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Emotion regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and suppression, have been shown to dissimilarly affect life satisfaction. Specifically, reappraisal is linked to higher life satisfaction, while suppression is associated with lower life satisfaction. Less is known, however, about the potential moderators of these established relations. Given that reappraisal and suppression are contingent, in part, on executive function (EF), which comprises a group of adaptive, goal-orientated control processes (i.e., inhibitory control, working memory, and shifting), we explored whether different components of EF could moderate the impact of reappraisal and suppression on life satisfaction. Using latent moderated structural equation analyses, we found that the positive contribution of reappraisal to life satisfaction was more pronounced at higher than lower levels of inhibitory control and working memory. Shifting did not moderate the associations of reappraisal and suppression with life satisfaction. Further analyses, however, indicated that the interactive effects of reappraisal with inhibitory control and working memory on life satisfaction were driven primarily by the shared variance among EF constructs (i.e., common EF). Our findings underscore the pivotal role of common EF in moderating the relation of reappraisal with life satisfaction. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Background Recent studies in bipolar offspring (BO) showed that a low cognitive performance, especially executive function deficit, could be an early marker of bipolar disorder (BD). Nevertheless, these findings have not been replicated (specifically attentional control, flexibility, and working memory). In addition, most studies have focused on children and adolescents, but few studies analyze the executive function performance in BO adults. Objective Our goal was to compare the neurocognitive performance of BO with control parent-offspring (CO) in a sample that included various age groups. Method We conducted a cohort study, including subjects between six to 30 years old. We evaluated 129 BO and 113 CO subjects using validated psychiatric diagnostic interviews and an extensive neuropsychological battery. Results Compared to the CO group, the BO group presented a lower performance in several executive functioning domains, mainly in tasks of attentional control, flexibility, and working memory. All age groups exhibited these findings. Conclusions BO group presents executive function deficits, regardless of the age group: children, adolescents, and adults. This neurocognitive deficit should be accountable as a neurocognitive endophenotype candidate in BD.

Objective Children who are hard of hearing (CHH) experience delays in spoken language and executive function, but the mechanisms for these deficits remain unresolved. Differences in auditory experience and language skills have been examined as contributing factors to deficits in executive function, primarily with children who are deaf and children with cochlear implants. The theoretical model of cumulative auditory experience quantifies auditory dosage as how much speech is audible and how often children wear their hearing aids. CHH with higher auditory dosage have better language outcomes than peers with less auditory dosage. However, the effects of auditory experience on executive function have not been studied in CHH. The goal of this study was to examine the influences of auditory experience and language skills on the development of executive function in CHH. Design We collected measures of aided speech audibility, hearing aid use, executive function, and receptive vocabulary in 177 CHH and 86 children with typical hearing who were 5- to 10 years old and matched for socioeconomic status and nonverbal intelligence. Auditory dosage was calculated by combining each child's average hours of hearing aid use with their audibility for speech to create a variable that quantifies individual differences in auditory access. Results CHH had lower receptive vocabulary and deficits in executive function related to working memory and selective attention compared to peers with typical hearing. CHH with greater auditory dosage had higher receptive vocabulary than CHH with lower auditory dosage. Better receptive vocabulary was associated with better scores on executive function measures related to working memory and attention. Auditory dosage was also directly associated with measures of verbal working memory. Conclusions CHH have deficits in language and some, but not all, areas of executive function related to working memory and attention. Auditory dosage was associated with language abilities and verbal working memory. Language was associated with individual differences in executive function skills related to attention and working memory. These results provide support for systems theories regarding the development of executive function in CHH. Interventions that improve auditory access and language may be effective for improving executive function related to working memory and attention in CHH.

This randomized, controlled study examined the initial efficacy of an executive function training program for children with autism spectrum disorder. Seventy 7- to 11 year-olds with autism spectrum disorder and intelligence quotients ⩾80 were randomly assigned to receive a web-based set of executive function training games combined with in-person metacognition coaching or to a waitlist. Primary outcomes were evaluated for neural responses related to executive function, lab-based executive function behavior, and generalization of executive function skills. Secondary outcomes included measures of social function. Post-testing and analyses were conducted by staff naïve to group assignment. Children exhibited a change in neural response following training relative to the waitlist group [Formula: see text]. Training effects were not detected via lab-based tasks [Formula: see text] or generalized to caregiver-reported executive function skills outside the lab [Formula: see text]. However, the training group demonstrated reduced symptoms of repetitive behavior [Formula: see text] following training. There were no adverse events or attrition from the training group. Findings suggest that brief, targeted computer-based training program accompanied by coaching is feasible and may improve neural responses and repetitive behaviors of school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Lay abstract Executive function, which is a set of thinking skills that includes stopping unwanted responses, being flexible, and remembering information needed to solve problems, is a challenge for many children on the autism spectrum. This study tested whether executive function could be improved with a computerized executive function training program under the guidance of a coach who reinforced the use of executive function skills. Seventy children with autism spectrum disorder from age 7 to 11 years of age participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to receive training or to a waiting group. The tests most likely to determine whether the training may be effective were chosen from a larger battery before the study started and included one task measuring brain responses, two measures of executive function in the lab, and a parent questionnaire. Changes in social functioning and repetitive behaviors were also explored. All children assigned to training completed the program and families generally reported the experience was positive. Brain responses of the training group changed following training, but not within the waiting group during a similar time period. Children who received training did not exhibit behavioral changes during the two the lab-based tasks. Parent report on questionnaires indicated that neither group showed a significant change in their broad use of executive function in other settings. Yet, children who received training were reported to have fewer restricted and repetitive behaviors following training. These initial findings suggest that short executive function training activities are feasible and may improve some functioning of school-aged children on the autism spectrum.

Everyday function is influenced by both executive functions and emotions, both individually and in combination with each other. According to research, executive function and the emotional valence of autobiographical memories are related. Particularly, it is believed that positive memories improve executive function whereas negative memories may harm it (Eichenbaum et al., 2007; Pillemer & White, 1989). For instance, participants who could complete tasks requiring planning and decision-making and who could recall more positive autobiographical memories displayed stronger executive function, according to research by Eichenbaum and colleagues (2007). In a similar manner, Pillemer and White (1989) found that those with a history of depression struggled more with executive function-related activities and seemed to recollect more negative autobiographical memories. By facilitating the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information, executive function is essential for memory. It enables people to initiate and maintain attention, prevent distractions, organize and plan information, and keep track of their progress—all of which are necessary for efficient learning and memory consolidation (Diamond, 2013; Miyake & Friedman, 2012). Executive function, which consists of attention, working memory, and inhibitory control, is influenced by affective characteristics such as perceived stress, perceived hostility, and positive affect (Diamond, 2013; Stuss & Knight, 2013). Whereas perceived stress and hostility might impede memory and cognitive control (Kuhlmann, Piel, & Wolf,, 2018; Shields et al., 2017), positive affect has been shown to improve cognitive function (Fredrickson, 2004; Schmeichel, 2007). Declines in cognitive capacities, especially executive function, are linked to aging (Harada, Natelson Love, & Triebel, 2013). Aging has been linked to decreased inhibitory control, working memory, and attentional control, according to prior studies (Bopp & Verhaeghen, 2005; Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004). Executive function may affect how much people pay attention to and interpret information in a positive or negative manner, resulting in the formation of positive or negative memories (Mather & Knight, 2005). Old adults typically recall more pleasant memories as they age, which may be related to aging-related changes in motivation and goals (Carstensen & DeLiema, 2018). Young adults tend to remember more negative experiences than older adults do, whereas older adults may remember more positive experiences (Carstensen & DeLiema, 2018). This aging-related change in memory valence may be connected to age-related motivational changes that influence behavior and cognitive processing as opposed to neural or cognitive impairment (Carstensen & DeLiema, 2018; Mather & Knight, 2005). It is crucial to take into account how executive function and affective qualities interact in both younger and older adults in order to comprehend the impact of emotion on memory recollection during the course of a person's life. As it enables people to better control their emotions and concentrate on positive information, executive function has been suggested to have a role in the positivity bias observed in older adults (Mather & Knight, 2005). As a result, investigating the connection between executive function and affective characteristics like emotion regulation can shed light on the mechanisms driving age-related changes in memory valence (Carstensen & DeLiema, 2018). There has been little research done on the interplay between affective qualities and executive functions in how they impact the valence of autobiographical recollections. The proposed study aims to examine whether individual affective dimensions (perceived stress, perceived hostility, and positive affect) moderate the relationship between executive function (including attention, working memory, and inhibitory control) and one’s tendency to recall personal memories with more positive or negative tone. In this study, the sample will be derived from an open access dataset using a cross-sectional approach. As part of this dataset, tests of executive function, assessments of perceived stress, perceived hostility, and positive affect, as well as an interview about autobiographical recollections, were administered to a sample of healthy younger and older adults. This research will advance our understanding of the intricate relationships between emotion and cognition and shed light on the interplay between cognition and emotion manifest in everyday recollection and how this changes with age.

Executive function (EF) refers to the ability to control thoughts and emotions. This ability develops throughout childhood, and the development of EF is underpinned by the development of prefrontal function. There are several theories to characterize children's EF, such as subcomponent models (e.g., cognitive shifting, inhibition, updating) and a cool/hot model. However, the relationship between EF development and the prefrontal cortex is poorly understood. Here, we examine the relationship from the perspective of mathematical category theory. Mathematical category theory describes similarities and relationships in mathematical structures and is increasingly applied to the structure of computation in computer science and consciousness research. In developmental science, analyses using category theory are applied to analyze an EF task, dimensional change card sorting (DCCS), and researchers argue that the difficulty of the DCCS task is related to mathematical product, which is a notion of integration (Phillips et al., 2009). Specifically, younger children can easily perform the DCCS task without product, but only older children can perform the DCCS task with product. We hypothesized that the processing of the mathematical product requires activations in prefrontal regions and tested this hypothesis in young children.

Canadian guidelines for diagnosing fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) recommend that test scores and informant ratings be used to assess executive functioning skills; however, there are discrepancies between these forms of measurement and most studies only use caregiver ratings. As children spend half their time at school, this neglects a significant source of information. The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between tests and teacher ratings of executive function in children with prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE), with and without the diagnosis of FASD. A retrospective chart review of 303 children with PAE was completed. Teacher ratings of executive functioning were measured using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. Direct measures of executive functioning included select subtests from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System; NEuroPSYchological Assessment, Second Edition; Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition; Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition; and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition. This research found significant group differences across all teacher ratings of executive functioning. Most correlations between tests and teacher ratings of executive function that we expected to be related were not significantly associated. Results suggest that tests and teacher ratings of executive functioning may not measure the same construct or other factors may be impacting this relationship.

Research has rarely considered within-person variability in executive function. Using a web-based program, this study investigated end-of-day executive function for 2 weeks among 178 racially/ethnically diverse adolescents (Mage = 14.53). For each core component of executive function (cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, working memory), short-term practice effects were identified for the first 4 days of assessments, and no fatigue effects emerged for the remaining days. Another 5 days were needed to achieve good reliability for assessing executive function at the between-person level. Considerable daily variation was identified for each component and the overall construct of executive function, with between 40% and 55% of the variation attributed to within-person variability. These daily variations were associated with adolescents' affective and academic experiences during the day. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Background Executive function difficulties in youth with Down syndrome (DS) are well recognised using informant-report measures. However, the profile of relative challenges and strengths has not yet been evaluated using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Second Edition (BRIEF-2), which includes a new internal factor structure. Method Using the BRIEF-2, profiles of everyday parent-reported executive function (EF) were evaluated in youth with DS (n = 34) and compared with age-based and sex-based norms. EF profiles were also compared across raters (parent vs. teacher, n = 20) and relative to mental age-matched typically developing controls (ns = 19 in each group). Results Although within-group differences were not revealed on indexes, significant differences were found among BRIEF-2 scales. Across raters, teachers reported significantly more difficulties than parents. Compared with mental age-matched typically developing controls, the DS group was rated more poorly on some but not all BRIEF-2 scales. Conclusions At the scale, but not the index level, the BRIEF-2 identifies a variegated EF profile in children with DS. For several of the scales, significant differences were noted relative to both chronological age expectations (using norms) and mental-age expectations (using a developmentally matched comparison group). At the scale level, the BRIEF-2 continues to be a sensitive tool for identifying executive function difficulties as well as profiles of relative strengths and weaknesses in children with DS.

There is a growing body of evidence implicating executive function and motor skills as factors deemed essential to school readiness i.e., early literacy, writing, mathematical skills, social behaviour and self-regulation. Further, it is suggested that there is a synergistic interplay between motor and executive function, which may be subject to environmental influence. Although the relationship between motor skills, executive function and outcomes has been explored in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies across the years from 4 years old to 5- and 6 years old, there are few studies looking at these relationships in 3-year-olds. As this is an age at which both motor skills and executive functions are rapidly developing, it is important to understand the relationship between these abilities, and the environmental factors that might influence them during this stage of development (specifically Montessori and mainstream early years approaches will be compared since the former emphasises support for the growth of motor skills). To the knowledge of the researcher, there are currently no studies exploring the effect of the different pedagogical approaches on these cognitive abilities in early years environments. The aim of this project (part of the first author’s PhD programme) is therefore to measure executive function and motor skills at three timepoints in children from 3 to 5 years of age, along with cognitive and demographic covariates. At Time 3 (approaching 5 years of age) early literacy, writing, mathematical skills, social behaviour and self-regulation will also be assessed.

Objectives: Prior work has demonstrated that executive function training or physical exercise can improve older adults’ cognition. The current study takes an exploratory approach to compare the feasibility and efficacy of online executive function training and low-intensity aerobic exercise for improving cognitive and psychosocial functioning in healthy older adults. Method: Following a standard pretest-training-posttest protocol, 40 older adults (aged 65 and above) were randomly assigned to an executive function or a physical training group. A battery of cognitive and psychosocial outcome measures were administered before and after training. During the 10 weeks of self-guided training at home (25–30 min/day, 4 days/week), the executive function training group practiced a set of adaptive online executive function tasks designed by Lumos Labs, whereas the physical training group completed an adaptive Digital Video Disc (DVD)-based low-intensity aerobic exercise program. Results: Training transfer effects were limited. Relative to low-intensity aerobic exercise, executive function training yielded cognitive improvement on the 64-card Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST-64), a general executive function measure. Depression and stress levels dropped following both training programs, but this could be driven by decreased stress or excitement in performing the tasks over time. Discussion: The results revealed limited cognitive benefits of the online executive function training program, specifically to a near transfer test of general executive control. Importantly, the current study supports the feasibility of home-based self-guided executive function and low-intensity physical training with healthy older adults.

The importance of emotion understanding (EU) or emotion knowledge for many aspects of child’s functioning has been widely studied and confirmed in the domains of peer relations (Lindsey, 2017), social competence (Trentacosta & Fine, 2010), prosocial behavior (Ensor & Hughes, 2005) and prosocial orientation (Eggum et al., 2011), kindergarten and school adjustment (Di Maggio, Zappulla, & Pace, 2016; Garrett-Peters, Castro, & Halberstadt, 2016), and school success (Voltmer & von Salisch, 2017), among others. The development of EU has been linked not only to social factors (e.g., Ogren & Johnson, 2020), but also to cognitive functioning, including verbal ability (e.g., Pons, Lawson, Harris, & de Rosnay, 2003), nonverbal intelligence (e.g., Albanese et al., 2010), and executive function (e.g., Leerkes et al., 2008). The area of executive function (EF) may be of special interest, as this relation may differ depending on the component of EF (e.g., Li et al., 2020), and the direction of this relation may well be mutual (e.g. Farrell & Gilpin, 2021). As the preschool years are the time of rapid development of both EU and EF (also with relation to the sequence of developing EF components), this age range seems of significant importance to understanding the relation between these two domains of development. Despite the growing number of studies on EF-EU relation in children, there is no systemative review of the findings in this area of research. Therefore the present meta-analysis aimed to explore the relation between emotion understanding and several components of executive function, as well as potential moderators of this relation (e.g., children's age, the design of the study, etc.) in preschool children .

Objective: Executive function (EF) performance and structure in nondemented aging are frequently examined with variable-centered approaches. Person-centered analytics can contribute unique information about classes of persons by simultaneously considering EF performance and structure. The risk predictors of these classes can then be determined by machine learning technology. Using data from the Victoria Longitudinal Study we examined two goals: (a) detect different underlying subgroups (or classes) of EF performance and structure and (b) test multiple risk predictors for best discrimination of these detected subgroups. Method: We used a classification sample (n = 778; Mage = 71.42) for the first goal and a prediction subsample (n = 570; Mage = 70.10) for the second goal. Eight neuropsychological measures represented three EF dimensions (inhibition, updating, shifting). Fifteen predictors represented five domains (genetic, functional, lifestyle, mobility, demographic). Results: First, we observed two distinct classes: (a) lower EF performance and unidimensional structure (Class 1) and (b) higher EF performance and multidimensional structure (Class 2). Second, Class 2 was predicted by younger age, more novel cognitive activity, more education, lower body mass index, lower pulse pressure, female sex, faster balance, and more physical activity. Conclusions: Data-driven modeling approaches tested the possibility of an EF aging class that displayed both preserved EF performance levels and sustained multidimensional structure. The two observed classes differed in both performance level (lower, higher) and structure (unidimensional, multidimensional). Machine learning prediction analyses showed that the higher performing and multidimensional class was associated with multiple brain health-related protective factors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

This study investigated the psychometric properties of a Persian translation of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function(BRIEF2) in 253 children with ADHD in Iran (137 boys, 116 girls)ages 8 to 12 years old (M = 10.04; SD = 1.42). The parents of the children completed the Persian BRIEF2 and the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI). The findings indicated that the Persian version of BRIEF2 had good reliability (internal and test-retest) and satisfactory to good validity (convergent and construct). With respect to its construct validity, confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a three-factor solution was the best model fit for the nine subscales of the BRIEF2, which supports the valid interpretation of the three BRIEF2 indexes in the Persian BRIEF2. These findings support the clinical relevance of the Persian BRIEF in Iranian children with ADHD, as well as the multidimensional nature of executive functions.

Autistic adults report concerns with social skills and unemployment. Despite anxiety and difficulty with executive cognitive skills being associated with autism, no studies to date have investigated relationships between anxiety or executive cognition with social and work functioning. This study aimed to investigate the associations between perceived social anxiety, perceived and objective executive function, and perceived social and work functioning in a sample of autistic people. A total of 62 participants completed self-report questionnaires of social anxiety (via the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale), mental health (via the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale), executive cognition (via the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function) and perceived social and work functioning (the Work and Social Adjustment Scale), and a smaller subset ( n = 36–40) completed performance-based executive function tasks (Trail Making Task and Rapid Visual Processing Task). Participants who reported having more social anxiety and more difficulty with executive cognition also perceived themselves as having poorer social and work functioning. Performance-based executive function was not related to social or work functioning. Our results suggest that perceived social anxiety and executive cognition are both areas that have potential to be targeted to investigate whether they improve social and vocational outcomes for autistic people. Lay abstract Many autistic adults have trouble in social situations and at work. Researchers do not know exactly why autistic people might find it difficult in these environments, and no studies to date have looked the way anxiety or other cognitive processes might affect autistic peoples’ ability to socialise and succeed in getting and keeping jobs. Anxiety (how much you worry) and difficulty with getting stuff done or switching attention (known as executive function) can be concerns for autistic people and may contribute to social and work difficulties. This study looked at the relationships between the way autistic people perceived their anxiety and executive functioning and their ability to socialise and work. Sixty-two autistic participants completed questionnaires related to their ability to socialise and work, their social anxiety and their executive function. We found that participants who thought that they had poorer ability to work also found themselves to have more difficulties with executive function and they were more socially anxious. Our results showed that how autistic participants perceived their social anxiety and executive function were important in their perception of their social skills and work ability. This study supports the idea that anxiety and executive function could be targeted in interventions to support autistic people and their social and work outcomes.

Previous research on executive function (EF) as a protective factor has been limited by a focus on uniformly low- or high-risk (e.g., homelessness) contexts. Differentiating the role of EF as a main effect (i.e., promotive factor) from an interaction effect (i.e., protective factor) requires variation on the risk indicator (Brumley & Jaffee, 2016). The present study examines whether EF skills buffer the impact of early homelessness on later academic achievement using a representative sample of children who participated in routine early childhood screening in a diverse urban population, including a high proportion of children at risk for academic difficulties for reasons other than homelessness, such as poverty or racial-ethnic discrimination.

In this project we will tackle the question how the relationships between physical activity (PA), executive function (EF) and mental health (MH) behave over time by measuring these variables across three time-points, that is, ages 7, 11, and 14 years, in both males and females separately. The first arising question focuses on whether PA at age 7 predicts EF (Cambridge Gambling Task) at ages 11 and how this affects MH at age 14 (model 1). A second question will investigate whether PA at age 7 predicts MH at age 11 and how this affects EF at age 14 (model 2). This set of analyses would investigate the role of PA longitudinally. These longitudinal questions ask about how the three constructs relate over time in boys and girls separately.

Objectives Early detection of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is necessary to prevent irreversible brain damage caused by incipient Alzheimer's disease. It has been showing that amnestic MCI (a-MCI) subjects exhibit subtle deficits in executive function that can be tested using saccade eye movements. Eye-tracking technology is a sensitive method to measure cognitive impairments in dementia and MCI. Methods In this study, we used eye-tracking technology to explore saccade impairments to distinguish between a-MCI and the variants of reference controls. 21 patients with AD, 40 patients with a-MCI, and 59 normal participants were recruited in current study. We measured saccade reaction time, saccade errors, saccade omission, and uncorrected saccades using anti-saccade and pro-saccade tasks with 'gap' and 'overlap' procedures. These parameters were used as markers of executive function and visual attention deficits.Results: The findings revealed that more errors, more omissions, and fewer corrections characterized the saccade behavior of the a-MCI group compared to the reference group. These eye-tracking characteristics can be considered as inhibitory control and working memory deficits in a-MCI subjects. Our results thus demonstrate the applicability of the anti-saccade task as a cognitive marker in a-MCI. Conclusion The work provides further support for eye-tracking as a useful diagnostic biomarker in the assessment of executive function in aging with cognitive impairments.

Objective Previous research has documented executive function (EF) impairments in individuals with early treated phenylketonuria (ETPKU). It remains unclear, however, whether some aspects of EF may be more affected than others. A number of factors, including small sample sizes and variability in EF tasks, have likely contributed to past mixed findings. The present objective was to elucidate further the EF profile associated with ETPKU, particularly as it relates to report-based assessment of EF. Method Data from 286 individuals (5-48 years of age) with ETPKU on the child and adult versions of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), a well-established report-based assessment tool, were analyzed. Results The Working Memory scale showed the largest effect size in both young and older ETPKU samples, with 19% of children and 29% of adults scoring in the "abnormally elevated" range. In addition, EF impairment appeared more general (i.e., affecting more domains) in the adult sample as compared to the child sample. Exploratory analyses also suggested that the presence/absence of overall impairment on the BRIEF among our ETPKU participants could be predicted based on a small subset of items. A 10-item subset showed total classification accuracy values of 90% and above for both groups. Conclusions Working memory represents an aspect of EF that appears to be particularly affected in individuals with ETPKU. Findings also provide preliminary support of the viability for the development and/or adoption of an abbreviated screening measure for EF difficulties in children and adults with ETPKU. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

This project aims to examine the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between screen engagement, executive function, and sleep in UK adolescents, using the Millennium Cohort Study. This study will classify the frequently used term ‘screen use’ into more nuanced categories to determine if there are different associations between type of screen use, executive function, and sleep.

The aim of the current study is to examine the relationship between executive function (EF) and responsiveness to Cognitive Bias Modification for Interpretations (CBM-I). EF refers to cognitive abilities such as working memory and attention (Chan et al., 2008), whilst interpretation bias (IB) refers to the tendency to interpret ambiguous information in a consistently negative manner, such as interpreting a stranger's smile as derisive rather than friendly (Grey & Mathews, 2000). Research suggests that interpretation bias plays a crucial role in the maintenance of pathological worry (Hirsch & Mathews, 2012; Hirsch et al., 2016). In addition, pathological worriers may lack a positive interpretational bias found in low worriers (Feng et al., 2019). CBM-I is an intervention aimed at correcting maladaptive biases and associated symptoms, training individuals to generate consistently positive interpretations of emotional ambiguity (Hirsch et al., 2016). Whilst studies show that single session training alone produces a marked degree of success, less is known about the factors underlying CBM-I efficacy. Furthermore, whilst CBM-I and EF remediation have been typically examined as separate targets/strategies for reducing worry or alleviating mood/emotional disorder symptoms (Gold et al., 2016), little research has assessed the direct relationship between CBM-I and EF in the adult population (Pergamin-Hight et al., 2016; Grol et al., 2018); a better understanding of which may permit future research to explore EF as a potential target for enhancing CBM-I efficacy. Thus, the present study aims to examine the extent to which EF moderates the efficacy of CBM-I. Participants will take part in an online implemented experiment powered by Inquisit version 5 (https://www.millisecond.com). Direct email will be used to recruit participants who volunteered to be on our pre-existing worry database, having completed the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) previously. We will initially recruit only high worriers (those scoring >= 62 on the PSWQ). A study information page, along with a consent form, will provide a brief description of the experiment, but crucially there will be no explicit mention of any training procedure (e.g. CBM-I) or interpretation bias to avoid alerting participants to the goals of the study. Subject to consent, participants will complete the PSWQ to confirm worry levels at the time of participation, and will then proceed to complete a series of tasks, detailed below. The first is a task assessing executive function, the N-back task. This will be followed by a pre-training interpretation bias measure, the Recognition task, after which the interpretation bias training task takes place. Finally, a post-training assessment of interpretation bias will be completed, again using the recognition task. Executive Function Measure, the N-back task: Participants must indicate with a key press as quickly and as accurately as possible when the currently presented stimulus is identical to the stimulus presented N trials previously, typically zero-back, one-back, two-back and three-back (during the zero-back block, participants must decide whether the currently presented stimulus is identical to that shown on the very first target trial). Participants are provided with an instructional reminder before the start of a given N-back block. 20 different consonants are used as stimuli (Ragland et al., 2002), and the task consists of 3 blocks of 15 trials for each N-back ‘level’ (12 blocks in all) presented in pseudo-random order. Of the 15 trials in each block, 5 present a target (the current stimulus matches the N-trials back) and 10 do not, appearing in a randomised order. IB assessment: the recognition task. In the first half of this task, participants read 10 individually presented ambiguous scenarios, each presented with a descriptive title (e.g. ‘the evening stroll’). Participants complete a word-fragment of the final word for each scenario, followed by answering a yes/no comprehension question. In the second half of the task (recognition phase), the descriptive titles are presented only, followed by four disambiguating interpretative statements that relate to the original scenario. Participants must rate the degree of similarity between the interpretative statement and original scenario via a 4-point Likert scale. Two of the statements are classed as positive and negative ‘targets’, ratings of which provide independent indices of a positive or negative IB, respectively. The remaining two statements are positive and negative ‘foils’, and are not semantically related to the ambiguity context. CBM-I: Participants will be allocated to one of two conditions namely, positive training or control training. In the positive training condition, participants will be (aurally) presented with a series of ambiguous scenarios that are resolved in a positive manner. After participants have listened to the scenario, they are presented with a yes/no comprehension question on screen that aims to further reinforce a positive interpretational response to ambiguity. They are then given feedback in the form of ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’, with correct being delivered when they endorse the positive statement. Thus, participants learn to endorse positive interpretations of scenarios. In the control training condition, participants are presented with a series of ambiguous scenarios that remain neutral. In this condition, yes/no comprehension questions relate to factual aspects and therefore do not aim to reinforce any particular interpretative response. Participants receive 50 scenarios in each condition. The positive training condition presents 38 positively resolved scenarios, 6 negative scenarios and 6 catch trials. No feedback is provided on catch trials. After each of the tasks are complete participants will be asked if they consent to our looking up their Phenomenological Control (PC) Score in our participant database. Analysis will examine whether the extent of any change in IB from before to after CBM-I is related to participants EF score from the N-back task. In addition, for participants providing consent for us to look up their PC, we will examine whether the same change in IB from before to after CBM-I relates to their PC score (independently of EF).

3.1. Much research has set out to establish which factors contribute to the development of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination (Bigler & Liben, 2007). Given that the hope is to subvert the development of such beliefs and behaviors, much of this research has focused on young children. Most of the empirical and theoretical research has suggested that the reduction of prejudice can occur through increased intergroup contact and cooperation (Pettigrew, Tropp, Wagner, & Christ, 2011). Although this robust literature is useful, it is not always practical to engage children in intergroup contact when the stigmatized group is very small. This is particularly relevant when considering children’s interactions with individuals with physical disabilities. The prevalence of ambulatory disabilities in 5- to 15-year-olds was 0.6% in 2012 (Erickson, Lee, & von Schrader, 2014), suggesting that children would have few opportunities for interaction with peers who have physical disabilities. Given the limitations of engaging children in intergroup contact in cases such as this, it is worthwhile to consider alternative ways in which to reduce prejudice early in life. Another promising line of research suggests that cognitive skills may buffer children’s negative perceptions of typically stigmatized individuals. In particular, it has been demonstrated that various Executive Function skills (e.g., memory, inhibition, & flexibility) are linked to less biased social judgments (Hoyo, Rueda, Rodríguez-Bailón, 2019). These skills are relevant to prejudice in a number of ways. First, memory skills are implicated in children’s bias because children can use memory skills to recall stereotypes which they have encountered in the past. Conversely, remembering incidences when individuals engaged in stereotype-inconsistent behavior can reduce bias (Bigler & Liben, 1990, 1993; Liben & Signorella, 1980; Martin & Halverson, 1983). Second, inhibitory control, the ability to override prepotent responses, is also a relevant skill. Familiar social stereotypes are schemas, habit based heuristic responses. Thus, inhibitory control may serve to prevent these biased responses and instead allow children to respond in a more thoughtful way based on evidence (Boseovski & Marcovitch, 2012). Third, cognitive flexibility, which refers to the ability to “shift attention between task sets, attributes of a stimulus, responses, perspectives, or strategies (Perone et al., 2018), may also be relevant to social bias. Of note, cognitive flexibility facilitates the classification of stimuli into superordinate inclusive categories. This process highlights the similarity between items that may seem different at first glance (e.g., a blue boat and blue bunny are different shapes, but are the same color; Qu & Zelazo, 2007). These skills may likewise facilitate children’s conceptualization of individuals as similar to one another in positive ways (e.g., being friendly) regardless of different outward appearances (e.g., physical disability). In addition to these cognitive skills, substantial evidence suggests that social cognitive skills also contribute to children’s stereotyping and prejudice. Theory of Mind, broadly defined as reasoning about mental states, includes the ability to make appropriate inferences about contradictory inner and outer states (e.g., false emotions; Halberstadt et al., 2001). This may play a role in children’s likelihood of making positive judgments about peers, especially those whose outward appearance may make them seem unlikely to behave positively due to reconceived stereotypes. Many studies have now documented that various types of Theory of Mind are linked to decreased social bias (e.g., Aboud, 1981; Beelmann & Heinemann, 2014; Gee & Heyman, 2007; Lapan & Boseovski, 2016; Rutland et al., 2005). Although previous literature has documented the individual contributions of Executive Function and Theory of Mind to children’s reasoning about stigmatized groups, little research has conducted comprehensive assessments of all of these skills in a single study. This is a notable gap in the literature given that the Executive Function skills described underlie the development of Theory of Mind (Carlson, Mandell, & Williams, 2004). Thus, it is necessary to examine the concurrent contributions of both Executive Function and Theory of Mind in order to tease apart the distinct contributions of these skills to engagement in prejudice and stereotyping. Additionally, the reviewed literature has focused almost exclusively on gender and racial bias. Much less is known about how these skills relate to children’s perceptions of individuals with physical disabilities. The goal of the current study is to build of Dr. Lapan’s previous research in this area, which has attempted to examine the relation of both Executive Function skills and Theory of Mind skills with preschoolers’ tendency to stereotype and stigmatize peers with physical disabilities (Lapan & Boseovski, 2016). The current study will address a number of limitations of this previous research by including more comprehensive assessments of Theory of Mind and Executive Function. Additionally, it will also address a limitation in Dr. Lapan’s previous study by including a language assessment. Given that Theory of Mind is reliant in part on language skills, it is necessary to examine whether Theory of Mind accounts for decreased stigmatization above and beyond language abilities.

The aim of this research is to adopt a meta-analytic approach to elucidate the relation between typically-developing preschoolers’ Performance-Based (PB) and Informant-Report (IR) measures of Executive Function (EF). We plan to systematize the body of literature including PB and IR measures of EF, and to assess the size of the relations between the two constructs. PB EF can be assessed globally (e.g., as a performance-based composite of different tasks) or specifically (e.g., measures of inhibitory control, working memory, set-shifting, attention, and planning). Similarly, IR measures of EF can be assessed globally (total scores on a scale such as the BRIEF) or specifically (e.g., scores on sub-scales measuring working memory, inhibition, and so on). Our research aims to accomplish the following central goals: 1) Global to global relations: Our first goal is to examine the extent to which global PB EF correlates with global IR EF. 2) Global to specific relations: Our second goal is to explore the degree to which global PB/IR measures relate to specific PB/IR sub-components. 2.1. We will examine the relation between Global PB EF and specific IR scales of EF (e.g., the BRIEF sub-scales measuring working memory, etc.). 2.2. We will examine the relation between Global PB EF and specific IR scales of EF (e.g., the BRIEF, the REEF, the CBQ). 2.3. We will examine the relation between Global IR EF and specific PB measures of EF (e.g., inhibitory control, working memory etc.) 3) Specific to specific relations: Our third goal is to explore the relations between specific components of PB EF and specific IR scales. 4) PB Task and IR scale relations: At an even more specific level, our fourth goal is to assess the degree to which different types of PB EF tasks (e.g., Digit Span, Day/Night, Go-No/Go, etc.) are more or less associated with: 4.1. Global IR EF 4.2. Different IR scales (e.g., BRIEF, CBQ). 4.3. Different sub-scales of IR measures of EF. 5) Our fifth goal is to evaluate whether the relation between PB and IR scales of EF may be moderated by certain factors such as the type of informant who completed the report (i.e., parent or teacher), or children’s age, culture, language, etc.

Resonance frequency breathing (RFB) is a widely used self-paced breathing paradigm that seeks to enhance cardiorespiratory control (Lehrer & Gevirtz 2014) and in turn promote optimal physiological and emotional regulation (Lehrer et al., 2020). During RFB, individuals maintain a steady breathing rate at 6 breaths per minute (BPM) with the aid of a pacing stimulus (e.g., a computerised visual or auditory cue). Specifically, RFB works by increasing the pattern of synchronicity between heart rate and respiration. Previous studies indicate that biofeedback based RFB, for example, feedback on heart rate variability (HRV) which has been shown to increase with RFB, is associated with improved performance on tasks assessing executive function (EF), such as working memory and attention (for a systematic review, see Tinello et al., 2021). Whilst more recent research suggests a positive correlation between this type of intervention and EF performance, less is known about the extent to which online delivered RFB improves EF (Laborde et al., 2021, 2022; Bonomini et al., 2020; Chaitanya et al., 2022). Such research is necessary to establish the versatility and (far) transfer effects of RFB beyond the laboratory setting. If robust significant effects are observed, this would support the development of accessible and scalable online interventions aimed at emotionally vulnerable individuals (e.g., high worriers). Whilst impaired EF has long been associated with the maintenance of clinical anxiety and pathological worry (Eysenck et al., 2011; Fox et al., 2015), the efficacy of traditional cognitive training concerning negative emotional symptoms remains disputed (Keshavan et al., 2014). In a recent study, Hotton, Derakshan & Fox (2018) found that both active N-back training (reaching up to four N-back levels) and active N-back control training (remaining at the level of one-back only) provide equal improvement in working memory capacity and worry, although training-related improvements during active N-back training was positively associated with working memory enhancement and worry reduction. Such findings illustrate that there is a need for research to identify factors that augment existing EF remedial approaches (e.g., methods for optimising far-transference effects, individual differences etc), that in turn provide a stronger clinical impact for reducing anxiety and worry. If successful then, online RFB may provide a promising target for EF enhancement and as suggested by the previous literature provide an effective strategy for emotional regulation (Lehrer et al., 2020). The current study brings this objective into focus by examining the relationship between acute online implemented RFB and EF, assessed by the N-back task. The single N-back task is selected as the key outcome measure of EF, based on the previous literature utilizing this task in worry-based samples, in addition to recommendations for implementing single N-back as a simpler training paradigm, given that single- and dual- N-back versions provide equal training effects (Jaeggi et al., 2010). In accordance with neurovisceral integration theory (Thayer et al., 2009) and the resonance breathing model (Lehrer & Gevirtz, 2013), the current study predicts that EF performance is greater following RFB (6BPM) as compared to an active control breathing condition (12BPM) (the latter is considered within the range of normalised breathing; Tsai et al., 2015). The current online study is hosted within the Inquisit environment; initially participants will be presented with a study information page followed by a consent page. Subject to consent, participants will then complete the Penn-State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ), a demographical questionnaire followed by self-assessment of baseline anxiety and relaxation levels, as measured by visual analogue scales (VAS). Participants will then receive a five-minute N-back practice block to aid with EF task familiarisation provided later on. During the N-back task, participants are required to respond (via keypress) when the stimulus on the current trial matches the stimulus N trials previously, typically one, two or three trials before. Once practice is complete, participants will be randomly assigned to a 5-minute self-paced breathing session, either the RFB or active control breathing condition (allocation is counter-balanced across participants). During self-paced breathing, participants are instructed to match their breathing rate to the speed of a visual cue on the screen (see below for further details). The visual cue consists of a blue bar rising (prompting inhalation) and a green bar lowering (prompting exhalation) (based on the EZ-Air software; Thought Technology Ltd., Montreal, Canada). Previous research suggests that 6BPM is an optimal breathing pace for evoking cardiac resonance (Laborde et al., 2021), whilst 12BPM is thought to be closer to our normative (although highly variable) breathing rate (Tsai et al., 2015). Once the self-paced breathing session is complete, participants rate their anxiety and relaxation levels, as well as their confidence in maintaining the required breathing pace throughout the block (included as a manipulation check). Finally, the main N-back task is immediately presented in order to minimize potential wash-out effects. The current study adopts a within-subject design; participants will therefore repeat the same procedure a second time starting from the breathing block. The breathing pacer will be for the alternate breathing condition from that seen in the first block; VAS ratings and the N-back will be unchanged. Overall, the study lasts approximately one hour. Executive Function Measure, the N-back task: Participants must indicate with a key press as quickly and as accurately as possible when the currently presented stimulus is identical to the stimulus presented N trials previously, typically zero-back, one-back, two-back and three-back (during the zero-back block, participants must decide whether the currently presented stimulus is identical to that shown on the very first target trial). Participants are provided with an instructional reminder before the start of a given N-back block. 20 different consonants are used as stimuli (Ragland et al., 2002), and the task consists of 3 blocks of 15 trials for each N-back ‘level’ (12 blocks in all) presented in pseudo-random order. Of the 15 trials in each block, 5 present a target (the current stimulus matches the N-trials back) and 10 present a nontarget (the current stimulus does not match the N-trials back), appearing in a randomised order. ‘Hits’ refer to those trials where participants have correctly identified the current stimulus as matching N trials previously, whereas ‘false alarms’ refer to those trials where participants have incorrectly identified the current stimulus as matching N trials previously. Self-paced breathing: As specified above, the self-paced breathing paradigm consists of two separate sessions, namely RFB (6BPM) and active control breathing (12BPM) conditions. During the session, participants are instructed to match their respiration rate to the speed of a visual cue located at the centre of the screen. The visual cue consists of a blue bar rising (prompting inhalation) and a green bar lowering (prompting exhalation). Participants are instructed to inhale through the nose and exhale through the mouth with pursed lips. RFB consists of an inhale-to-exhale ratio of 4.5-5.5 seconds whereas the 12 BPM condition consists of a ratio of 2.2-2.8 seconds, respectively. The self-paced breathing block lasts 5-minutes without any break (Laborde and colleagues (2022) implemented 5-minute RFB in conditions with and without HRV biofeedback). The animated pacer is presented on the instructional pages to aid familiarisation, and once participants have understood the instructions, they can begin the main session. Visual analogue scales (VAS): the VAS provides a measure of self-reported anxiety, relaxation and breathing efficacy. For the anxiety scale, participants are prompted with the question on the screen: ‘How anxious do you feel? (Click on the line)’ . The line is anchored by the words ‘not at all anxious’ at the extreme left of the line and ‘extremely anxious’ at the extreme right of the line, with a response range of 0 – 100; responses are not revealed to participants. This same scale is applied to the relaxation domain: ‘How relaxed do you feel? (Click on the line)’. The line is anchored by the words ‘not at all relaxed’ at the extreme left of the line and ‘extremely relaxed’ at the extreme right of the line. Finally, a third VAS serves as a manipulation check of self-paced breathing: ‘What percentage of the time did you successfully match your breathing with the pacer? (Click on the line)’. The line is anchored by the value ‘0 %’ at the extreme left of the line and ‘100%’ at the extreme right of the line. Previous research adopt VAS in RFB interventions (Laborde et al., 2021, 2022; Lin et al., 2014).

Children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) often experience executive dysfunction, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and poor social skills, however, the nature of the relationships between these domains in children with NF1 is unclear. This study investigated these relationships using primary caregiver ratings of executive functions, ADHD symptoms and social skills in children with NF1. Participants were 136 children with NF1 and 93 typically developing (TD) controls aged 3-15 years recruited from 3 multidisciplinary neurofibromatosis clinics in Melbourne and Sydney, Australia, and Washington DC, USA. Mediation analysis was performed on primary outcome variables: parent ratings of executive functions (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Metacognition Index), ADHD symptoms (Conners-3/Conners ADHD Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders Scales) and social skills (Social Skills Improvement System-Rating Scale), adjusting for potential confounders (full scale IQ, sex, and social risk). Results revealed significantly poorer executive functions, elevated ADHD symptoms and reduced social skills in children with NF1 compared to controls. Poorer executive functions significantly predicted elevated ADHD symptoms and poorer social skills. Elevated ADHD symptoms significantly mediated the relationship between executive functions and social skills problems although did not fully account for social dysfunction. This study provides evidence for the importance of targeting ADHD symptoms as part of future interventions aimed at promoting prosocial behaviors in children with NF1.

The primary purpose of this study was to compare the working memory performance of monolingual English-speaking 2(nd−)grade children with dyslexia (N=82) to 2(nd) grade children with typical development (N = 167). Prior to making group comparisons, it is important to demonstrate invariance between working memory models in both groups or between-group comparisons would not be valid. Thus, we completed invariance testing using a model of working memory that had been validated for children with typical development (Gray et al., 2017) to see if it was valid for children with dyslexia. We tested three types of invariance: configural (does the model test the same constructs?), metric (are the factor loadings equivalent?), and scalar (are the item intercepts the same?). Group comparisons favored the children with typical development across all three working memory factors. However, differences in the Focus-of-Attention/Visuospatial factor could be explained by group differences in non-verbal intelligence and language skills. In contrast, differences in the Phonological and Central Executive working memory factors remained, even after accounting for non-verbal intelligence and language. Results highlight the need for researchers and educators to attend not only to the phonological aspects of working memory in children with dyslexia, but also to central executive function. Working memory can be defined as an individual’s capacity for retaining a limited amount of information in an accessible form that allows it to be used or manipulated to carry out various cognitive tasks (Cowan, 2017). It underpins important academic functions (e.g., Cowan, 2014; Knoop-van Campen et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2016; 2018; Rhodes et al., 2016) with research suggesting that aspects of working memory are impaired in at least a subset of children with dyslexia (e.g., Gray et al., 2019; Jeffries & Everatt, 2004; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001). Prior to making between-group comparisons that would suggest working memory impairment, however, we require evidence that the same working memory construct is being measured across groups. Invariance analyses test this very thing: they mathematically determine if a model fits similarly for two groups. If models are not invariant across groups, results of between-group comparisons could be invalid, uninterpretable (e.g., Fisher & Karl, 2019), and include systematic measurement error (e.g., Yoon & Lai, 2018). Therefore, the first purpose of this study was to determine whether a working memory model that fit the data for second-grade children with typical development (TD; Gray et al., 2017) would be invariant when we tested the same model with a group of second-grade children with dyslexia who completed the same working memory tasks. We used a multi-step process to test configural invariance (equivalence of model form), metric invariance (equivalence of factor loadings) and scalar invariance (equivalence of item intercepts). With invariance established, we proceeded to compare factor means on working memory measures for the groups with TD and dyslexia and to determine whether non-verbal intelligence and omnibus oral language measures could account for potential differences in the factor means (see Figure 1).

Several studies have reported poor executive function (EF) development in deaf children with subsequent impacts on their social and academic attainment. This paper describes the results of a music-based EF intervention designed for deaf children and carried out in two sets of primary schools. This is the first classroom-based EF training study with deaf children, and it also incorporates a replication phase. The intervention was a within-subject crossover design, with 29 deaf children aged 7–11 years who participated in both an EF and an art class control activity, each lasting 10 hours over 5 weeks. Non-verbal EF skills were assessed at pre-test, the crossover point, and post-test. Findings indicated that the EF intervention led to an improvement in participants’ working memory and inhibitory skills in comparison with their performance on the same tasks after the control activity. The findings were not uniform for all EFs targeted nor for all cognitive ability levels in the sample. We discuss the implications of our findings for deaf children with different ability levels and for how EF interventions can be further improved.

Funder: U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), Funder: National Research Foundation (Singapore) CREATE Grant to the University of Cambridge and Nanyang Technological University for the Centre of Lifelong Learning and Individualised Cognition (CLIC)., Concepts of cognitive control (CC) and executive function (EF) are defined in terms of their relationships with goal-directed behavior versus habits and controlled versus automatic processing, and related to the functions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and related regions and networks. A psychometric approach shows unity and diversity in CC constructs, with 3 components in the most commonly studied constructs: general or common CC and components specific to mental set shifting and working memory updating. These constructs are considered against the cellular and systems neurobiology of PFC and what is known of its functional neuroanatomical or network organization based on lesioning, neurochemical, and neuroimaging approaches across species. CC is also considered in the context of motivation, as "cool" and "hot" forms. Its Common CC component is shown to be distinct from general intelligence (g) and closely related to response inhibition. Impairments in CC are considered as possible causes of psychiatric symptoms and consequences of disorders. The relationships of CC with the general factor of psychopathology (p) and dimensional constructs such as impulsivity in large scale developmental and adult populations are considered, as well as implications for genetic studies and RDoC approaches to psychiatric classification.

Introduction. The use of executive function (EF) instruments to assess children’s functional performance is obscured with a lack of consensus on which is most suitable to use within the occupational therapy profession. This review identifies EF instruments used by occupational therapists (OTs) for children and evaluates their measurement properties. Methods. This systematic review was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42020172107). We reviewed occupational therapy-related studies published until March 2021, to identify performance-based EF instruments used among children by OTs. Two review authors independently screened, extracted, and evaluated the methodological rigor of the included studies. Adequacy of the measurement properties was determined using the COSMIN, and the Terwee criteria were used for synthesis of best evidence. Results. Five EF assessments were found across eight study articles: Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome for Children, Children’s Cooking Task, Children’s Kitchen Task Assessment, Do-Eat, and Preschool Executive Task Assessment. Adequacy of measurement properties and synthesis of best evidence varied, leading to a low GRADE rating on the certainty of evidence for the included instruments. Conclusions. There is limited evidence that supports the certainty of evidence on the measurement properties of the reviewed tools in helping OTs assess performance-based EF among children. Nevertheless, the authors conditionally suggest their use based on the critical need to measure children’s EF. Further research is needed to establish the measurement properties of these measures across different childhood populations.

Recent work within early executive function (EF) seems to suggest that toddlers show distinct patterns of development, involving poorly correlated performance across EF tasks and significant improvements over relatively short periods of time. The present study sought to extend these findings by investigating evidence for these patterns in toddlers and the existence of more traditional patterns of EF (e.g., correlations between tasks, links to language) when using the same tasks in a novel Latin American sample. Eighty toddlers (18-24 months) and sixty young preschoolers (30-36) months completed a battery of EF tasks, early social communication, and receptive and expressive language measures. Results indicated that toddlers showed similar distinct patterns of development (i.e., few relations between tasks and links to responding to joint attention), but by early preschool a more cohesive EF and links to language were present. Further, work demonstrated significant age (older children outperformed younger children), gender (girls outperformed boys), and socioeconomic differences (satisfied basic needs outperformed unsatisfied basic needs, but only on the snack delay). This work provides evidence for patterns of emerging EF development within this novel cultural sample (and evidence for group differences) that may be supported by communicative and representational development.

This study examined the prospective associations among the trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and child executive function (EF) across early and middle childhood, and tested the mediating role of maternal sensitivity in the links between change in maternal depressive symptoms and the growth of child EF. Participants included 1,364 children and mothers from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (NICHD SECCYD). We found that maternal depressive symptoms (from 6 months to Grade 5) and sensitivity (from 36 months to Grade 5) decreased, whereas child EF (planning skills; from Grade 1 to 5) increased over time. We also found several direct associations: (a) lower maternal depressive symptoms at 36 months predicted higher sensitivity at 54 months; (b) higher sensitivity at 54 months and a faster decrease in sensitivity from 36 months to Grade 5 predicted higher child EF in Grade 1; and (c) higher sensitivity at 54 months predicted greater growth of EF from Grade 1 to 5. In addition, two mediation effects were found as follows: Lower levels of maternal depressive symptoms at 36 months predicted both higher levels of child EF in Grade 1 and greater growth of EF from Grade 1 to 5 through higher levels of maternal sensitivity at 54 months. The results suggest that early maternal depressive symptoms may have long-term effects on the growth of EF, especially planning skills, during middle childhood, and that one important pathway that maternal depressive symptoms affect child EF outcomes through maternal sensitivity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The current study examined the utility of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P) in capturing emerging deficits in executive function in preschool children with a history of perinatal stroke. Parents and teachers of 55 clinically referred preschool children (3-5 years of age) provided ratings using the BRIEF-P. Both parent (

BACKGROUND Difficulties with executive functions (EF) are very common among individuals with Williams syndrome (WS). To characterise the pattern of relative strengths and weaknesses in EF for children and adolescents with WS, we considered the performance of a large sample on the parent version of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-2 (BRIEF-2). Associations between distinct components of EF and adaptive behaviour, behaviour problems and intellectual ability were investigated. The concurrent effects of components of behaviour regulation and emotion regulation on attention problems and anxiety problems also were evaluated. METHODS Participants were 308 6-17-year-olds with genetically confirmed classic WS deletions. Parent report of EF was measured by the BRIEF-2 questionnaire. Most participants (223/308) completed the Differential Ability Scales-II as a measure of intellectual ability. The parents of these individuals also completed the Child Behavior Checklist and the interview form of the Scales of Independent Behavior-Revised. RESULTS As a group, the participants evidenced considerable parent-reported EF difficulty. A profile of relative strength and weakness was found at the index level, with performance on both the Behavior Regulation Index and the Emotion Regulation Index significantly better than performance on the Cognitive Regulation Index. Within each index, a statistically significant pattern of relative strength and weakness also was identified. Difficulties with behaviour regulation and emotion regulation were related to both behaviour problems and adaptive behaviour limitations. Higher inflexibility and more difficulty with self-monitoring were associated with lower overall intellectual ability. Difficulty with inhibition was uniquely associated with attention problems, and inflexibility was uniquely associated with anxiety problems. CONCLUSIONS Executive function difficulties are highly prevalent among children and adolescents with WS and are associated with adaptive behaviour limitations, both internalising and externalising behaviour problems and more limited intellectual ability. These results highlight the importance of designing and delivering research-based interventions to improve the EF of children and adolescents with WS.

The parent-report Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Second Edition (BRIEF-2) is a widely used pediatric neuropsychological measure. Unfortunately, despite meaningful changes from its predecessor, few studies have examined its internal factor structure (now with Behavioral Regulation [BRI], Emotion Regulation [ERI], and Cognitive Regulation [CRI]), and no available literature has investigated higher order models for the BRIEF-2. This study sought to address this shortcoming in the literature by investigating and reporting on the dimensionality of the parent-report BRIEF-2 in a clinical sample. Two hundred and two (202) pediatric neuropsychology examinees (

Impaired executive function (EF), verbal comprehension, and theory of mind (ToM) may contribute to social difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The linkage between cool (cognitive) EF and ToM has been widely investigated, but the relations between hot (affective) EF and ToM remain largely unknown. The roles of cool EF and verbal comprehension have not been previously explored together to address hot EF-ToM relations. This study applied mediation analysis to investigate the mediating effects of cool EF and verbal comprehension to further elaborate the link between hot EF and ToM in children with ASD and average intellectual abilities. A total of 97 children with ASD aged from 6 to 12 years participated in this study. Children's cool EF, hot EF, and verbal comprehension were, respectively, measured with the computerized Dimensional Change Card Sort task, Children's Gambling Task, and the verbal comprehension index of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-fourth edition. Children's ToM was assessed with the Theory of Mind Task Battery. Partial correlation coefficients indicated that hot EF was significantly related with ToM with age controlled for. The results of the mediation analysis showed that cool EF and verbal comprehension mediated the linkage between hot EF and ToM. These findings highlight not only the connections between hot EF and ToM but also the importance of cool EF and verbal comprehension on hot EF-ToM relations in clinical assessments and interventions for school-aged children with ASD and average intellectual abilities. LAY SUMMARY: Relatively few studies have investigated the hot (affective) executive function (EF)-theory of mind (ToM) relations in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study discovered that hot EF was significantly related to ToM, while cool (cognitive) EF and verbal comprehension mediated the relationship between hot EF and ToM. Therefore, the influence of cool EF and verbal comprehension on hot EF-ToM relations should be considered in studies involving children with ASD. Autism Res 2021, 14: 921-931. © 2020 International Society for Autism Research and Wiley Periodicals LLC.

This meta-analysis is concerned with executive function in preschool as a predictor of concurrent and future social, health, and behavioral outcomes.

An online replication and extension of the first Intuitive Prosociality project to more closely examine the relation between fairness behavior, reaction time, and executive function in a sample of 144 children ages 4-9. Measures include a forced-choice Modified Dictator Game (MDG), the MEFS App (which is a tablet-based version of the Dimensional Change Card Sort task), the Inhibitory Control, Impulsivity, and Empathy sub-scales of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ), and a standard demographics questionnaire.Impulsivity, and Empathy sub-scales of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ).

The purpose of the proposed study is to examine whether children's fairness behavior is intuitive or deliberate and if executive function is an impacting factor.

Systems neuroscience approaches with a focus on large-scale brain organization and network analysis are advancing foundational knowledge of how cognitive control processes are implemented in the brain. Over the past decade, technological and computational innovations in the study of brain connectivity have led to advances in our understanding of how brain networks function, inspiring new conceptualizations of the role of prefrontal cortex (PFC) networks in the coordination of cognitive control. In this review, we describe six key PFC networks involved in cognitive control and elucidate key principles relevant for understanding how these networks implement cognitive control. Implementation of cognitive control in a constantly changing environment depends on the dynamic and flexible organization of PFC networks. In this context, we describe major empirical and theoretical models that have emerged in recent years and describe how their functional architecture and dynamic organization supports flexible cognitive control. We take an overarching view of advances made in the past few decades and consider fundamental issues regarding PFC network function, global brain dynamics, and cognition that still need to be resolved. We conclude by clarifying important future directions for research on cognitive control and their implications for advancing our understanding of PFC networks in brain disorders.

People often learn from the outcomes of their actions, even when these outcomes do not involve material rewards or punishments. How does our brain provide this flexibility? We combined behavior, computational modeling, and functional neuroimaging to probe whether learning from abstract novel outcomes harnesses the same circuitry that supports learning from familiar secondary reinforcers. Behavior and neuroimaging revealed that novel images can act as a substitute for rewards during instrumental learning, producing reliable reward-like signals in dopaminergic circuits. Moreover, we found evidence that prefrontal correlates of executive control may play a role in shaping flexible responses in reward circuits. These results suggest that learning from novel outcomes is supported by an interplay between high-level representations in prefrontal cortex and low-level responses in subcortical reward circuits. This interaction may allow for human reinforcement learning over arbitrarily abstract reward functions.

Both HIV status and heavy alcohol use have been associated with reduced cognitive function, particularly in the domains of working memory and executive function. It is unclear what aspects of working memory and executive function are associated with HIV status and heavy alcohol use and whether performance on these measures are associated with functional impairment. We examined the relationship between HIV, history of heavy alcohol consumption, and HIV/alcohol interaction on speeded tests of frontal inhibitory abilities, a working memory task related to mental manipulation of letters and numbers, cognitive flexibility, and measures of functional impairment. Study participants included 284 individuals (151 HIV +) recruited from two different studies focusing on HIV associated brain dysfunction, one specific to the effects of alcohol, the other specific to the effects of aging. HIV status was not independently associated with working memory and executive function measures. Higher level of alcohol consumption was associated with reduced performance on Letter Number Sequencing. Poorer Letter Number Sequencing performance was associated with role impairment (an inability to do certain kinds of work, housework, or schoolwork) and executive function difficulties. Future studies should examine causal associations and interventions targeting working memory abilities.Tanto el estado del VIH como el consumo excesivo de alcohol se han asociado con una función cognitiva reducida, particularmente en los dominios de la memoria de trabajo y la función ejecutiva. No está claro qué aspectos de la memoria de trabajo y la función ejecutiva están asociados con el estado del VIH y el consumo excesivo de alcohol y si el desempeño en estas medidas está asociado con un deterioro funcional. Examinamos la relación entre el VIH, el historial de consumo excesivo de alcohol y la interacción VIH / alcohol, en pruebas aceleradas de capacidades inhibitorias frontales, tareas de memoria de trabajo relacionadas con la manipulación mental de letras y números, flexibilidad cognitiva y medidas de deterioro funcional. Los participantes del estudio incluyeron 284 personas (151 VIH +) reclutadas de dos estudios diferentes que se centran en la disfunción cerebral asociada al VIH, uno específico de los efectos del alcohol y el otro específico de los efectos del envejecimiento. El estado del VIH no se asoció de forma independiente con las medidas de memoria de trabajo y función ejecutiva. Un mayor nivel de consumo de alcohol se asoció con un rendimiento reducido en la secuenciación de números de letras. Un desempeño deficiente en la secuenciación de números de letras se asoció con un deterioro de los roles (una incapacidad para realizar ciertos tipos de trabajo, tareas domésticas o escolares) y dificultades en las funciones ejecutivas. Los estudios futuros deben examinar las asociaciones causales y las intervenciones dirigidas a las capacidades de la memoria de trabajo.

Much attention has been focused on physical exercise benefits to mental health such as mood and cognitive function. Our recent studies have consistently shown that a single bout of exercise elicits increased task-related brain activation mainly in the dorsolateral part of the prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), which results in improved executive performance. As the DLPFC is associated with the modulation of mood as well as executive function, it is tempting to hypothesize that exercising while in a positive mood would facilitate the beneficial effects of exercise on executive function via DLPFC activation. Thus, we conceived an experiment that used music to elicit a positive mood during exercise. Thirty-three young adults performed ten minutes of moderate-intensity (50% V.O2peak) pedaling exercise with two experimental conditions: listening to music and listening to beeps at a steady tempo. Mood and executive function were respectively assessed using the Two-Dimensional Mood Scale and a color-word-matching Stroop task before and after the exercise sessions. Prefrontal activation during the Stroop task was monitored using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Exercise with music elicited greater enhancement of a positive mood (vitality) than did exercise with beeps. Contrary to our hypothesis, there were no significant differences between conditions in improvement in Stroop task performance and task-related cortical activation in the left-DLPFC. The correlation analyses, however, revealed significant correlations among increased vitality, shortened Stroop interference time and increased activation in the left-DLPFC. These results support the hypothesis that positive mood while exercising influences the benefit of exercise on prefrontal activation and executive performance.

Family socio-economic status (SES) is significantly related to disparities in children's executive function. Children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds perform worse on executive function tasks than their peers from high-SES families. The protective factors in the relationship between SES and executive function have not been sufficiently investigated, especially from the perspective of parents' and children's perceptions and expectations regarding SES. Therefore, this study aimed to examine whether parental subjective SES and children's subjective social mobility separately moderated the relationship between family SES and children's executive function among 885 participants aged 9-13 years. The results showed that family SES was positively related to the three components of executive function (cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory). Moreover, the relationship between SES and cognitive flexibility was weak among the children with a high level of subjective social mobility or those whose parents had high levels of subjective SES. Among children from families with economic hardship, subjective social mobility is a potential protective factor mitigating the negative effects of low family SES on their cognitive flexibility.

Assessment of intelligence and executive function in 9-10-year-old preterm children as compared to a full-term comparison group and to reveal the background of the individual differences in the outcomes by analyzing the effects of perinatal and social-economic factors.Seventy-two preterm children (divided into two groups: 32 extremely low birth weight, 40 very low birth weight) and a matched group of 33 healthy full-term children, aged 9-10 years, were tested using the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC-IV) and digital versions of tasks measuring executive function. As background information perinatal variables and maternal education were entered in the analysis.In the WISC-IV all three groups performed in the normal range. The preterm children, particularly the ELBW subgroup, scored significantly lower than the full-term comparison group in several outcome measures. Behind the group means there were massive scatters of the individual scores. Lower maternal education, male gender, and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) increased the risk for performance deficits.Low-to-moderate risk preterm children as groups are disadvantaged in the development of intelligence and executive function as compared to healthy full-term children even until school-age. However, with appropriate protective factors they may have chances to develop comparably with their full-term, non-risk counterparts.

Although decline of cognitive abilities in late life is regarded as a common facet of aging, there is inter-individual variability in this decline. Possible contributors are cardiometabolic risk factors associated with cerebrovascular dysfunction, but a dearth in unifying health-cognition models confound exactly how these risk factors mediate age-related changes in executive function (EF) and episodic memory. This study investigated the indirect effect of age on these cognitive abilities via cardiometabolic risk factors using a structural equation modeling approach. Participants included 738 adults (64% female) ranging from 21 to 85 years of age (M = 47.47, SD = 18.28). An exploratory factor analysis was applied to an EF battery yielding a two-factor solution, consisting of inhibition and cognitive flexibility, that showed acceptable fit (χ(2)(48) = 101.84, p < .001, CFI = .980, RMSEA = .039, SRMR = .035). The EF latent factors were then included in a confirmatory factor analysis exploring the indirect role of age on episodic memory and EF via blood pressure, cholesterol, triglycerides and body mass index. The theoretical model demonstrated acceptable fit, χ(2)(108) = 204.071, p < .001, CFI = .972, RMSEA = .035, SRMR = .035. Blood pressure was associated with lower cognitive flexibility (β = −.20, p < .001) and there was a significant indirect effect of age on episodic memory through cognitive flexibility (β = .07, p = .021). Results support the “Executive Decline Hypothesis” of age-related episodic memory decline and specifically implicate lower blood pressure control and cognitive flexibility in these changes.

Accurate screening for cognitive impairment in alcohol and other drug (AOD) services would help to identify individuals who may need supports to obtain the greatest benefit from substance use disorder (SUD) treatment. At present there is no screening measure that has been developed specifically to detect cognitive impairment in a SUD population. This study examines the psychometric properties of the Brief Executive-function Assessment Tool (BEAT), which was specifically designed for this purpose. This study involving 501 individuals with SUD and 145 normal control participants established internal consistency (

Previous literature has shown that having siblings influences children’s theory of mind understanding and executive function, such that children with more siblings have an advantage over children with fewer or no siblings. Other research and theories have linked having pets (dogs, specifically) to development in important ways. In this project, we will test whether children with pet dogs perform better on theory of mind and executive function tasks than children who don’t.

Executive function (EF) impacts behavior associated with health outcomes. EF can be measured using self-report and/or performance measures, but the correlations between these types of measures are mixed in the extant literature. This study examined self-report and performance-based measures of EF using data from 6 studies, including community and clinical populations (410 participants, ages 19–80, 71% female). Partial correlations revealed significant relationships between performance on the Trail-making, Delay Discounting, and Stop Signal tasks with self-reported EF (p

Mani, Mullainathan, Shafir, and Zhao (2013) showed that living in poverty can impede executive functioning in adults. By inducing thoughts of monetary concerns, they reduced performance on a cognitive control task in low-income participants but not high-income participants. They proposed that this effect illustrated a pathway by which poverty could negatively impact cognitive capacity and decision making. This study generated new insights into the effects of poverty on cognitive functioning and provided new direction for policies that affect people living in poverty. Importantly, it is currently unknown whether this phenomenon occurs in youth. If demonstrated, an effect of socioeconomic adversity on cognitive functioning in youth could help explain well established gaps in academic achievement between low- and high-income youth. This is a pre-registration of a study to replicate and extend Mani et al.’s findings in a sample of adolescents in the Pacific Northwest.

Objective/Background: Personality traits are regarded as risk factors for cognitive impairment in older adults, while sleep disturbance and physical inactivity are also considered as modifiable risk factors. Therefore, it could be beneficial to investigate the effects of those modifiable risk factors on the relationship between personality traits and cognitive functions, to prepare appropriate strategies for mitigating cognitive impairment. Participants: A total of 155 cognitively unimpaired older adults were included. Methods: All participants underwent cognitive function tests using the Seoul Neuropsychological Screening Battery and examinations for personality traits using the Big Five Inventory. Individual physical activity and sleep quality were assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, respectively. A hierarchical linear multiple regression analysis was performed to demonstrate the direct association between personality traits and cognitive functions, and the multiple moderator analysis was used to analyze the moderating effects of lifestyle factors on this association. Results: Among the five personality traits, only neuroticism was negatively associated with the frontal executive and visuospatial functions after controlling age, sex, and years of education. Interestingly, the negative relationship between neuroticism and frontal executive function was alleviated in older adults with higher sleep quality. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrated that higher sleep quality has significant moderating effects on the negative association between neuroticism and frontal executive functions in older adults, which suggests intervention for improving sleep quality such as cognitive behavioral therapy can be considered in older adults who have personality traits associated with a high risk of cognitive impairment.