Sadly, these stories have not been recorded in written words, as there is a tendency to perpetuate elitism by documenting mostly oral history of prominent members of society with political power. The study revealed that most of athletes’ memories from their running careers include certificates, trophies, medals, Springbok jerseys, newspaper clippings and pictures in their possession. It is concluded that until these sports archives and objects are considered as an important and unique element of South African history, they will forever be lost. Contribution: This study makes a contribution to the ongoing discourse of building inclusive archives in South Africa through the collection of athletics memories. The study is linked to the scope of the journal through propagating the inclusion of marginalised voices of athletics sports memories in mainstream archives.

Bu çalışmanın amacı antik Yunanda Kadınların Spor yapmaları ve Hera oyunlarındaki rollerinin araştırılmasıdır. Literatür taraması yapılmıştır. Antik Yunanistan’da koşu en popüler spor olarak kadınlar arasında da yerini korumuştur. Hera Tanrıça Hera'nın onuruna düzenlenen ve kadınların katıldığı yarışmaydı. Olimpiyat oyunlarından 14 gün önce ya da sonra Olimpia'da yapılmıştır. Kuşu mesafeleri erkelerden daha düşüktür. Kadınlar arasında üç kategoride yapılmıştır. Bazı festivallerde kadınlar kendilerini ifade etmiş ve sportif faaliyetlere katılmışlardır. Antik yunanda Olimpiyatlara kadınların katılması yasak idi ve hatta gizlice izleyen kadınlar yakalanarak cezalandırılırdı. Yasak ve cezaya rağmen m yarışlara katılan ve yarışları izleyen kadınlar olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Daha sonraları öncelikle bekar kadınların yarışmalara katılmasına izin verilmiştir. Geçiş törenlerinde genç kızların dans ettiği ve koştuğu belirlenmiştir. Sonuç: Kadınlar tanrıca Herayı onurlandırmak ve güçlü olmak için spor faaliyetlerine katıldılar. Zaman zaman kadınları spor faaliyetlerine katılımları yasaklandı ve seyirci olarak bile katılanlar cezalandırıldı. Yasaklardan bahsedilse de toplarla oynayan, araba kullanan, yüzen ve güreşen kadınlar olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Kazananlar yanında kaybedenlere de ödüller verildi. Erkekler çıplak yarışırken kadınlar hera oyunlarında giysili olaraktan yarışmışlardır. Spor yarışmalarına kategori düşüncesini yerleştirdikleri görülür. Antik Yunanda kadınlar spor yolu ile cinsiyet ayrımına baş kaldırmış kişiler olarak kabul edilebilirler. Kadınların daha fazla spor yapması konusunda ikna edilmesi için antik çağ kadınların mücadeleleri örnek verilebilir., The aim of this study is to investigate the role of women in sports and Hera plays in ancient Greece. A literature review was made. In ancient Greece, running remained the most popular sport among women. Hera It was a competition held in honor of the Goddess Hera and attended by women. It was held at Olimpia 14 days before or after the Olympic games. Bird distances are lower than males. It was done in three categories among women. In some festivals, women expressed themselves and participated in sports activities. In ancient Greece, women were forbidden to participate in the Olympics, and even women who spied on were caught and punished. Despite the prohibition and punishment, it was determined that there were women who participated in and watched the races. Later on, primarily single women were allowed to participate in the competitions. It has been determined that young girls dance and run during the rites of passage. Result: Women participated in sports activities to honor the goddess Hera and to be strong. From time to time, women were banned from participating in sports activities and even those who participated as spectators were punished. Although prohibitions are mentioned, it has been determined that there are women playing with balls, driving, swimming and wrestling. Prizes were awarded to the losers as well as the winners. While men competed naked, women competed in hera games dressed as well. It is seen that they place category thinking in sports competitions. In ancient Greece, women could be considered as people who rebelled against gender discrimination through sports. The struggles of ancient women to persuade women to do more sports can be given as an example.

The purpose of study was to develop and to substantiate experimentally the efficiency of the 8-week model of the stage of direct training for main competitions of highly qualified multi-sport athletes in track-and-field athletics. Material and Methodology. 5 highly qualified multi-sport athletes having a sports qualification of the Master of Sports of Ukraine took part in the pedagogical experiment. The average age of the participants was 25.2±1.79 years. The technological basis for introduction of combined events competitions of track-and-field athletes into the requirements of the 8-week model of the phase of direct training for main competitions was constituted by: an algorithm of the individual program for training multi-sport athletes for competitions, which reflects the consistency of actions for the purpose of preparing the athletes to perform given tasks; programming of the training process, which shows the directions of performance of tasks during specific mesocycles while taking into account the feasibility of the development of components of technical and physical preparedness and types of combined events competitions in track-and-field athletics; structuring the process of straining and recovery, which determines the permissible levels and intensity of training loads during separate sessions and microcycles. Results. We reduced the magnitude of training loads (up to 3233 min) and increased their intensity (up to 6.51 points·min-1) during the forming experiment at the phase of direct training for competitions, which allowed to achieve peak sports form and evoke additional resources in the organism of athletes. The introduction of the developed 8-week model of the direct training stage contributed to a statistically significant improvement in the indicators of physical preparedness of the studied multi-sport athletes in running tests by 2.3-3.1%, while it made 4.4-4.9% in the tests representing speed and strength qualities and 4.5-4.9% in strength control exercises (p < 0.05). The improvement of the results of most disciplines in the range of 1.7-5.3% (p < 0.05) confirms the efficiency of the developed 8-week model of the phase of direct training. Conclusions. Solution of specific tasks during final weeks before the main starts requires the establishment of optimum volumes of training work and load dynamics, combining training sessions with training loads of various orientation and magnitude, using rest and recovery means as a whole complex, ensuring operative and current control over the course of recovery and adaptation processes. Taking the aforementioned problems into account, we have developed an 8-week model at the phase of direct training for competitions, in which three mesocycles were determined with strictly defined tasks and corresponding training content.

Purpose: This study investigated (1) the transition rate of elite world-class throwers, (2) the age of peak performance in either elite junior and/or elite senior athletes, and (3) if relative age effect (RAE) influences the chance of being considered elite in junior and/or senior category. Methods: The career performance trajectories of 5108 throwers (49.9% females) were extracted from the World Athletics database. The authors identified throwers who had reached the elite level (operationally defined as the World all-time top 50 ranked for each age category) in either junior and/or senior category and calculated the junior-to-senior transition rate. The age of peak performance and the RAE were also investigated. Results: The transition rate at 16 and 18 years of age was 6% and 12% in males and 16% and 24% in females, respectively. Furthermore, elite senior throwers reached their personal best later in life than elite junior throwers. The athletes of both genders considered elite in the junior category showed a large RAE. Interestingly, male athletes who reached the elite level in senior category also showed appreciable RAE. Conclusions: Only a few of the athletes who reach the top 50 in the world at 16 or 18 years of age manage to become elite senior athletes, underlining that success at the beginning of an athletic career does not predict success in the athlete’s senior career. Moreover, data suggest that being relatively older may confer a benefit across the whole career of male throwers.

Highlights • Elite athletes’ pacing behaviors differ depending on race distance and whether races longer than 800 m are conducted during championships or “meets.” • Optimizing finishing position requires the adoption of a leading position with as much as a lap remaining in 1500 m and 5000 m championship races. • Staying within a pack of runners who follow a realistic, non-excessive pace from the beginning of major championship long-distance races is also recommended to optimize performance (finishing time)., The pacing behaviors used by elite athletes differ among individual sports, necessitating the study of sport-specific pacing profiles. Additionally, pacing behaviors adopted by elite runners differ depending on race distance. An “all-out” strategy, characterized by initial rapid acceleration and reduction in speed in the later stages, is observed during 100 m and 200 m events; 400 m runners also display positive pacing patterns, which is characterized by a reduction in speed throughout the race. Similarly, 800 m runners typically adopt a positive pacing strategy during paced “meet” races. However, during championship races, depending on the tactical approaches used by dominant athletes, pacing can be either positive or negative (characterized by an increase in speed throughout). A U-shaped pacing strategy (characterized by a faster start and end than during the middle part of the race) is evident during world record performances at meet races in 1500 m, 5000 m, and 10,000 m events. Although a parabolic J-shaped pacing profile (in which the start is faster than the middle part of the race but is slower than the endspurt) can be observed during championship 1500 m races, a negative pacing strategy with microvariations of pace is adopted by 5000 m and 10,000 m runners in championship races. Major cross country and marathon championship races are characterized by a positive pacing strategy; whereas a U-shaped pacing strategy, which is the result of a fast endspurt, is adopted by 3000 m steeplechasers and half marathoners. In contrast, recent world record marathon performances have been characterized by even pacing, which emphasizes the differences between championship and meet races at distances longer than 800 m. Studies reviewed suggest further recommendations for athletes. Throughout the whole race, 800 m runners should avoid running wide on the bends. In turn, during major championship events, 1500 m, 5000 m, and 10,000 m runners should try to run close to the inside of the track as much as possible during the decisive stages of the race when the speed is high. Staying within the leading positions during the last lap is recommended to optimize finishing position during 1500 m and 5000 m major championship races. Athletes with more modest aims than winning a medal at major championships are advised to adopt a realistic pace during the initial stages of long-distance races and stay within a pack of runners. Coaches of elite athletes should take into account the observed difference in pacing profiles adopted in meet races vs. those used in championship races: fast times achieved during races with the help of one or more pacemakers are not necessarily replicated in winner-takes-all championship races, where pace varies substantially. Although existing studies examining pacing characteristics in elite runners through an observational approach provide highly ecologically valid performance data, they provide little information regarding the underpinning mechanisms that explain the behaviors shown. Therefore, further research is needed in order to make a meaningful impact on the discipline. Researchers should design and conduct interventions that enable athletes to carefully choose strategies that are not influenced by poor decisions made by other competitors, allowing these athletes to develop more optimal and successful behaviors., Graphical abstract Image, graphical abstract

Under an illusory nexus to education, intercollegiate athletics in the United States represents a multibillion-dollar enterprise that extracts economic rents from the majority Black athlete labor to the benefit of overwhelmingly White constituencies. Under the aegis of “amateurism,” member universities of the National College Athletic Association (NCAA) collude to fix maximum athlete compensation at cost-of-attendance and strip athletes of the economic rights over their own name, image, or likeness. While this anticompetitive restraint encumbers all athletes competing under the NCAA umbrella, it imposes a disparate impact on Black and other minority athletes who represent a majority of the labor in the largest revenue sports: football and basketball. Although White coaches are the most visible beneficiaries of this anticompetitive restraint, the scope of amateurism’s interracial distributional effects has largely remained uncovered. This article seeks to fill this gap in the literature. Leveraging data from multiple sources, including institutional financial reports and the NCAA Demographics Database from 2007–2020, this article quantifies the NCAA’s wealth transfer away from primarily Black athlete labor to institutions and overwhelmingly White constituencies. Under the NCAA’ restraint, we estimate that Black football and men’s and women’s basketball athletes at the Division I Power 5 Conference level have lost approximately $17 billion to $21 billion in compensation from 2005 to 2019 or roughly $1.2–$1.4 billion per year. The antitrust status quo’s failure to enjoin the NCAA’s collusive wage-fixing restraint, which causes such obvious antitrust injury and harm to athlete labor, underscores the fundamental shortcomings of using the consumer-welfare standard as the exclusive lodestar to investigate and enjoin anticompetitive conduct; it also exposes the divergence between “amateurism” as described in Board of Regents and the modern-day realities of college athletics.

BACKGROUND The balance plays an indispensable role in many sports. Static balance is crucial for a postural control and has an exceptional effect on the performance of sports players and for injury prevention. Sports like cricket, football, track and field, and badminton requires static balance for the execution of a sports-specific skill. Single leg stance test was used to assess balance on a surface during a 30 sec single-leg standing posture with eyes open and eyes closed. The main goal of this study was to determine that, in which sport the static balance was more and in which sport the static balance was inferior. The objectives were to assess the static balance in cricket, badminton, track and field, football athletes and compare the static balance in all 4 sports [cricket, badminton, track and field, football] METHODS A total of one hundred and twenty - four athletes [124], cricket {N = 31}, football {N = 31}, badminton {N = 31}, track and field {N = 31} voluntarily participated in the study. Static balance was assessed by using single leg stance test with eyes open and eyes closed. RESULTS By comparing all sports, it showed that there was a statistically significant difference between cricket, football, badminton and track and field athletes in dominant and non - dominant leg with eyes open and eyes closed. With eyes open, a static balance was demonstrated superior in track and field followed by football, cricket and least in badminton players in the dominant leg and non-dominant leg. (P < 0.0001) Whereas, with eyes closed, comparing between sports individually, there showed no such significant difference between dominant and non-dominant leg. Static balance was superior in track and field followed by football, by cricket and least in badminton in dominant and non-dominant leg (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS Track and field players did not differ in dominant and non-dominant legs. In contrast, badminton players displayed mediocre static balance with eyes open and football players displayed mediocre static balance with eyes closed. There was no significant difference between open and closed eyes. But the balance score showed superior balance in open eyes when compared with closed eyes. KEY WORDS Athletes, Static Balance, Single Leg Stance Test, Balance, and Sports Performance.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare the changes in lower extremity muscle morphology and electromyography (EMG) signals during treadmill running (TR) and plastic track running (PR). Methods: A total of 10 healthy male runners aged 22.5±1.3 years, height: 175.5±4.5 cm; weight: 71.9±2.7 kg; BMI: 22.1±1.1 volunteered to participate in this study. Muscle morphology data were collected by a portable ultrasound scanner before and after running. Median frequency (MF), mean power frequency (MPF) and root mean square (RMS) were monitored during TR and PR. Results: The results indicated that muscle thickness and pennation angle have increased after running. The muscle thickness after PR showed significantly higher than TR in tested muscle except tibialis anterior (TA) and medial gastrocnemius (MG). In contrast, only the pennation angle of TA and lateral gastrocnemius (LG) after PR was significantly different from that after TR (P P = 0.002). The most significant difference in the change rate of muscle thickness was found at TA. In addition, TA and MG showed significantly higher change rate of the pennation angle after TR than that after PR. Both of MF and MPF showed a downward trend after TR and PR. It could discover that the MF and MPF of LG during TR showed a significantly lower than that during PR both in two phases (P =0.001, P P = 0.001, P = 0.015). Furthermore, MF of RF during TR showed significantly different from that during PR (P = 0.017). From the point of RMS, in the first five minutes, the RMS of medical quadriceps (MQ), lateral quadriceps (LQ), hamstring muscles (HM) and MG during TR was significantly higher than that of PR (P P Conclusions: The current study indicated that TR and PR would cause different effects to lower extremity muscle morphology. In addition, the EMG signals based on running surfaces are also unconformity. Compared with the plastic track, the treadmill will bring more stimulation to the lower extremity muscles. The preliminary findings provide further insights into the rationality of runners’ choice of the running surface.

Purpose: To test the relationships between maximum and relative strength (MS and RS), absolute and relative peak force (PF and RPF), and strength deficit (SDef), with sprint and jump performance, and to compare these mechanical variables between elite sprinters and professional rugby union players. Methods: Thirty-five male rugby union players and 30 male sprinters performed vertical jumps, 30-m sprint, and half-squat 1-repetition maximum (1RM), where these force-related parameters were collected. Pearson correlation coefficients were used to test the relationships between the variables. An independent t test and magnitude-based inferences compared the mechanical variables between sprinters and rugby players. Results: Almost certain significant differences were observed for jump and sprint performance between groups (P P = .03) but a very likely lower RS (P = .007) than the sprinters. No significant differences were observed for PF between them. The sprinters exhibited an almost certain significant higher RPF than the rugby players (P P Conclusions: Elite sprinters present higher levels of RS and RPF, lower levels of SDef, and better sprint and jump performance than professional rugby players. Relative strength-derived values (RS and RPF) and SDef are significantly associated with speed–power measures and may be used as effective and practical indicators of athletic performance.

Anousaki, E, Zaras, N, Stasinaki A-N, Panidi, I, Terzis, T, and Karampatsos, G. Effects of a 25-week periodized training macrocycle on muscle strength, power, muscle architecture, and performance in well-trained track and field throwers. J Strength Cond Res 35(10): 2728-2736, 2021-The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of a 25-week macrocycle on strength, power, vastus lateralis (VL) muscle architecture, and competitive track and field throwing performance, in well-trained track and field throwers. Twelve well-trained throwers (age: 24.3 ± 5.5 years, mass: 96.6 ± 9.9 kg, and height: 1.82 ± 0.02 m), participated in the study. All athletes followed a 25-week periodized training program divided into 3 training phases: the hypertrophy/maximum strength phase, the maximum strength/power phase, and the power/speed phase. Measurements were performed at the beginning of the training period (T1), after the first training phase (T2), and after the end of the training period (T3). Measurements included the following: competitive track and field throwing performance; shot put throws; maximum strength (1-RM) in snatch, clean, and squat; countermovement jump (CMJ); and VL muscle architecture. Competitive track and field throwing performance and shot put throws increased from T1 to T3 by 10.9 ± 3.2% (p = 0.001) and 5.1 ± 6.4% (P = 0.049), respectively. 1 RM strength in snatch and squat increased significantly from T1 to T3 by 9.7 ± 8.9% (p = 0.001) and 9.9 ± 7.1% (p = 0.002), respectively. Countermovement jump height increased only from T1 to T2 by 10.9 ± 11.8% (p = 0.026). A significant increase was found for VL fascicle length between T1 and T3 (9.6 ± 11.1%, p = 0.049). Strong correlations were found between the percentage increase of competitive track and field throwing performance with 1 RM snatch (r = 0.571, p = 0.046) and with shot put throws (r = 0.715, p = 0.001). Twenty five weeks of training may increase performance and VL fascicle length, whereas increases in 1 RM snatch and in shot put throws are associated with competitive track and field throwing performance in well-trained throwers.

Previous studies on periodization have led to the view that most athletes fail to peak at major events. These conclusions might be based on definitions of “peak performance” that are too narrow. In this study, a track and field athlete was defined as succeeding in a competition if their outcome was within the acceptable range from the best result of the season. The data are from seven championship finals and semifinals together with 42 Diamond League competitions from the 2010s, altogether 7,087 individual results. All field events and running events up to 400 m were included. The majority of athletes succeeded in major events (67.0% in sprint and 57.5% in field events). Overall, championship finals elicit success rates that are more than 70% higher than the basic level achieved in Diamond League competitions ( p

Ben-Zaken, S, Meckel, Y, Nemet, D, and Eliakim, A. Insulin-like growth factor axis genetic score and sports excellence. J Strength Cond Res 35(9): 2421-2426, 2021-It has been suggested that IGF1 polymorphisms associated with circulating IGF1 levels may be linked to elite short-distance running performance. This study assessed genetic score based on 6 polymorphisms related to the Insulin-like growth factor axis (rs7136446, rs35767, rs6220, rs680, rs2854744, and rs1805086) among elite Israeli runners and swimmers. One hundred sixty-one track and field athletes (123 men and 38 women, age 17-50 years) and 94 swimmers (61 men and 33 women, age 16-49 years) participated in the study. Athletes were divided into short-distance runners (SDRs, major event: 100-200-m sprints and jumps, n = 63) and long-distance runners (LDRs, major event: 5,000 m and marathon, n = 98). Swimmers were divided into short-distance swimmers (SDSs, major event: 50-100 m, n = 44) and long-distance swimmers (LDSs, major event: 400-1,500 m, n = 50). Groups were subdivided into top-level and national-level athletes. We calculated the IGF genetic score (IGF-GS) of all the subjects on a 0-100 scale. Top-level SDRs' mean IGF-GS (30.8 ± 11.7) was significantly higher (p0.006) compared with national-level SDRs' (20.5 ± 11.3) and top-level SDSs' (19.9 ± 8.5). Subjects with IGF-GS25 had an increased odds ratio (OR) of being elite-level SDRs (OR: 4.2; 95% confidence interval: 0.68-26.09; p0.001). In summary, a combined assessment of 6 single-nucleotide polymorphisms, all known to modulate circulation IGF1 levels, was associated with a higher genetic score among SDRs, emphasizing the importance of the IGF system to land speed sports events but not to swimming events. Whether the IGF-GS may be used for selection of elite-level sprinters in early stages of their athletic career needs to be further investigated.

It is reasonable to believe that a young athlete who succeeds in a World Youth Championship, will also be successful as a senior athlete. To determine the percentage of success of all World Youth Championship finalists who also became finalists in a subsequent senior World Championship, considering all athletes and events at World Athletics Championships. This study analyzed the eight male and eight female finalists of all the events conducted at the World Athletics World Youth Championship from 1999 to 2009, who also became finalists at the World Athletics World Championship from 2001 to 2011. Percentage of success was calculated for track and field events, for male, female, and both. For all the events, from 1759 finalists in a World Youth Championship only 83, representing 4.72%, were also finalists in a World Championship in 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2009, or 2011. Of those 83 athletes, 45 were males and 38 were female. A low rate of success was found. These results were discussed including injuries, early specialization, biological maturation, and/or overtraining, as possible factors related to this low rate of success.