Search

Background: Earthworms are the most important soil invertebrate and have been used for exploring potent therapeutic agents. Perionyx excavatus (Perrier, 1872) is a tropical earthworm species widely used in vermicomposting worldwide, which has a prodigious regeneration capability. Objectives: This study was carried out to isolate fluorescence-emitting microbiota from the gut of earthworm, P. excavatus, and characterize the fluorophores along with finding the symbiotic association in regenerating worms. Methods: Gram staining was performed to selectively identify the fluorescence-emitting bacterial colonies and further confirmed using 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequencing. Thin layer chromatography (TLC), ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were carried out to separate and characterize the isolated fluorophores. Further, fluorescence microscopy was used to examine the autofluorescence property. Results: Gram staining results showed that the isolated fluorescence-emitting gut bacterium is Gram-positive and it is rod-shaped. Molecular characterization confirmed that the isolated fluorescence-emitting bacterium is Priestia filamentosa. Moreover, two fluorophores responsible for emitting fluorescence, known as unknown fluorescent compound 1 (CF1), and fluorescent compound 2 (CF2) were separated and partially characterized. Anti-inflammatory assays confirm that the fluorophores have very good anti-inflammatory properties. In addition, these fluorophores were expressed in the epithelial cell layer of earthworm, P. excavatus, during regeneration. Notably, bright, intense fluorescence was observed high in regenerating worms compared to control worms. Conclusions: Hence, these two fluorophores will be studied in-depth in the context of structural conformation, chemical composition, and functional characteristics for potential biotechnological applications.

The ideal condition of earthworm gut promotes growth and multiplication of beneficial soil microorganisms eliminating pathogens and converts organic wastes into nutrients rich compost. The present study has been carried out to determine the population dynamics of earthworm gut bacteria and to find out relative abundance of different functional bacterial groups in the foregut, midgut, and hindgut of earthworm Perionyx excavatus. To assess bacterial diversity, a viable plate count method was adopted. In the different gut region of earthworm, aerobic heterotrophic, amylolytic, Bacillus, Gram-negative, proteolytic, fat hydrolyzing, nitrate-reducing, nitrifying, asymbiotic nitrogen-fixing, Azotobacter, and phosphate solubilizing bacterial populations ranged from 22.2 to 241.6 × 10

Disease outbreaks are being increasingly recognized as a significant constraint on aquaculture production and trade affecting the economic development of the sector in many countries. Extracting and using biologically active compounds from earthworms has traditionally been practiced by indigenous people throughout the world. The aim of the present study was to shown antimicrobial activity through earthworm extract against fish bacterial pathogens. In total, 8 bacterial strains i.e. 6 gram negative viz. Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P. fluorescens, E.coli, Enterobacter aerogens and Shigella sp. and 2 gram positive viz. Staphylococcus aureus and Micrococcus luteus were identified. The extract of earthworm Perionyx excavatus, Pheretima posthuma were prepared and antimicrobial activity of the extract was determined by antimicrobial well diffusion assay. After 24 hrs of incubation period, it was observed that earthworm extract showed antibacterial activity against isolated bacterial strains. Among earthworm extract of two different species, the maximum zone of inhibition was shown against A. hydrophila by Perionyx excavatus (18.33± 0.66 mm) and P. posthuma (16.66±0.33). P. excavatus showed antibacterial activity against all pathogenic bacteria except Shigella spp. However on the other hand, P.posthuma showed antibacterial activity against A. hydrophila, P. fluorescens, E.coli, and S. aureus. The study has proved that earthworm extract can be effectively used for suppression of bacterial infection in fishes and that it can used as potential antimicrobial drug against commercial antibiotic resistance bacteria.

Perionyx excavatus (Perrier, 1872) Material examined. Exotic, epigeic. Locality: Colombia, department of Quindío, municipality of Armenia, La Revancha rural community, Villa Sofia farm (4°30'34.36"N, 75°45'23.50"W).Altitude: 1222 m.a.s.l. Material collected: 1 adult, 2 juveniles. Collection date: 25 April 2016. Collectors: A. Feijoo, L. Molina, and B. Murillo., Published as part of Feijoo, Alexander, Zuluaga, Luis Fernando & Molina, Ligia Janneth, 2018, New species and records of earthworms (Annelida, Oligochaeta) in plantain cropping systems in Colombia's coffee-growing region, pp. 448-458 in Zootaxa 4496 (1) on page 456, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4496.1.34, http://zenodo.org/record/1446963, {"references":["Perrier, E. (1872) Recherches pour servir a l'histoire des lombriciens terrestres. Nouvelles Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, 8, 5 - 198."]}

The aim of this study was to recycle and reuse the enormously available unutilized lignocellulosic solid organic waste resource, cashew leaf litter (CLL) admixed with various animal dungs, cowdung, sheepdung and horsedung by employing predominantly available indigenous epigeic earthworm—Perionyx excavatus (Perrier, 1872) and produce quality vermifertilizer. Four different combinations of each [(100 % dung alone, 3:1 (75 % dung + 25 % CLL), 2:2 (50 % dung + 50 % CLL) and 1:3 (25 % dung + 75 % CLL)] vermibeds were allowed for vermicomposting process under laboratory conditions. After 60 days, the worm worked vermicompost and worm unworked normal compost were harvested and characterized. The earthworm activity—growth, reproductive performance (cocoon production and hatchling number) and recovery of vermicompost was also studied. The obtained results clearly showed that vermicompost from CLL admixed with cowdung at 2:2 ratio had lower pH, organic carbon, C–N ratio, C–P ratio, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose and phenol content, and higher nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium dehydrogenase and humic acid content than the raw substrates and worm unworked normal compost. In addition, pronounced and better earthworm activity was found in the above combination. Through vermitechnology way of producing agronomic valid vermicompost using natural waste resources like CLL and animal dungs can be used as bio-organic fertilizer. These vermiresources have vast and diversified potential for maintaining sustainable soil health, fertility, productivity, waste degradation, soil reclamation, land restoration practices and environment health.

Globally, 1.3 billion tonnes of food produced for human consumption are wasted each year and are usually discarded in landfills where the greenhouse gas, methane, is produced during decomposition. Vermicomposting is a possible organic waste management strategy, which may reduce the amount of food waste disposed in landfills and produce compost, which is a usable end product. This study aimed to evaluate how efficiently the Perionyx excavatus can convert organic waste into quality vermicompost.

Triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) is one of the most highly utilized organophosphorus flame retardants, and has been frequently detected in various environmental matrices, including soil. So far, limited information is known regarding the potential toxicity of TPHP to the earthworm-soil ecosystem. We investigated the metabolism of TPHP and the perturbation of the endogenous metabolome in the earthworm, Perionyx excavatus, using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight (LC-QTOF)-based untargeted metabolomics approach after acute exposure to TPHP for one and two days through a filter paper contact test, as well as after chronic exposure for 28 days in a soil microcosm experiment. TPHP showed low bioaccumulation potential in the earthworm-soil ecosystem at concentrations of 10 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg. Identified phase I metabolites include diphenyl phosphate, mono-hydroxylated and di-hydroxylated TPHP. Two groups of phase II metabolites, thiol conjugates (including mercaptolactic acid, cysteine, cysteinylglycine, and mercaptoethanol conjugates) and glucoside conjugates (including glucoside, glucoside-phosphate, and C14H19O10P conjugates), were putatively identified. Only acute TPHP exposure caused significant perturbations of the endogenous metabolome in earthworms, featuring fluctuations in amino acids, glucose, inosine and phospholipids. These results reveal novel phase II metabolism and toxicity of TPHP in P. excavatus.

Water hyacinth is well known for accumulating heavy metals from the water bodies and its uncontrolled growth; due to which it is posing serious threat to the water bodies and the environment. Therefore, the present paper aimed at the safe treatment and recycling of nutrients by vermicomposting of water hyacinth. Three different earthworm species E. fetida, E. eugeniae, P. excavatus were compared for its higher biomass growth, organic matter degradation and heavy metal changes during the study. The nutrient concentration and stability parameters (OUR and CO2 evolution) were evaluated during the degradation of water hyacinth in five different trials. Results showed that nutrients (Na, K, Ca, Mg, total Nitrogen (TN) and available Phosphorous (AP)) were increased and the stability parameters were reduced significantly at the end of vermicomposting. It was observed that E. eugeniae accumulated higher concentration of heavy metals in its body tissue during transit of waste through worm’s gut. On an overall, E. fetida proved to be the best on account of biomass increment as well as juveniles hatched when compared with the other earthworm species during the treatment.

Earthworms and their casts have been widely used for organic waste degradation and plant growth promotion. The microbial communities that reside in the guts and casts of earthworms markedly influence both applications. In the present study, next-generation sequencing was applied to identify the microbial communities in the guts and casts of three epigeic earthworm species, Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus, and Eisenia fetida, reared under two different feeding conditions. A total of 580 genera belonging to 43 phyla were identified. By comparing bacterial diversity among samples divided into groups based on the earthworm species, sample types, and conditions, the beta diversity analysis supported the impact of the sample type and suggested that there was significant dissimilarity of the bacterial diversity between the gut and cast. Besides, bacterial Phylum compositions within the group were compared. The result showed that the top three high relative frequency phyla found in the casts were the same regardless of earthworm species, while those found in the gut depended on both the condition and earthworm species. Focusing on the cellulolytic and plant growth-promoting bacteria, certain cellulolytic bacteria, Paenibacillus, Comamonas, and Cytophaga, were found only in the cast. Citrobacter and Streptomyces aculeolatus were detected only in the guts of earthworms reared in the bedding containing vegetables and bedding alone, respectively. Besides, Actinomadura and Burkholderia were detected only in the gut of E. eugeniae and E. fetida, respectively. The results proved that the microbial composition was affected by sample type, condition, and earthworm species. In addition, the proportion of these beneficial bacteria was also influenced by these factors. Hence, the information from this study can be used as a guide for selecting earthworm species or their casts for more efficient organic waste decomposition and plant growth promotion.

Cellulase-producing microorganisms were isolated and identified as Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus megaterium and Enterobacter cloacae among the bacteria and P. boydii, Streptomyces sp. and Candida sp. among the fungal isolates from the gut of Perionyx excavatus. They were then subjected to two different doses of metal Zinc ((Dose I- 60mg/Kg and Dose II- 120 mg/Kg.) and two doses of two commonly used pesticides (Pendimethalin and Pretilachlor). It has been observed that out of the six cellulase-producing microbes, the higher dose of the metal was proved to be detrimental for three of them. Bacillus megaterium, that was found to be producing a sufficient amount of the enzyme, was absent even when it has been exposed to the lower dose of the metal. Also, the fungal isolates showed a decrease in number when exposed to higher dose of the contaminants. But the cellulase- producing bacterial isolates like Micrococcus luteus and Enterobacter cloacae were not at all affected by the presence of either metal or the pesticides. The experiment throws light on the microbe-earthworm relationship and effect of toxins and metals on the commercially- important microbes present in the soil and earthworm’s gut. The isolates that were present even at the higher doses of the metal and pesticides would be very promising for the production of large amount of the enzyme cellulase.

Epigeic earthworms can significantly hasten the decomposition of organic matter, which is known to be mediated by gut associated microflora. However, there is scanty information on the abundance and diversity of the gut bacterial flora in different earthworm genera fed with a similar diet, particularly Eisenia foetida and Perionyx excavatus. In this context, 16S rDNA based clonal survey of gut metagenomic DNA was assessed after growth of these two earthworms on lignocellulosic biomass. A set of 67 clonal sequences belonging to E. foetida and 75 to P. excavatus were taxonomically annotated using MG-RAST and RDP pipeline servers. Highest number of sequences were annotated to Proteobacteria (38-44%), followed by unclassified bacteria (14-18%) and Firmicutes (9.3-11%). Comparative analyses revealed significantly higher abundance of Actinobacteria and Firmicutes in the gut of P. excavatus. The functional annotation for the 16S rDNA clonal libraries of both the metagenomes revealed a high abundance of xylan degraders (12.1-24.1%). However, chitin degraders (16.7%), ammonia oxidizers (24.1%) and nitrogen fixers (7.4%) were relatively higher in E. foetida, while in P. excavatus; sulphate reducers and sulphate oxidizers (12.1-29.6%) were more abundant. Lignin degradation was detected in 3.7% clones of E. foetida, while cellulose degraders represented 1.7%. The gut microbiomes showed relative abundance of dehalogenators (17.2-22.2%) and aromatic hydrocarbon degraders (1.7-5.6%), illustrating their role in bioremediation. This study highlights the significance of differences in the inherent microbiome of these two earthworms in shaping the metagenome for effective degradation of different types of biomass under tropical conditions.

Helicases are known to be a proteins that use the chemical energy of NTP binding and hydrolyze to separate the complementary strands of double-stranded nucleic acids to single-stranded nucleic acids. They participate in various cellular metabolism in many organisms. DEAD-box proteins are ATP-dependent RNA helicase that participate in all biochemical steps involving RNA. DEAD-box3 (DDX3) gene is belonging to the DEAD-box family and plays an important role in germ cell development in many organisms including not only vertebrate, but also invertebrate during asexual and sexual reproduction and participates in stem cell differentiation during regeneration. In this study, in order to identify and characterize DDX3 gene in the earthworm, Perionyx excavatus having a powerful regeneration capacity, total RNA was isolated from adult head containing clitellum. Full length of DDX3 gene from P. excavatus, Pe-DDX3, was identified by RT-PCR using the total RNA from head as a template. Pe-DDX3 encoded a putative protein of 607 amino acids and it also has the nine conserved motifs of DEAD-box family, which is characteristic of DEAD-box protein family. It was confirmed that Pe-DDX3 has the nine conserved motifs by the comparison of entire amino acids sequence of Pe-DDX3 with other species of different taxa. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Pe-DDX3 belongs to a DDX3 (PL10) subgroup of DEAD-box protein family. And it displayed a high homology with PL10a, b from P. dumerilii.

Perionyx excavatus Perrier, 1872 Perionyx excavatus Perrier, 1872: 126, Plate IV, Figs 73���74; Rosa 1890b: 121; Beddard 1895a: 436; Michaelsen 1900: 208; Gates 1939: 108; Gates 1972: 141; Thai 1983: 122; Do 1994: 53; Nguyen 1994: 37; Le 1995a: 70; Thai 1987: 6, 7; Pham 1995c: 63; Thai 2000a: 310; Blakemore 2002: 133, Fig. 2.2; Huynh & Nguyen 2004a: 115; Huynh 2005a: 78; Nguyen V.T. & Tran 2008: 184; Blakemore 2008; Nguyen et al. 2010: 114; Pham 2010: 62; Nguyen & Nguyen 2010: 123; Nguyen & Huynh 2011: 1018; Nguyen et al. 2012: 146; Nguyen 2013: 42; Nguyen 2014: 108. Perionyx sp. ��� Tran, 1985: 56. Perionyx gruenewaldi Michaelsen, 1891: 33. Perionyx turaensis Stephenson, 1920: 216. See Blakemore (2002) for more details and synonyms. Type locality. Vietnam (Saigon). Type material. MNHN, France. Examined material. 5 C, 5 A (CTU-EW.003.01) Cho Moi, An Giang, 2/2010, coll. Ho Minh Thuan. Records from Vietnam. Yen Bai (Yen Bai); Ha Giang (Meo Vac); Cao Bang (Thach An); Lang Son (Binh Gia); Hanoi (Ba Vi NP); Quang Tri (Huong Hoa); Thua Thien Hue (Hue); Da Nang (Hoa Vang); Quang Ngai (Quang Ngai; Tu Nghia); Binh Dinh (Quy Nhon); Gia Lai (Pleiku); Phu Yen (Song Cau); Khanh Hoa (Nha Trang); Lam Dong (Da Lat; Don Duong; Duc Trong); Binh Thuan (Phan Thiet; Bac Binh; Duc Linh); Ho Chi Minh; Ca Mau (U Minh); Bac Lieu (Vinh Loi); Ben Tre (Thanh Phu); Tra Vinh (Chau Thanh); Vinh Long (Vung Liem); Can Tho (Cai Rang; Ninh Kieu; Thot Not; Phong Dien); An Giang (Chau Phu; Chau Thanh; Cho Moi); Hau Giang (Phung Hiep) (Perrier 1872; Thai 1987; Do 1994; Nguyen 1994; Le 1995a; Pham 1995c, 2010; Huynh & Nguyen 2004a; Huynh 2005a; Nguyen V.T. & Tran 2008; Nguyen et al. 2010; Nguyen 2014). Distribution. Cosmopolitan species, widely distributed in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Korea, China, USA, Canada, England, Samoa, India, Taiwan, Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Madagascar, Cambodia (Gates 1972; Thai & Do 1989; Blakemore 20 12a). Vietnamese name. Giun Qu���, Tr��n Qu���. Remarks. The species is commonly used in earthworm farms, and sold as "red earthworm" for fishing and other purposes in Vietnam., Published as part of Nguyen, Tung T., Nguyen, Anh D., Tran, Binh T. T. & Blakemore, Robert J., 2016, A comprehensive checklist of earthworm species and subspecies from Vietnam (Annelida: Clitellata: Oligochaeta: Almidae, Eudrilidae, Glossoscolecidae, Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae, Moniligastridae, Ocnerodrilidae, Octochaetidae), pp. 1-92 in Zootaxa 4140 (1) on pages 9-10, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4140.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/256507, {"references":["Perrier, E. (1872) Recherches pour servir a l'histoire des Lombriciens terrestres. Nouvelles Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, 8, 5 - 198.","Rosa, D. (1890 b) Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmanica e regioni vicini, XXVI. Perichaetidi. Annali del Museo civico di storia naturale Giacomo Doria, 10, 107 - 122.","Beddard, F. E. (1895 a) A monograph of the Order Oligochaeta. The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 769 pp. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 28557","Michaelsen, W. (1900) Oligochaeta. Das Tierreich, 10, 1 - 575.","Gates, G. E. (1939) Thai earthworms. Thailand Research Society, Natural History Supplementary, 12, 65 - 114.","Gates, G. E. (1972) Burmese Earthworms: An Introduction to the Systematics and Biology of Megadrile Oligochaetes with Special Reference to Southeast Asia. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, N. S. 62 (7), 1 - 326. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2307 / 1006214","Thai, T. B. (1983) Earthworms of Vietnam (Systematic, fauna, distribution and zoogeographic). PhD dissertation in Zooglogy. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia [in Russian]","Nguyen, V. T. (1994) The earthworm fauna of Binh Tri Thien region. PhD dissertation in Zoology. Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi, 193 pp.","Le, V. T. (1995 a) The earthworm fauna of Northeastern Vietnam. PhD dissertation in Zoology. Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi, 148 pp.","Thai, T. B. (1987) Some additional notes in the earthworm distribution in Vietnam. Journal of Science of HNUE, C, 3 - 9.","Pham, T. H. H. (1995 c) The earthworm fauna of Quang Nam-Da Nang. PhD dissertation in Zoology. Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi, 180 pp.","Thai, T. B. (2000 a) Species diversity of earthworms in Vietnam. Proceedings of the national workshop on the basic issues in life science. Hanoi Science and Technics Publishing House, 307 - 311.","Blakemore, R. J. (2002) Cosmopolitan Earthworms - an Eco - Taxonomic Guide to the Peregrine Species of the World. 2 nd Ed. VermEcology, PO BOX 414 Kippax, ACT 2615, Australia. August, 2002.","Huynh, T. K. H. & Nguyen, D. A. (2004 a) Diversity of earthworms of Bavi National Park, Hatay province. The proceedings of the national workshop on the basic issues in life science, 114 - 117. [Science and Technics Publishing House, Hanoi]","Huynh, T. K. H. (2005 a) The earthworm fauna of southern part of central Vietnam and their potential usages. Medicine Publishing House, Hanoi, 189 pp.","Pham, T. H. H. (2010) The diversity of earthworms in Danang city. Journal of Science and Technology, Danang University, 5 (40), 60 - 69.","Nguyen, T. T., Nguyen, T. D. & Pham, T. T. (2011) Preliminary data on earthworms in mainland mountain region of Kien Giang Province. Proceeding of the 4 th national workshop on ecology and biological resources. Hanoi Agriculture Publishing House, Hanoi, 1024 - 1030.","Nguyen, T. T., Nguyen, T. K. P. & Ho, M. T. (2012) Diversity and distributional characteristics of earthworms in An Giang province. Journal of Science, Can Tho University, 22 A, 143 - 153.","Nguyen, T. T. (2013) The earthworm fauna of the Cuu Long delta. PhD dissertation in Zoology. Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi, 169 pp.","Nguyen, T. T., Tran, T. T. B. & Nguyen, D. A. (2014) Earthworms of the ' acaecate' Pheretima group in Vietnam (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae), with description of a new species from the Mekong delta. Zootaxa, 3866 (1), 105 - 121. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 3866.1.5","Tran, T. M. (1985) The earthworm fauna of Red River Delta. PhD dissertation in Zoology. Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi, 126 pp.","Michaelsen, W. (1891) Oligochaeten des Naturhistorischen Museums in Hamburg, IV. Jahrbuch der Hamburgischen Wissenschaftlichen Anstalten, 8, 299 - 340.","Stephenson, J. (1920) On a collection of oligochaeta from the lesser known parts of India and from eastern Persia. Memoirs of the Indian Museum, 7, 191 - 261.","Nguyen, T. T. & Tran, T. A. T. (2008) Composition and Distribution of Earthworms Belt of Tien River. Journal of Science, Can Tho University, 10, 59 - 66.","Thai, T. B. & Do, V. N. (1989) Remarks on earthworm fauna in Phnompenh and the neighbouring regions. Journal of Science of HNUE, special issue, 76 - 78."]}

Perionyx excavatus Perrier, 1872 Frechou, (2) N16.61.613', W61��25. 488', 80 m asl, xerophilic forest on calcareous soils., Published as part of James, Samuel W. & Gamiette, Franciane, 2016, New species of Dichogaster Beddard, 1888 (Clitellata: Benhamiidae) with additional records of earthworms from Guadeloupe (French West Indies), pp. 391-408 in Zootaxa 4178 (3) on page 406, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4178.3.5, http://zenodo.org/record/272503

Genus Perionyx Perrier, 1872 Perionyx Perrier, 1872: 126; Beddard 1895a: 435; Michaelsen 1900: 207; Stephenson 1930: 481; Gates 1972: 138. Type species. Perionyx excavatus Perrier, 1872, by original designation. Distribution. Mainly in Burma and India (Blakemore 2002). Remarks. To date, 61 species and subspecies have been described (Csuzdi 2012), but only one species has been recorded in Vietnam., Published as part of Nguyen, Tung T., Nguyen, Anh D., Tran, Binh T. T. & Blakemore, Robert J., 2016, A comprehensive checklist of earthworm species and subspecies from Vietnam (Annelida: Clitellata: Oligochaeta: Almidae, Eudrilidae, Glossoscolecidae, Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae, Moniligastridae, Ocnerodrilidae, Octochaetidae), pp. 1-92 in Zootaxa 4140 (1) on page 9, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4140.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/256507, {"references":["Perrier, E. (1872) Recherches pour servir a l'histoire des Lombriciens terrestres. Nouvelles Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, 8, 5 - 198.","Beddard, F. E. (1895 a) A monograph of the Order Oligochaeta. The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 769 pp. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 28557","Michaelsen, W. (1900) Oligochaeta. Das Tierreich, 10, 1 - 575.","Stephenson, J. (1930) The Oligochaeta. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 978 pp.","Gates, G. E. (1972) Burmese Earthworms: An Introduction to the Systematics and Biology of Megadrile Oligochaetes with Special Reference to Southeast Asia. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, N. S. 62 (7), 1 - 326. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2307 / 1006214","Blakemore, R. J. (2002) Cosmopolitan Earthworms - an Eco - Taxonomic Guide to the Peregrine Species of the World. 2 nd Ed. VermEcology, PO BOX 414 Kippax, ACT 2615, Australia. August, 2002.","Csuzdi, Cs. (2012) Earthworm species, a searchable database. Opuscula Zoologica, 43 (1), 97 - 99. Avaliable from: http: // earthworm. uw. hu / (Accessed 21 Jul. 2016)"]}

Planapheretima arboricola (Rosa, 1890) Perionyx arboricola Rosa, 1890b: 119, Plate I, Fig. 11; Beddard 1895a: 438; Michaelsen 1900: 209; Michaelsen 1903: 89; Gates 1936: 465; Gates 1972: 141. Pheretima arboricola��� Gates 1936: 399; Gates 1972: 169; Thai 1997: 5, fig. 3B; Thai 2000a: 310. Planapheretima arboricola��� Sims & Easton 1972: 233; Easton 1979: 76, Figs 27j, 30a.; Nakamura 1999: 5; Blakemore 2007a: 8; Blakemore 2008b; Nguyen et al. 2014: 109. Type locality. Myanmar (Cobapo, Carin Mts). Type material. Genoa 44017, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale "Giacomo Doria", Italy. Examined material. 12 A (SORC-V.206.01) Vinh Phuc Prov., Tam Dao National Park, on the way to the Rung Rinh peak, 20/06/1995. Records from Vietnam. Vinh Phuc (Tam Dao NP) (Thai 1997). Distribution. Vietnam (Thai 1997); Myanmar (Gates 1972). Vietnamese name. Giun l�� c��y. Remarks. The populations in Vietnam differ from the description of Gates (1936) in having spermathecal pores paired in vi and vii, additional genital markings in vi and more setae (Thai 1997)., Published as part of Nguyen, Tung T., Nguyen, Anh D., Tran, Binh T. T. & Blakemore, Robert J., 2016, A comprehensive checklist of earthworm species and subspecies from Vietnam (Annelida: Clitellata: Oligochaeta: Almidae, Eudrilidae, Glossoscolecidae, Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae, Moniligastridae, Ocnerodrilidae, Octochaetidae), pp. 1-92 in Zootaxa 4140 (1) on page 70, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4140.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/256507, {"references":["Rosa, D. (1890 b) Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmanica e regioni vicini, XXVI. Perichaetidi. Annali del Museo civico di storia naturale Giacomo Doria, 10, 107 - 122.","Beddard, F. E. (1895 a) A monograph of the Order Oligochaeta. The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 769 pp. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 28557","Michaelsen, W. (1900) Oligochaeta. Das Tierreich, 10, 1 - 575.","Michaelsen, W. (1903) Die geographische Verbreitung der Oligochaeten. Friedlander & Sohn Berlin, 186 pp. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 11667","Gates, G. E. (1936) The earthworms of Burma. V. Records of Indian Museum, 38, 377 - 468.","Gates, G. E. (1972) Burmese Earthworms: An Introduction to the Systematics and Biology of Megadrile Oligochaetes with Special Reference to Southeast Asia. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, N. S. 62 (7), 1 - 326. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.2307 / 1006214","Thai, T. B. (1997) New data on leaf - crawlers Pheretima Kinberg, 1863 in Vietnam and a key to species of this group from the mainland of Asia. TAP CHI SINH HOC, 19 (3), 1 - 7.","Thai, T. B. (2000 a) Species diversity of earthworms in Vietnam. Proceedings of the national workshop on the basic issues in life science. Hanoi Science and Technics Publishing House, 307 - 311.","Sims, R. W. & Easton, E. G. (1972) A numerical revision of the earthworm genus Pheretima auct. (Megascolecidae: Oligochaeta) with the recognition of new genera and an appendix on the earthworms collected by the Royal Society North Borneo Expedition. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 4, 169 - 268. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1095 - 8312.1972. tb 00694. x","Easton, E. G. (1979) A revision of the ' acaecate' earthworms of the Pheretima group (Megascolecidae: Oligochaeta): Archipheretima, Metapheretima, Planapheretima, Pleionogaster and Polypheretima. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology, 35, 1 - 126. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. part. 20451","Nakamura, Y. (1999) Checklist of earthworms of Pheretima genus group (Megascolecidae: Oligochaeta) of the world. Edaphologia, 64, 1 - 78.","Blakemore, R. J. (2007 a) Updated checklist of Pheretimoids (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae: Pheretima auct.) taxa. www. annelida. net / earthworm / Pheretimoids. pdf (accessed 6 Jun 2016)","Blakemore, R. J. (2008 b) List of earthworms from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam (Excel spreadsheet). In: A Series of Searchable Texts on Earthworm Biodiversity, Ecology and Systematics from Various Regions of the World - 2 nd Edition (2008). VermEcology, Yokohama. CD - ROM. Avaliable from: http: // www. annelida. net / earthworm / Vietnam % 20 + % 20 Lao s % 20 + % 20 Cambodia 1. xls (Accessed 21 Jul. 2016)","Nguyen, T. T., Tran, T. T. B. & Nguyen, D. A. (2014) Earthworms of the ' acaecate' Pheretima group in Vietnam (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae), with description of a new species from the Mekong delta. Zootaxa, 3866 (1), 105 - 121. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.11646 / zootaxa. 3866.1.5"]}

The aim of the study was to examine safe reuse and recycling of organic waste digestate obtained from a biogas plant (5 % total solid) with enhanced nutrient value through vermitechnology. Two indigenous epigeic earthworm species Perionyx excavates and Perionyx sansibaricus were tried individually for this purpose. The results clearly show a significant increase in pH values from 6.5–7.4, electrical conductivity (21.3–21.7 %), total N (84.5–94.6 %), total P (35.9–47.1 %), total K (49.8–52.6 %), Ca (41.9–41.9 %) and a significant decrease in total organic C (17.1–22.4 %), C/N ratio (7.2–6.9), C/P ratio (20.3–20.6), COD (51.9–55.7 %), BOD (85.5–91.2 %). Similarly, indicator organisms (fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci) showed decrement at the end of the composting period (60 days). Fecal Coliforms reduce to nil, while in fecal streptococci a 6 log reduction was observed. Oxygen uptake rate dropped to 67.4–70 % for vermireactors. Overall, the aforementioned findings highlighted that the indigenous earthworm species could enhance the nutrient value of the anaerobic digestate, which could be utilized as an efficient soil conditioner.

Trùn quế (Perionyx excavatus) là loài sinh vật phổ biến và có ích trong việc tham gia cải tạo và cung cấp dưỡng chất cho đất nông nghiệp. Bên cạnh đó, hàm lượng đạm cao trong thịt trùn quế cũng là nguồn dưỡng chất dồi dào cho ngành chăn nuôi. Chúng tôi đã tiến hành thuỷ phân thịt trùn quế bằng hệ thống lên men bán tự động trong 18 giờ ở nhiệt độ 40℃, tốc độ khuấy 130 vòng/phút, pH 6,5. Hỗn hợp lên men được bổ sung 5% rỉ đường, 1% enzyme protease SEB-Neutral PL, 5mM Ca2+ và 40% thịt trùn quế. Dịch thuỷ phân được sấy phun với 20% maltodextrin M100 để tạo bột đạm hoà tan nhằm dể dàng bảo quản, vận chuyển và bổ sung cho chăn nuôi. Đàn heo sử dụng 2% bột đạm từ thịt trùn quế trong khẩu phần ăn có tốc độ tăng trưởng tốt nhất. Các đàn heo sử dụng bột đạm từ thịt trùn quế đều có sức khoẻ và hoạt động sinh lý ổn định. Nghiên cứu này sẽ tiếp tục được thực hiện trên nhiều đối tượng khác để nhằm thương mại hoá sản phẩm bột đạm từ thịt trùn quế.

In Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, there are about 9 thousand tons of domestic waste every day and 73% of them are treated by using landfill sites [2]. With the population growth rate in recent years, the generated waste volume will then increase in the future and is estimated to reach a total of around 13 thousand tons that could cost Ho Chi Minh City about 260 thousand dollars in treating this waste in 2025 [3]. Although this treatment method is not without advantages, the downsides will be far more significant. Moreover, in recent years, the cultivation of Perionyx Excavatus, a species that had been reported to have the ability to treat organic waste in some foreign articles, has become increasingly popular in Vietnam. So, this research was aimed to evaluate the potentiality of Earthworm (Perionyx Excavatus) for food waste management of households in Lab-scale in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. According to this study, the average outdoor humidity and temperature of Ho Chi Minh City are higher than optimal conditions to raise Earthworm. In addition, the percentage of biomass is highest when rising the proportion of food waste and cow dung 4:6, respectively. It’s a point for encourage the applying Earthworm (Perionyx Excavatus) for food waste management in Ho Chi Minh.

Perionyx excavatus Perrier, 1872 Description: Length 20–120 mm. Unpigmented or slightly red dorsally, slightly yellow at ventral side. Prostomium epilobous. First dorsal pore in some of the intersegmental furrows 2/3–5/6. Nephropores conspicuous, in irregular lines. Spermathecal pores paired, in intersegmental furrows 7/8–8/9 respectively. Female pore single, mediventral. Male pores paired, in 18. Clitellum on 13–17. Gizzard present or absent. Intestinal origin in 15–16. Small parts of calciferous tissues may occur in segment 13, 14 or 15. Last lateral heart in 12. Excretory system holoic, avesiculate. Seminal vesicles in 11 and 12, last pair often extended through septa 12/13–14/15. Prostates in 18, ducts short, straight. Spermathecae paired, large with short ducts. Penial setae present. Notes: Distributed widely worldwide. May be found under the bark of rotten, fallen logs; under moss and debris; on riverbanks; in soil rich in organic matter; in manure heaps and composting areas; and in any considerably moist biotope. Recently used in vermicomposting farms. In RSA breeding is possible under favourable climatic conditions. This species was used in various experiments by Reinecke et al. (1992), and Reinecke and Pieters (1997, 1998), and may be found near previous experimental fields., Published as part of Plisko, Jadwiga D. & Nxele, Thembeka C., 2015, An annotated key separating foreign earthworm species from the indigenous South African taxa (Oligochaeta: Acanthodrilidae, Eudrilidae, Glossoscolecidae, Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae, Microchaetidae, Ocnerodrilidae and Tritogeniidae), pp. 663 in African Invertebrates 56 (3) on page 700, DOI: 10.5733/afin.056.0312, http://zenodo.org/record/7914712, {"references":["PERRIER, E. 1872. Recherches pour servir a l'histoire des lombriciens terrestres. Nouvelles Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris 8: 5 - 198.","REINECKE, A. J, VILJOEN, S. A. & SAAYMEN, R. J. 1992. The suitability of Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus and Eisenia fetida (Oligochaeta) for vermicomposting in southern Africa in terms of their temperature requirements. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 24 (12): 1295 - 1307.","REINECKE, S. A. & PIETERS, R. 1997. The morphology of male reproductive structures of Perionyx excavatus (Oligochaeta). South African Journal of Zoology 32 (3): 64 - 71."]}

India has a large network of pulp and paper mills of varying capacity. On an industrial scale the sludge from paper and pulp mills is disposed of either as landfill or incinerated. Both methods result in the loss of a valuable resource and have obvious environmental and economic disadvantages. The solid waste from pulp and paper mills is a source of organic matter and its proper disposal and management is the responsibility of the industry. As composting/vermicomposting could be used to transform this waste trials were carried out to determine the feasibility of converting dewatered sludge (DS) into a value added end product using an earthworm, Perionyx excavatus. The vermicomposting of the waste resulted in an increase in its electrical conductivity (EC), ash content, total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorous (TP) and available phosphorous (AP), respectively, and a decrease in total organic carbon (TOC), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), oxygen uptake rate (OUR) and evolution of carbon dioxide (CO2). Overall, the best treatment was T5 in which there was a 76.1% increase in TP, 58.7% in TN, 74.5% decrease in TOC , and a reduction of 6.7 fold in the production of CO2 and 10.7 fold in BOD, respectively. Our trials demonstrate that vermicomposting using an epigeic earthworm, Perionyx excavatus, is an alternate and environmentally safe way of recycling paper mill sludge if it is mixed with an appropriate amount of cow dung and food processing waste. Overall T5 was the best combination of paper mill sludge and waste for vermicomposting followed by T3, T2, T4 and T1, respectively.

Epigeic earthworms (Oligochaeta) have been appeared as key organisms to convert organic waste resources into value-added products, i.e., vermicompost and worm biomass. The assessment of reproduction potential of composting earthworm may be beneficial for large-scale earthworm production. Although, the waste minimizing potential of Perionyx excavatus and Perionyx sansibaricus is well proved, but little information is available about their fecundity rate. In this study, the efforts have been made to explore the growth and reproduction biology of P. excavatus and P. sansibaricus, using cattle waste solid as culture substrate, under laboratory conditions. Earthworms were weighed weekly and number of cocoons produced per week assessed. Biomass productions, fecundity, maturation, natality all were significantly different between P. excavatus and P. sansibaricus. The highest mean individual biomass was 767.7 ± 18.4 mg and 612.6 ± 20.6 mg, respectively in P. sansibaricus and P. excavatus. However, the highest cocoon numbers occurred in P. excavatus (492.3 ± 13.6), significantly higher than P. sansibaricus (269.6 ± 17.1). Fecundity was slightly different in both species: 1.38 ± 0.77 cocoons adult worm−1 week−1 (P. excavatus) and 1.58 ± 0.74 cocoons adult worm−1 week−1 (P. sansibaricus). The hatchling success rate (%) was highest in P. excavatus. Overall natality (juveniles adult−1 week−1) was highest in P. sansibaricus (1.52) than P. excavatus (1.26), which suggests that P. sansibaricus may be a better candidate for rapid propagation of earthworms in cattle waste solid.

The impact of organic material quality on biomass production and reproduction potential of commercial composting earthworm species: Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus and Perionyx sansibaricus were studied, by using three different type of culture material namely Jbs: (Jowar straw (Sorghum vulgare ) + bajra straw ( Pennisetum typhoides ) + sheep manure) (1:1:2), fym (farmyard manure), and Kw + Ll (Kitchen waste + leaf litter of Magifera indica ) (1:1), under laboratory conditions for 150 days. The above substrate or culture materials have different palatability, particle size and physio- chemical composition. Kitchen waste (C-to-N = 26.7) as well as farmyard manure (C-to-N = 27.4) is a high quality material with fast decomposition rates, while crop residues are low quality materials with slow decomposition rates (C-to-N = 45.6). All the three studied earthworm species showed maximum biomass production rate in Kw + Ll culture ( E. eugeniae = 9.80 ± 0.01 mg worm -1 day -1 , P. excavatus = 3.75 ± 0.01 mg worm -1 day -1 , and P. sansibaricus = 3.77 mg worm -1 day -1 ). Individual cocoon production rate varied drastically, and maximum value (worm -1 week -1 ) of it was observed in Kw + Ll for E. eugeniae (1.88 ± 0.15) and P. sansibaricus (1.77 ± 0.14), while P. excavatus showed maximum cocoon production rate in Fym (1.79 ± 0.17). The hatchling success of cocoons obtained from different beddings was also observed and cocoon obtained from Kw + Ll culture exhibited maximum hatchling success (%) in all the three species studied. The cocoons of both E. eugeniae and P. sansibaricus , obtained from Fym culture showed the highest number of hatchlings (cocoon -1 ) i.e. 1.59 ± 0.04 and 1.81 ± 0.10, respectively, whereas cocoons of P. excavatus showed the highest hatchling number (1.77 ± 0.06) in Kw + Ll. In this present study, there was a consistent trend of decreasing individual biomass as well as cocoon production rate, followed by their peak values with ageing of the culture materials. The relationship between different earthworm parameters and N-content or C-to-N of culture material was also evaluated. The biomass production rate and hatching success in all the three species studied showed direct correlation (p

The quality of vermicompost depends on the source of earthworms feed such as animal waste (cows, buffaloes, chickens, and goats). The aim of the study was to obtain high quality vermicompost and to determine the parameters of vermicompost in accordance with the compost quality standard from SNI 19-7030-2004. The experimental design was Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with the treatment of types animal manures: consisted of cow, buffalo, chicken, and goat manures with 6 replications, so there were 24 experimental units. The results showed that the 9 parameters of vermicompost tested complied to the quality criteria of compost from SNI 19-7030-2004. The significant finding of this study was the weight of the remaining earthworms decreased from 12 g at initial weight to 2.42 g for cow dung, 2.38 g for buffalo dung, 1.62 g for chicken manure and 0,63 g for goat dung after harvesting the vermicompost. The highest quality of vermicompost according to the criteria of SNI 19-7030-2004 was cow dung, followed by buffalo dung, goat dung, and chicken manure. According statistical analysis showed that pH (H2O,1:5 w/v) is 8.90 (highest) for chicken manure, 8.60 (medium) for cow dung as well as 8.46 (medium) for goat dung, and 7.90 (low) for buffalo dung. Water content are not significant for all sources of vermicompost which is 50% more. Temperatures of vermicompost from goat dung (28.70°C) and chicken manure (28.29°C) are significant significantly higher than cow dung (27.68°C), and buffalo dung (27.89°C). Organic C content, total N content, and C/N ratio of vermicompost used descriptive analysis. Organic C content was highest in vermicompost derived from buffalo dung, followed by cow dung, chicken manure, and goat dung as well as total N content from goat dung, chicken manure, buffalo dung, and cow dung. Also C/N ratio from low to high are goat dung, chicken manure, cow dung, and buffalo dung.

The research of applying Ganoderma residue in earthworm Perionyx excavatus cultivation have promised in reducing environmental pollutions from mushroom farm and brought high economic efficiency. A 9 m square with 9 experimental formulas were applied to investigate the effect of Ganoderma residue to earthworm growth. The results showed that Perionyx excavatus increased mass in all formulas added cultivated Ganoderma residues, in which the largest increased in formula of 75 % cultivated Ganoderma residues treated with Trichoderma, from 0.59 kg/m2 initial to 2.62 kg/m2. In addition, Perionyx excavatus growth and development completely was seen on the medium with 100 % cultivated ganoderma residues, reached 1.89 kg/m2. Although the growth rate of the Perionyx excavatus cultivated with Ganoderma residues was slower as compared to farming entirely by cow manure (2.94 kg/m2), in the long run, this process will bring farmers higher profits (56.500 VN dongs /m2 of culturing). This cultivation process might be promising to be applied in regions with mushrooms farms for economic and environmental reasons.

In this study, (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabolomics approach was used to characterize the metabolic response of the earthworm Perionyx excavatus in continuous vermifiltration for two months under hydraulic loading rates of 1m(3)m(-2)d(-1) (VF1) and 1.5m(3)m(-2)d(-1) (VF1.5). Both VF1 and VF1.5 showed higher removal of chemical oxygen demand and total nitrogen than the biofilter without earthworms. Principal component analysis of the NMR spectra of earthworm metabolites showed significant separations between those not subjected to wastewater filtration (control) and VF1 or VF1.5. Temporal variations of earthworm biomass, and the identified metabolites that are significantly different between control, VF1 and VF1.5 revealed that worms underwent increasing metabolic activity within 20days in VF1 and 14days in VF1.5, then decreasing metabolic activity. The use of NMR-based metabolomics in monitoring earthworm metabolism was demonstrated to be a novel approach in studying engineered vermifiltration systems.

Vermicomposting is proven to be an effective way for nutrient cycling, converting large quantities of organic waste into value added product (vermicast). In order to harness the potential of earthworms in vermicomposting, selection of earthworm species that are able to consume large quantity of waste, and moreover, produce vermicast with high nutrient content is important. This experiment was carried out to compare the efficacy of Perionyx excavatus (PE) and Eudrilus eugeniae (EE) in vermicomposting rice straws. Ten earthworms were introduced into each vermibin containing grinded rice straw. The vermicast produced was collected periodically. The experiment was terminated when 70% of rice straw had decomposed. The plant nutrient contents and humic acids in vermicast were analysed. Vermicast of PE contained higher concentrations of total and available N, P, K and Mg while EE vermicast contained higher total and available Ca. Humic acid content was also found to be higher in EE vermicast. EE took 134 days while PE took 171 days to complete vermicomposting, thus, plant nutrient content generated per day in vermicast EE was higher compared to PE. Using EE in vermicomposting would contribute significantly towards practicing sustainable agricultural by recycling large amount of organic waste rice straw into value added high plant nutrient content vermicast. Key words: Earthworm biomass, decomposition rate, humic acid, agronomy.

Annelida is a lophotrochozoan phylum whose members have a high degree of diversity in body plan morphology, reproductive strategies and ecological niches among others. Of the two traditional classes pertaining to the phylum Annelida (Polychaete and Clitellata), the structure and function of the Hox genes has not been clearly defined within the Oligochaeta class. Using a PCR-based survey, we were able to identify five new Hox genes from the earthworm Perionyx excavatus: a Hox3 gene (Pex-Hox3b), two Dfd genes (Pex-Lox6 and Pex-Lox18), and two posterior genes (Pex-post1 and -post2a). Our result suggests that the eleven earthworm Hox genes contain at least four paralog groups (PG) that have duplicated. We found the clitellates-diagnostic signature residues and annelid signature motif. Also, we show by semi-quantitative RT-PCR that duplicated Hox gene orthologs are differentially expressed in six different anterior–posterior body regions. These results provide essential data for comparative evolution of the Hox cluster within the Annelida.

Terrestrial avoidance behavior is proposed as a fast and cost-effective method for assessing effects of pesticides on earthworms. Tropical species however, have rarely been used in avoidance tests. Avoidance tests were performed with Perionyx excavatus, a tropical species, and Eisenia andrei as the standard species, using chlorpyrifos and carbofuran in artificial and natural soil. Earthworms were exposed to concentrations of 1–900 (chlorpyrifos) and 1–32 (carbofuran) mg a.i. kg−1 dry soil in a two-chamber system under tropical conditions (26 ± 2 °C, 48 h). No significant difference was found in the control tests comparing the two soils used, suggesting soil type did not affect the distribution of the worms. The results suggest a higher sensitivity of E. andrei, with EC50S for the effect on avoidance behavior for both pesticides being a factor of 2–3 lowers than for P. excavatus. Earthworm avoidance tests with local species should therefore be used with caution when applied as a tool for pesticide risk assessment in the tropics. Endpoints generated through avoidance tests in this study are shown to be less sensitive than reproduction and more sensitive than survival. This was further confirmed by literature data available. Earthworm avoidance tests therefore can only replace survival tests as an initial screening tool for risk assessment.

A serine collagenolytic protease was purified from the earthworm Perionyx excavates by DEAE-Sephadex A-50 and DEAE-Sephadex A-50 column. The molecular mass of the earthworm serine protease was estimated to be 35 kDa. The purified serine protease was optimally active at pH 6.8-7.8 and 55°C. In vitro studies on collagenolytic activity of this enzyme was also carried out using type I collagen. Hydrolysis of collagen using serine protease was characterized by the collagenolytic activity. The amount of hydroxyproline released (μg/ml) on untanned and tanned leather was monitored. Zymographic analysis was carried out using Collagen as substrate.

The lignocellulosic wastes, cashew leaf litter (CLL) admixed with various animal dungscowdung (CD), sheepdung (SD) and horsedung (HD) have been subjected to vermicomposting by using indigenous earthworms, Perionyx excavatus and Lampito mauritii and to produce value added vermicompost. Four different combinations of each [100% dung alone, 3 : 1 (75% dung + 25% CLL), 2 : 2 (50% dung + 50% CLL) and 1 : 3 (25% dung + 75% CLL)] vermibeds were prepared for vermicomposting process. After 60 days, the vermicompost and worm-unworked normal compost were harvested and characterized and growth (biomass), reproductive performance of earthworms-cocoon production, hatchling number and recovery of vermicompost were also studied. The obtained results clearly showed that vermicompost from CLL admixed with CD at 2 : 2 ratio had lower pH, organic carbon, C–N ratio, C–P ratio, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose and phenol content, and higher nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, dehydrogenase and humic acid content than the raw substrates and normal compost. Also pronounced and better earthworm activity was found in the above combination for both species. Hence organic farming practices using vermicompost promise an alternative to the existing practices and proved as a sustainable approach.

The composting potential of two epigeic earthworms (P. excavatus and P. sansibaricus) was studied in 2002 to breakdown the domestic waste under laboratory conditions. The experimental container with P. sansibaricus showed maximum mineralization and decomposition rate than that of P. excavatus. Except for exchangeable K (it was higher (P = 0.004) in a container with P. excavatus), the domestic waste processed by P. sansibaricus showed about 6% more total nitrogen (P = 0.002) and about 7% more available P (P = 0.269) at the end than by P. excavatus. As compared with the initial level organic C content as well as C:N ratio showed a considerable reduction that was noted higher in substrate with P. sansibaricus than those by P. excavatus (organic C, t-test: P = 0.870; C:N ratio, t-test: P = 0.002). The growth (biomass increase) and reproduction parameters such as mean individual live weight, maximum individual growth rate (mg wt./worm/day), number of cocoons and reproduction rate (cocoon/worm/day) were higher in bedding with P. sansibaricus. The maximum earthworm mortality was in vermibed having P. sansibaricus (∼50% higher than by P. excavatus) (t-test: P = 0.423), since both species did not show a drastic difference in waste mineralization rate, but comparatively, P. excavatus exhibited better growth and reproduction performance, which further support the suitability of the species for large scale vermiculture operations.

An earthworm assay was used to assess the toxicity of two main gasoline components. Ecotoxicities of toluene and methyl tert -butyl ether (MTBE) were compared for Asian earthworm Perionyx excavatus separately and in combination. Sum of toxic unit (TU) at 50% mortality for the mixture (LC50 mix ) was estimated from the dose (TU-based)–response relationships by the Trimmed Spearman–Karber method. Toluene was shown to be about five and two times more toxic to P. excavatus than MTBE in filter paper contact test and natural soil tests, respectively. This is primarily due to the adsorption of toluene to soil particles, leading to less bioavailability of toluene to the earthworm in soil. The combined effect of toluene and MTBE was investigated using toxic unit model, and it was found to be almost additive and synergistic responses to P. excavatus in filter paper contact test and soil tests, respectively. The combined effect of toluene and MTBE in filter paper contact test was not consistent with the results in soil toxicity tests. This phenomenon may be associated with the interaction of soil salts with pollutants. Treatment with toluene and MTBE also affected the behavior and morphology of P. excavatus . It indicates that the VOCs induce metabolic and functional damages in earthworms. Combined effects of gasoline components should be taken into account to soil risk assessment.

The decomposition efficiency of Perionyx sansibaricus (Perrier) for vermicomposting was evaluated by using a variety of wastes such as agriculture waste, farm yard manure and urban solid waste. Vermicomposting resulted in significant increase in total N (80.8-142.3%), phosphorous (33.1-114.6%) and potassium (26.3-125.2%), whereas decrease in organic C (14.0-37.0%) as well as C:N ratio (52.4-69.8%) in different experimental beddings. P. sansibaricus showed maximum biomass production, growth rate (mg day(-1)), mean cocoon numbers, and reproduction rate (cocoon worm(-1)) in VLL (vegetable waste+leaf litter) as compared to other substrate materials. There was a consistent trend for earthworms' growth and reproduction rate, related to initial N-content of the substrate (P0.05), but there was no clear effect of C:N ratio of the composted material on earthworm cocoon numbers and weight gain. Earthworm showed minimum total population mortality in VLL and maximum in HHCD (household waste+cow dung), after 150 days of experimentation. The increased level of plant metabolites in end product (vermicompost) and growth patterns of P. sansibaricus in different organic waste resources demonstrated the candidature of this species for wastes recycle operations at low-input basis.

In view of the growing awareness about vermicomposting technology in recycling different types of organic wastes, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of initial substrate pH on vermicomposting. The substrate pH and ash content were evaluated as a function of time. The data showed an exponential relationship between substrate pH and time of vermicomposting while a phase Bode plot of a single zero system relationship between the ash content and time of vermicomposting. The model parameters of these relationships also had very good correlation with the initial substrate pH. On the basis of obtained correlation between model parameters and initial substrate pH, generalized predictive models for the substrate pH and ash content have been evolved in terms of the duration of vermicomposting and the initial substrate pH. Plots of the predictive and experimentally observed values indicated a high robustness of predictive models. The study also revealed that the earthworm species Perionyx excavatus performs well in a wide range of substrate pH. Near neutral initial substrate pH was found to be optimal for stabilization of waste with minimal processing time. The substrates having strong acidic initial pH were found to be less suitable for vermicomposting.

A laboratory scale study was conducted to assess the suitability of rubber leaf litters as vermiculture substrates for Perionyx excavatus, Eudrilus eugeniae and Eisenia fetida. Earthworm mortality, their rate of body weight increase and reproduction were measured during the investigation. In E. eugeniae, E. fetida and P excavatus, the rate of increase of body weight was 28.8, 6.2 and 5.04 mg worm - 1 day - 1 , respectively, in rubber leaf litter. Mortality of the adults was very high (50 %) in P. excavatus when compared with that (17 %) of both Eisenia and Eudrilus. Rate of reproduction in rubber leaf litter diet for both E. eugeniae (1.4 young worm - 1 week - 1 ) and E. fetida (1.3 young worm - 1 week - 1 ) was significantly higher (P E. fetida > P. excavatus.

Biomass production and reproduction of a group of four adult Perionyx excaratus were studied in limited supplies of four experimental diets; cowdung alone and its mixtures with straw, bamboo leaf litter or kitchen waste, in order to select a suitable diet medium for vermiculture. P. excavatus showed maximum rate of biomass increase and reproduction in the mixtures with straw and bamboo leaf litter. In spite of achieving the highest final biomass value. P. excavatus showed the lowest rate of biomass increase and reproduction in the mixture with kitchen waste. Cowdung, a natural food of P. excavatus, was marginally better than the mixture with kitchen waste with regard to the rate of biomass increase and reproduction.

A study was conducted to evaluate the ash content as a function of time of vermicomposting and the moisture content which plays a significant role in the process. The data revealed a linear relationship between the ash content and time in the effective range of the vermicomposting duration. The model parameters of this linear relationship also have linear correlation with the moisture content. Through sub- stitutions, a generalized predictive model for the ash content has been evolved in terms of the duration of vermicomposting and the moistures contents. A plot of the predictive and experimentally observed values indicated a high robustness of predictive model. The study also showed that a moisture content of 80% is optimum for stabilization of waste in minimum processing time.

A comparative study was performed to evaluate the breakdown of leaf litter of two broad-leaved tree species, i.e. Polyalthia longifolia and Rhododendron arboreum by an exotic earthworm species Eisenia foetida and an indigenous earthworm species Perionyx excavatus under laboratory condition. Methods of Haimi and Huhta (Biol Fertil Soil 10:178–183, 1990) were followed for the present study. The rate of decay, percent cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin contents of the decomposing leaf litter of P. longifolia and R. arboreum were found to be higher in the sets treated with the two different earthworm species as compared to that of untreated sets where no earthworm was added. Though there was not much difference in the rate of leaf litter breakdown by two different earthworm species, the rate of litter breakdown by the exotic earthworm, E. foetida, was slightly higher as compared to the indigenous earthworm P. excavatus. Both the selected leaf litters treated with the different earthworm species exhibited significant positive correlations between percent biomass remaining, cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin contents (p ≤ .001). Significant variation was observed in hemicelluloses of leaf litters in sets treated with the two different earthworm species and in the untreated sets. It can be concluded that the indigenous earthworm species P. excavatus also has a high potential for leaf litter breakdown. It can act as a potential candidate in vermicompost technology—which will be of immense help in wastes management, resource recovery and environmental conservation.

Perionyx excavatus is a potential earthworm species for vermicomposting, and of live feed for fish as it contains high quality protein with excellent amino acid profile. Its limited seasonal abundance in natural as well as the associated risk of bioaccumulation of toxic products in wild earthworm inflate large scale vermiculture of this species. To establish a suitable food composite for mass culture of that species, the present study evaluated the production performance and nutritional composition of P. excavatus fed on four different organic food composites namely, C, T 1, T 2 and T 3. Initially five adult wild earthworms were stocked in cemented tanks, and reared them with feeding respective organic composites at the rate of 10% of their body weight twice a week for 120 days. To determine the growth rate, newly hatched larvae of 0.12-0.16 mg collected from respective treatments was reared in the separate tubs at the stocking rate of 5 larvae tub -1 for 60 days. Temperature, pH, moisture, total nitrogen and organic carbon contents of rearing beds, and growth rate of earthworms were recorded at every fortnight. The treatment T 3 was found to be effective for production performance (2.508 ± 0.75 larvae week -1 ) while the T 2 gave higher growth rate (0.16 g·worm -1 ·week -1 ) to this earthworm species. The highest protein (48.36%) and moisture content (81.85%) were recorded in T 2 but T 3 contained the lowest protein (39.65%) and the highest lipid level (4.82%). The ash content was found not to be significantly different among all treatments. The results of this study demonstrated T 3 composition as good medium for reproduction, and T 2 composition as better food composite for rearing P. excavatus . The outcomes of this study may provide essential information towards the mass culture of this species.

One-week-old juveniles of Perionyx excavatus were cultured in urine-free cow manure for 16 weeks in three different seasons to find out the influence of environmental factors on growth and reproduction. The biomass of worms increased gradually until the 16th week in all seasons. There was no significant (F=2.51) variation in biomass between the three seasons; however, the growth rate varied significantly (F=50.49, P