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In this study, a glacial lake-outburst flood was documented in the immediate foreland of the maximum phase of the Wartanian (Warthian, Late Saalian, MIS 6) Glaciation at Adamow in south central Poland. The structural and textural analyses of the sediments, as well as palaeohydraulic analysis, were carried out in the proximal part of the outwash plain where a fragment of the floodwater drainage system comprising buried erosional channels have been documented. Their fill reached a thickness of up to 11 m and was composed of poorly sorted, massive gravels with boulders, as well as horizontally, sub-horizontally, low-angle, and cross-stratified gravels. The coarse sediments were found to be inversely and normally graded. These sediments constituted the records of two subsequent flooding episodes. In the channel fill, the lenticular accumulations of gravel were identified and interpreted as buried large gravel dunes, while exhibiting a thickness of up to 2.5 m. Traces of sediment diapirism at the contact of channel fill and underlying sediments were also documented. Deformation was observed to originate from liquefaction caused by the rapid depositional loading of flood deposits. The example used in this study exhibited that the impact of glacial lake-outburst floods in shaping the marginal zones and foreland of ice sheets in the North European Plain was higher than that considered earlier. This example also showed a different case of glacial outburst flood in the foreland of the Middle Pleistocene ice sheets of Europe than that already known, which includes the discharge of sub- or englacial meltwater reservoirs emanated from a large proglacial ice-dammed lake.

A potential glacial lake outburst flood from Lake Palcacocha (Cordillera Blanca, Peru) threatens Huaraz, a city of 120,000 people. In 1941, an outburst flood destroyed one-third of the city and caused at least 1,800 fatalities. Since pre-industrial times, Lake Palcacocha has expanded due to the retreat of Palcaraju glacier. Here we used observations and numerical models to evaluate the anthropogenic contribution to the glacier’s retreat and glacial lake outburst flood hazard. We found that the magnitude of human-induced warming equals between 85 and 105% (5–95% confidence interval) of the observed 1 °C warming since 1880 in this region. We conclude that it is virtually certain (>99% probability) that the retreat of Palcaraju glacier to the present day cannot be explained by natural variability alone, and that the retreat by 1941 represented an early impact of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Our central estimate is that the overall retreat is entirely attributable to the observed temperature trend, and that the resulting change in the geometry of the lake and valley has substantially increased the outburst flood hazard. Human-induced warming is responsible for the retreat of Palcaraju glacier and the associated increase in glacial lake outburst flood hazard, according to an analysis of observations and numerical models.

The Kangri Karpo Mountain Range on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau frequently experiences glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). This study assessed the risk of outburst floods for Guangxieco Proglacial Lake (GPL) in this Mountain Range as a typical case to reveal the effects of rapid glacial change. The area of Gongzo Glacier behind GPL decreased by 7.39 ± 0.10% from 1987 to 2019, while this glacier advanced by 32.45 m from 5 June to 27 October in 1988. Guangxieco Proglacial Lake decreased from 0.42 ± 0.03 km2 in 1987 to 0.19 ± 0.03 km2 in 1988 and then continuously expanded to 0.43 ± 0.04 km2 in 2019. Heavy precipitation occurred before 15 July 1988, when no supraglacial lake existed. Meanwhile, sustained abnormally high air temperature caused accelerated glacier and snow melting. Since 1988, a larger volume of rainfall and meltwater impounded by the ice wall caused an increase in the basal water pressure in the glacier. A significant increase in winter mass balance has caused a further increase in the downward gravity component of glacier sliding. As a result, the glacier advanced rapidly while reopening previously blocked subglacial drainage systems. The accumulating subglacial water rapidly drained into the Proglacial Lake causing an elevated lake level and a GLOF event. However, the current area of the glacial lake has recovered to the scale present before the outburst in 1988. Therefore, local government agencies and the local community should improve early warning systems and take measures designed to prevent a new GLOF and to minimize the risk of a recurrence of a GPL outburst.

PurposeClimate change and global warming pose a serious threat to the community as deglaciating environments trigger glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). The Sendai framework underpins the role of disaster risk reduction (DRR) for sustainable development, thereby calling for the development of GLOF hazard and risk assessment procedures. This study aims to delineate the enablers of GLOF risk and establish a contextual relationship between them.Design/methodology/approachThe risk enablers are identified from the extant GLOF literature, and the experts from disaster management area are consulted to explore the underlying contextual relationship among them. An interpretive structural model is developed from the responses to analyze the contextual relationships among the risk enablers.FindingsThe interpretive structural modeling results manifest that seismic activity, temperature and precipitation events, and proximity are key drivers that trigger flash floods from the lakes and an effective assessment of these triggers may contribute significantly to GLOF risk mitigation.Originality/valueThe study models the complex relationship among the risk enablers for a glacial flood hazard that find commonality across all geographic contexts. The findings provide the practitioners of DRR useful insights into these factors and their subsequent impact on others, while conducting hazard assessment of glacial lakes that may contribute to the sustainable development of settlements lying downstream to glacial lakes.

Shishper lake is an ice-dammed lake in northern Pakistan that has drained twice within one (1) year. The parameters evaluated in this paper are the lake’s area, volume, peak discharge, and its outburst events using various satellite images from November 2018 to June 2020. Based on satellite imagery and empirical approaches, the lake formed in November 2018 and reached a maximum of 0.34 km2 till its first breach that occurred on 22 June 2019. Since June 2019, the lake drained till September 2019. After that, the flow was blocked again, and the lake expanded to an area of 0.27 km2 till its second outburst event that happened on May 29, 2020. Eight cross-sectional profiles of Hassanabad ravine are generated based on peak discharge in the lake’s rapid outburst. The results indicate that, the peak discharge for both 2019 and 2020 was more than 4500 m3 s−1. Delineation of downstream Hassanabad ravine shows that more than 1000 buildings and 2000+ population is prone to flood. However, the lake drain twice steadily, but it has a high potential to cause severe damages if it bursts abruptly.

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) pose an increasing hazard to communities living downstream of glaciated areas of the Northern Patagonia Icefield (NPI). The proliferation of GLOF events poses a...

The study analyzed synthetically spatiotemporal distribution and evolution status of moraine-dammed lakes and potential dangerous glacial lakes (PDGLs) in the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau (QTP) and revealed integrated risk degree of county-based glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs) disaster by combining hazard of PDGLs, regional exposure, vulnerability of exposed elements, and adaptability and using the analytic hierarchy process and weighted comprehensive method. The results show there are 654 moraine-dammed lakes (> 0.018 km2) with a total area of 200.25 km2 in the QTP in the 2010s, of which 246 lakes with a total area of 78.38 km2 are identified as PDGLs. Compared with 1990s, the number of lakes decreased only by 2.22%, whereas total lake area expanded by 25%. All PDGLs area increased by 84.40% and was higher significantly than 4.06% of non-PDGLs. The zones at very high and high integrated risk of GLOF disasters are concentrated on the middle Himalayas, middle-eastern Nyainqentanglha, and southern Tanggula Mountain. On the county scale, Nyalam, Tingri, Dinggye, Lhozhag, Zhongba, Gamba, Kangma of the Himalayas, and Nierong, Dingqing, Banbar, Baqing, Bomi, and Basu of the Nyainqentanglha are located in the very high-risk zone, whereas other areas have low and very low integrated risk. The regionalization results for GLOF disasters risk are consistent with the distribution of historical GLOF disaster sites.

We report previously unpublished evidence for a Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3; 60–26 ka) glacial outburst flood in the Torngat Mountains (northern Quebec/Labrador, Canada). We present 10Be cosmogenic exposure ages from legacy fieldwork for a glacial lake shoreline with evidence for outburst flooding in the Torngat Mountains, with a minimum age of 36 ± 3 ka (we consider the most likely age, corrected for burial, to be ~56 ± 3 ka). This shoreline position and age can potentially constrain the Laurentide Ice Sheet margin in the Torngat Mountains. This region, considered a site of glacial inception, has no published dated geologic constraints for high-elevation MIS 3 ice margins. We estimate the freshwater flux associated with the inferred glacial outburst flood using high-resolution digital elevation maps corrected for glacial isostatic adjustment. Using assumptions about the ice-dammed locations we find that a freshwater flood volume of 1.14 × 1012 m3 could have entered the Hudson Strait. This glacial outburst flood volume could have contributed to surface ocean freshening to cause a measurable meltwater signal in δ18O records, but would not necessarily have been associated with substantial ice rafted debris. Future work is required to refine estimates of the size and timing of such a glacial outburst flood. Nevertheless, we outline testable hypotheses about the Laurentide Ice Sheet and glacial outburst floods, including possible implications for Heinrich events and glacial inception in North America, that can be assessed with additional fieldwork and cosmogenic measurements.

Glaciers respond sensitively to climate variability and change, with associated impacts on meltwater production, sea-level rise and geomorphological hazards. There is a strong societal interest to understand the current response of all types of glacier systems to climate change and how they will continue to evolve in the context of the whole glacierized landscape. In particular, understanding the current and future behaviour of debris-covered glaciers is a ‘hot topic’ in glaciological research because of concerns for eater resources and glacier-related hazards. The state of these glaciers is closely related to various hazardous geomorphological processes which are relatively poorly understood. Understanding the implications of debris-covered glacier evolution requires a systems approach. This includes the interplay of various factors such as local geomorphology, ice ablation patterns, debris characteristics, glacier lake growth and development. Such a broader, contextualized understanding is prerequisite to identifying and monitoring the geohazards and hydrologic implications associated with changes in the debris-covered glacier system under future climate scenarios. This paper presents a comprehensive review of current knowledge of the debris-covered glacier landsystem. Specifically, we review state-of-the-art field and remote sensing-based methods for monitoring debris-covered glacier characteristics and lakes and their evolution under future climate change. We advocate a holistic process-based framework for assessing hazards associated with moraine-dammed glacio-terminal lakes that are a projected end-member state for many debris-covered glaciers under a warming climate.

The retreating behavior of glaciers observed in most of the Hindu Kush–Karakoram–Himalaya (HKH) region has given rise to the formation and expansion of numerous glacial lakes in the region. The lakes expansion under changing climate usually poses high risk of glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) hazard for the downstream communities. In the present study, the risk of glacial lake outburst flood was investigated in the HKH region of Pakistan using LANDSAT-8 OLI (Operational Land Imager) image data of 2013 period coupled with ground information. The results of present study revealed 3044 lakes (surface area about 134.8 km2) in the three HKH ranges, maximum in the Karakoram (1325) and minimum in the Hindu Kush range (722) during 2013. The lakes exhibited an overall increase of about 26% in number and 7% in area in the region during 2001–2013 period. The increase in lake number was 91% within 2500–3500 m, 20% within 3500–4500 m and 31% within 4500–5500 m elevation range. Among total identified lakes during 2013, 36 were characterized as potentially dangerous glacial lakes (PDGLs) that can pose GLOF hazard in the HKH region. A regular monitoring of cryosphere changes and critical glacial lakes is essential to develop sustainable risk management strategies for this region in future.

The glaciers in the Himalayan region are nature's valuable source of fresh water and these frozen reservoirs release large amounts of ice melt water to many of the major rivers of this region. Rapid accumulation of water in the glacial lakes can lead to a sudden breach of their unstable moraine ‘dams’. The resultant discharges of huge amounts of water and debris - a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)/Flash Flood - often have catastrophic effects downstream. The Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) has developed ultrasonic sensor based monitoring system, which continuously records the fluctuations in water level as well as the ice thickness which forms over the lake surface. The sensor electronics is in link with Satellite through DRT payload of INSAT-3C. This is first-of-its-kind system in the country and will be a great boon to the nation in the area of disaster forecast and management. Currently, the system is deployed at Shako Chho (4987 m above msl) and Kupup Chho (3982 m above msl) glacial lakes.

Glacier recession and formation of glacial lakes along with outburst flood hazards are increasing in response to changing climate in the Himalayan region. This study describes evolution of Dalung and Padam glaciers and their associated lakes employing multi-temporal datasets of Landsat (MSS, TM, ETM+), Indian Remote Sensing LISS-III, Google EarthTM, ASTER GDEM and Survey of India topographic maps. The Dalung Glacier (DG) and Lake (DL) are present in Suru River catchment whereas the Padam Glacier (PG) and Lake (PL) are present in Tsarap River catchment of Zanskar basin, western Himalaya. From 1962 to 2015; the DG and PG have shrunk at different rates. The DG has shrunk by 2.6 ± 0.56 km2 (19.2 ± 4.1%) at a rate of 0.05 ± 0.01 km2 a−1 whereas, the PG has shrunk by 3.4 ± 0.65 km2 (12.7 ± 2.4%) at a rate of 0.06 ± 0.01 km2 a−1. The frontal recession was recorded as 1.240 ± 0.02 km (15.7 ± 2.0%) at a rate of 20 ± 0.4 m a−1 for DG and 2.690 ± 0.5 m (21.3 ± 2.1%) at a rate of 50.7 ± 0.1 m a−1 for PG. Consequently, the proglacial glacial lakes have formed indicating an expansion of 20 ± 3.4% (DL) and 58 ± 4.5% (PL) during 1990–2015. Using integrated criteria of standard indices for the identification of potentially dangerous glacial lakes (PDGLs), the lakes were found to be vulnerable and have a potential to cause breaching in the coming years. In order to provide inputs for the emergency action plan, one dimensional MIKE 11 Model was used to generate the peak flood hydrographs at the lake and other vulnerable sites downstream. Highest peak discharge of 3361.7 m3 s−1 (DL) and 4210.3 m3 s−1 (PL) were estimated at the lake sites which has reduced to 1520.9 m3 s−1 and 1722.4 m3 s−1 respectively at the outlet sites. The reduced discharge at downstream sites still bears the potential to create dangerous flood hazards.

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) are an increasing threat to Patagonian environments and communities. Here, we investigate the geomorphological and hydrological impact of a recent GLOF from Pascua River, which discharges at the head of Baker Fjord (Chile, 48°S). To do so, a sediment core was taken ~4 km offshore of the Pascua River mouth at a water depth of 248 m. The coring site is located on the flank of a submarine channel incised trough the subaquatic delta of Pascua River, 30 m above the bottom of the channel. The sediment physical and chemical properties were analysed at high resolution with X-ray CT, MSCL and XRF core scanning, in combination with lower resolution grain-size and bulk organic geochemistry measurements, and a core chronology was established using downcore variations in 137Cs activity. In addition, historical maps and satellite imagery of the past century were examined in combination with multibeam bathymetry of Baker Fjord to aid the interpretation of the sediment record.Results show that the sediments are composed of two distinct units separated by a 5-cm thick event deposit dated 1945±9 CE. Below the event, the sediment consists of coarse silt and fine sand, likely representing sediment deposition from turbidity currents. Above it, it consists of very fine silts, likely representing settling from the surficial sediment plume. Historical evidence shows that the event deposit corresponds to a ~256 106 m3 GLOF from Bergues Lake, the proglacial lake of Lucia Glacier that discharges directly into Pascua River. Before 1945, historical information shows that Pascua River drained via two active river branches that were most likely connected to the two submarine channels visible in the bathymetry of the subaquatic delta. After 1945, only the western river branch appears active, which likely caused the abandonment of the eastern submarine channel near which the sediment core was taken. Therefore, we hypothesize that the 1945 Bergues Lake GLOF caused the abandonment of the eastern river branch and submarine channel, which explains the absence of coarse-grained sediments in our sediment record after 1945±9 CE.This study provides the first report of a GLOF from the northeastern part of the Southern Patagonian Icefield, and it demonstrates that GLOFs can have long-term impacts on the hydrology of fjord-river systems.

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passes through the Hunza River basin of Pakistan. The current study investigates the creation and effects of end moraine, supra-glacial, and barrier lakes by field visits and remote sensing techniques along the CPEC in the Hunza River basin. The surging and moraine type glaciers are considered the most dangerous type of glaciers that cause Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the study basin. It can be concluded from the 40 years observations of Karakoram glaciers that surge-type and non-surge-type glaciers are not significantly different with respect to mass change. The recurrent surging of Khurdopin Glacier resulted in the creation of Khurdopin Glacial Lake in the Shimshal valley of the Hunza River basin. Such glacial lakes offer main sources of freshwater; however, when their dams are suddenly breached and water drained, catastrophic GLOFs appear and pose a great threat to people and infrastructure in downstream areas. This situation calls for an in-depth study on GLOF risks along the CPEC route and incorporation of GLOF for future policy formulation in the country for the CPEC project so that the government may take serious action for prevention, response to GLOFs, and rehabilitation and reconstruction of the areas.

We analyze and reconstruct a recent Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) process chain on 26 June 2020, involving the moraine-dammed proglacial lake Jinwuco (30.356° N, 93.631° E) in eastern Nyainqentanglha, Tibet, China. Satellite images reveal that from 1965 to 2020, the surface area of Jinwuco has expanded by 0.2 km2 (+56 %) to 0.56 km2, and subsequently decreased to 0.26 km2 (‒54 %) after the GLOF. Estimates based on topographic reconstruction and sets of published empirical relationships indicate that the GLOF had a volume of 10 million m3, an average breach time of 0.62 hours, and an average peak discharge of 5,390 m3/s at the dam. Based on pre- and post-event high-resolution satellite scenes, we identified a large progressive debris landslide originating from western lateral moraine, having occurred 5–17 days before the GLOF. This landslide was most likely triggered by extremely heavy, south Asian monsoon-associated rainfall in June. The time lag between the landslide and the GLOF suggests that pre-weakening of the dam due to landslide-induced outflow pushed the system towards a tipping point, that was finally exceeded following subsequent rainfall, snowmelt, a secondary landslide, or calving of ice into the lake. We back-calculate part of the GLOF process chain, using the GIS-based open source numerical simulation tool r.avaflow. Two scenarios are considered, assuming a debris landslide-induced impact wave with overtopping and resulting retrogressive erosion of the moraine dam (Scenario A), and retrogressive erosion due to pre-weakening of the dam without a major impact wave (Scenario B). Both scenarios yield plausible results which are in line with empirically derived ranges of peak discharge and breach time. The breaching process is characterized by a slower onset and a resulting delay in Scenario B, compared to Scenario A. Evidence, however, points towards Scenario B as a more realistic possibility. There were no casualties from this GLOF but it caused severe destruction of infrastructure (e.g. roads and bridges) and property losses in downstream areas. Given the clear role of continued glacial retreat in destabilizing the adjacent lateral moraine slopes, and directly enabling the landslide to deposit into the expanding lake body, the GLOF process chain under Scenario B can be robustly attributable to anthropogenic climate change, while downstream consequences have been enhanced by the development of infrastructure on exposed flood plains. Such process chains could become more frequent under a warmer and wetter future climate, calling for comprehensive and forward-looking risk reduction planning.

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) significantly affect downstream communities in Alaska. Notably, GLOFs originating from Suicide Basin, adjacent to Mendenhall Glacier, have impacted populated areas in Juneau, Alaska since 2011. On the Kenai Peninsula, records of GLOFs from Snow Glacier date as far back as 1949, affecting downstream communities and infrastructure along the Kenai and Snow river systems. The US National Weather Service, US Geological Survey, and University of Alaska Southeast (for Suicide Basin) provide informational products to aid the public in monitoring both glacial dammed lakes as well as the ensuing GLOFs. This 2 year study (2018–2019) analyzed how communities affected by the aforementioned GLOFs utilize these various products. The participants in this project represented a variety of different sectors and backgrounds to capture a diverse set of perspectives and insights, including those of homeowners, emergency responders, tour operators, and staff at federal and state agencies. In addition, feedback and suggestions were collected from interviewees to facilitate improvements or modifications by the relevant entities to make the informational products more usable. Findings from this study were also used to inform changes to the US National Weather Service monitoring websites for both Suicide Basin and Snow Glacier. This paper’s findings on GLOF information use are relevant for other GLOF-affected communities, from both an information user and information developer perspective.

This paper presents an inventory of lakes in the Central Andes region (31°–36° S) of Argentina by using high resolution satellite images. Lakes were classified according to the damming processes or associated landforms. Statistical analysis of main lakes attributes was carried out showing that larger lakes are associated with volcanic and karstic landforms, while smaller ones correspond to thermokarst supraglacial lakes. Lake distribution is forced by the regional topography being mainly located in the periglacial and glacial environment (above the 3730 m a.s.l.). Moreover, latitudinal distribution of different types of lakes differs. Larger water bodies in the Argentinean Central Andes are landslides dammed except to the 34°–35° S volcanic region. These findings set the first step in hazard analysis and highlight the need for carrying out further research to assess outburst flood hazard in the Arid Central Andes of Argentina.

In this study, the Glacier Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) that occurred over Kedarnath in June 2013 was modeled using integrated observations from the field and Remote Sensing (RS). The lake breach parameters such as area, depth, breach, and height have been estimated from the field observations and Remote Sensing (RS) data. A number of modelling approaches, including Snow Melt Runoff Model (SRM), Modified Single Flow model (MSF), Watershed Management System (WMS), Simplified Dam Breach Model (SMPDBK) and BREACH were used to model the GLOF. Estimations from SRM produced a runoff of about 22.7 m3 during 16–17, June 2013 over Chorabari Lake. Bathymetry data reported that the lake got filled to its maximum capacity (3822.7 m3) due to excess discharge. Hydrograph obtained from the BREACH model revealed a peak discharge of about 1699 m3/s during an intense water flow episode that lasted for 10–15 minutes on 17th June 2013. Excess discharge from heavy rainfall and snowmelt into the lake increased its hydrostatic pressure and the lake breached cataclysmically.

On April 20, 2017, a flood from the Barun River, Makalu-Barun National Park, eastern Nepal formed a 2–3-km-long lake at its confluence with the Arun River as a result of blockage by debris. Although the lake drained spontaneously the next day, it caused nationwide concern and triggered emergency responses. We identified the primary flood trigger as a massive rockfall from the northwest face of Saldim Peak (6388 m) which fell approximately 570 m down to the unnamed glacier above Langmale glacial lake, causing a massive dust cloud and hurricane-force winds. The impact also precipitated an avalanche, carrying blocks of rock and ice up to 5 m in diameter that plummeted a further 630 m down into Langmale glacial lake, triggering a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF). The flood carved steep canyons, scoured the river’s riparian zone free of vegetation, and deposited sediment, debris, and boulders throughout much of the river channel from the settlement of Langmale to the settlement of Yangle Kharka about 6.5 km downstream. Peak discharge was estimated at 4400 ± 1800 m3 s−1, and total flood volume was estimated at 1.3 × 106 m3 of water. This study highlights the importance of conducting integrated field studies of recent catastrophic events as soon as possible after they occur, in order to best understand the complexity of their triggering mechanisms, resultant impacts, and risk reduction management options.

The Bolivian Andes have experienced sustained and widespread glacier mass loss in recent decades. Glacier recession has been accompanied by the development of proglacial lakes, which pose a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) risk to downstream communities and infrastructure. Previous research has identified three potentially dangerous glacial lakes in the Bolivian Andes, but no attempt has yet been made to model GLOF inundation downstream from these lakes. We generated 2-m resolution DEMs from stereo and tri-stereo SPOT 6/7 satellite images to drive a hydrodynamic model of GLOF flow (HEC-RAS 5.0.3). The model was tested against field observations of a 2009 GLOF from Keara, in the Cordillera Apolobamba, and was shown to reproduce realistic flood depths and inundation. The model was then used to model GLOFs from Pelechuco lake (Cordillera Apolobamba) and Laguna Arkhata and Laguna Glaciar (Cordillera Real). In total, six villages could be affected by GLOFs if all three lakes burst. For sensitivity analysis, we ran the model for three scenarios (pessimistic, intermediate, optimistic), which give a range of ~ 1100 to ~ 2200 people affected by flooding; between ~ 800 and ~ 2100 people could be exposed to floods with a flow depth ≥ 2 m, which could be life threatening and cause a significant damage to infrastructure. We suggest that Laguna Arkhata and Pelechuco lake represent the greatest risk due to the higher numbers of people who live in the potential flow paths, and hence, these two glacial lakes should be a priority for risk managers.

Summary The areas of glacial lakes in the Himalayas continue to increase alarmingly due to global warming with consequent risk of glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF). The outburst is most common for moraine-dammed lakes as a result of a failure of the dam by overtopping and erosion or piping due to seepage. In the present context, GLOF events, especially for the moraine dam failure process needs to be predicted to assess the drastic and detrimental impacts on the downstream river valley. This study focuses on validating an integrated model for simulating the failure of moraine dam by overtopping and erosion using a coupled numerical simulation model. The proposed numerical methodology is validated with the data from experiments in laboratory scale physical models. The results of the model are compared for both the erosional profiles during collapse of the dam and the resulting outflowing flood hydrograph. The primary finding is that the moraine dam height and the volume of the lake upstream of the dam are the most sensitive parameters influencing the GLOF peak. The model is also applied to the field problem of the Tangjiashan lake outburst and dam failure and shows reasonably good agreement with observations. The validated model is also run for the South Lhonak glacial lake in the Sikkim Himalayas, India to obtain the probable flood hydrograph in case of failure of the moraine dam.

The Himalayas of South Asia are home to many glaciers that are retreating due to climate change and causing the formation of large glacial lakes in their absence. These lakes are held in place by naturally deposited moraine dams that are potentially unstable. Specifically, an impulse wave generated by an avalanche or landslide entering the lake can destabilize the moraine dam, thereby causing a catastrophic failure of the moraine and a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF). Imja-Lhotse Shar Glacier is amongst the glaciers experiencing the highest rate of mass loss in the Mount Everest region, in part due to the expansion of Imja Tsho. A GLOF from this lake may have the potential to cause catastrophic damage to downstream villages, threatening both property and human life, which prompted the Nepali government to construct outlet works to lower the lake level. Therefore, it is essential to understand the processes that could trigger a flood and quantify the potential downstream impacts. The avalanche-induced GLOF process chain was modeled using the output of one component of the chain as input to the next. First, the volume and momentum of various avalanches entering the lake were calculated using Rapid Mass Movement Simulation (RAMMS). Next, the avalanche-induced waves were simulated using the Basic Simulation Environment for Computation of Environmental Flow and Natural Hazard Simulation (BASEMENT) model and validated with empirical equations to ensure the proper transfer of momentum from the avalanche to the lake. With BASEMENT, the ensuing moraine erosion and downstream flooding was modeled, which was used to generate hazard maps downstream. Moraine erosion was calculated for two geomorphologic models: one site-specific using field data and another worst-case based on past literature that is applicable to lakes in the greater region. Neither case resulted in flooding outside the river channel at downstream villages. The worst-case model resulted in some moraine erosion and increased channelization of the lake outlet, which yielded greater discharge downstream but no catastrophic collapse. The site-specific model generated similar results, but with very little erosion and a smaller downstream discharge. These results indicated that Imja Tsho is unlikely to produce a catastrophic GLOF due to an avalanche in the near future, although some hazard exists within the downstream river channel, necessitating continued monitoring of the lake. Furthermore, these models were designed for ease and flexibility such that local or national agency staff with reasonable training can apply them to model the GLOF process chain for other lakes in the region.

The Upper Indus Basin (UIB) is prone to Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs). Physical monitoring of such a large area on regular basis is a challenging task especially when the temporal and spatial extent of the hazard is highly variable. The study has been conducted in the Shyok sub-basin of UIB, where there are several human settlements which are endangered due to the GLOF hazard. Sudden breaches in the unstable moraine dams adjoining receding glaciers may occur because of rapid and huge accumulation of turbulent water in the glacial lakes. The purpose of this study was to map the two potentially dangerous glacial lakes and simulate the associated hazard in the downward settlements using HEC-RAS in the GIS environment using Landsat 7 remote sensing data. The ASTER Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is utilized to detect flow accumulation of glacial hazard involving slope, elevation, and orientation of the mountain glaciers. The study results have revealed that settlements of the Shyok Basin are threatened by the GLOF hazard. Keeping in view the seasonal growth of the two potentially dangerous glacial lakes of the Shyok Basin, a low discharge of 100 m3/s from both lakes can affect 20%, whereas a moderate discharge of 300 m3/s and a high discharge of 500 m3/s, respectively, can impact 30% and 40% of the Barah village habitat. The results of the study can provide a platform for the establishment of an early warning and monitoring system to minimize the impact of future GLOFs.

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are a natural hazard that affects a number of communities around the world. GLOFs affect a number of downstream communities directly in Alaska, with a variety o...

Kyagar glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs) have long been a serious nature hazard in Yarkant river basins of the Chinese Karakoram, threatening more than one million people. Between 1810 and 2018, 34 Kyagar GLOF events have been recorded, of which 26 occurred from 1960 onwards and their occurrence frequency reaches at least three times in each decade. An early warning system established in 2011 has successfully predicted the Kyagar GLOF events in 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018, which provides an important reference for the monitoring and risk pre-evaluation of the GLOFs in Karakoram.

Petrographic and geostatistical analysis of linear dune forms on the Hanford Site, south-central Washington, have resulted in data supporting reinterpretation of depositional environments from eolian to primary glaciofluvial with post-depositional eolian modification. Miocene basalt flows of the Columbia River Basalt Group form the bedrock across the region overlain by Pliocene fluvial deposits from the preglacial Columbia River. Between ~21,000 and 12,000 YBP, glacial outburst floods scoured eastern Washington forming the Channeled Scablands. In the Pasco Basin, floodwaters were ponded behind flow restrictions resulting in deposition of coarse-grained gravel and sand sheets capped by fine-grained cyclic Touchet beds in higher elevation peripheral canyons. Outflow of ponded water mobilized the upper few meters of sediment forming a series of giant current ripples or megaripples. Modification of the surfaces of the megaripples under the influence of the Holocene wind regime has produced an eolian surficial signature. Subsurface excavations in these dune forms revealed the primary glaciofluvial provenance. Sedimentologic and petrographic evidence supports a general winnowing of fine-grained sediments from west to east under the current wind regime and includes both quartz and heavy minerals. These processes have resulted in the formation of an active dune field along the western bank of the Columbia River that overlies flood deposits locally.

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in Northern Patagonian Ice Field affecting the Baker River basin have increased their frequency in recent years. To evaluate the impact of a GLOF in the hydrography and biological components of the plankton in the Baker Fjord, we assessed the relative contributions of terrigenous versus marine plankton carbon sources to the particulate organic matter (POM) in the fjord before and after a GLOF in the austral summer 2014. We also evaluated whether terrestrial carbon brought into the fjord by the river may reach higher trophic levels via a deposit-feeding organism the juvenile pelagic Munida gregaria. Over a 10-day period, hydrographic profiles, water samples for POM, and zooplankton samples were collected daily from three stations and two depths along the fjord’s inner section. Samples of suspended POM and tissue from M. gregaria were analyzed for stable-isotope composition of carbon (δ13C). The GLOF arrival produced a thermal front in the fjord, followed by an oscillation of the pycnocline; an abrupt increase in the total organic carbon content of POM, which was attributed to terrestrial input; and a concurrent peak in the abundance of M. gregaria, suggesting an aggregation response to the GLOF. Understanding GLOF effects on local hydrography, productivity, and food web structure provides valuable insight on the potential responses of fjord ecosystems in general to climate change-induced variability. Given present climatic trends in high-latitude zones, more frequent GLOFs might be expected in Patagonian fjords and channels as well as in other high-latitude basins.

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are common where highly dynamic temperate glaciers exist, since seasonal changes in ice-conduit dynamics can start rapid lake drainages. Lakes dammed by cold-based glaciers, however, are less common and GLOFs from these glaciers have been rarely reported. Understanding both the origin and the failure mechanisms of lakes dammed by cold-based glaciers and subsequent flood processes is essential for territorial planning. We study a remarkable GLOF triggered by the failure of a subglacial lake in the Manflas Valley, Arid Andes of Chile, in 1985 providing insights into the lake’s origin, clarifying the failure mechanism and modelling the GLOF event-related dynamics. To identify the factors that contributed to the lake formation and failure, we analysed remotely sensed images, meteorological and topographic data. The GLOF dynamics were reconstructed using empirical (LAHARZ and MSF) and physical models (RAMMS). The obtained results were compared with field data of flow extent, depth and velocity. We show that the failed lake (4 × 106 m3) formed in a low-slope (≤ 10°) area and that extreme (≥ 90th percentile) annual precipitation before the GLOF contributed to the lake filling and probably to the dam collapse. The lake likely drained rapidly after mechanical failure of the ice-dam producing a high energy sediment-laden flow. We show the challenges of modelling large flows over long distances (dozens of kilometres) especially when flows change between Newtonian and Non-Newtonian phases. A GLOF can still endanger the Manflas Valley since a remnant of the lake of about 220.000 m3 exists and economic assets are located along the1985 GLOF path.

The frequency of glacier lake outbursts floods (GLOFs) is likely to increase with the ongoing glacier retreat, which produces new glacial lakes and enlarges existing ones. Here, we simulate the outburst of a potentially dangerous glacial lake in Bhutan by applying hydrodynamic modelling. Although the lake volume is known, several parameters connected to the dam breach and the routing of the flood are rough estimates or assumptions, which introduce uncertainties in the results. For this reason, we create an ensemble of nine outburst scenarios. The simulation of magnitude and timing of possible inundation depths is an important asset to prepare emergency action plans. For our case study in the Mo Chu River Basin, the results show that, even under the worst case scenario, little damage to residential buildings can be expected. However, such an outburst flood would probably destroy infrastructure and farmland and might even affect the operation of a hydroelectric powerplant more than 120 km downstream the lake. Our simulation efforts revealed that, by using a 30-m elevation model instead of a 5-m raster, flood magnitude and inundation areas are overestimated significantly, which highly suggests the use of high-resolution terrain data. These results may be a valuable input for risk mitigation efforts.

High-risk areas for glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) disasters in China are mainly concentrated in the middle-eastern Himalayas and Nyainqêntanglha (Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains), Tibetan Plateau. In the past 20 years, glaciers in these regions have retreated and thinned rapidly as a response to regional climate warming, leading to the formation of new glacial lakes and the expansion of existing glacial lakes. These areas are located in the border belt between the Indian and the Eurasian plates, where tectonic seismic activity is also frequent and intense. Earthquakes have often compromised the stability of mountain slopes, glaciers, and moraine dams, resulting in an imbalance in the state of glacial lakes and an increase of loose materials in valleys. It is foreseeable that the possibility of GLOFs and disaster occurrence will be great in the context of frequent earthquakes and continued climate warming. This article presents the temporal and spatial characteristics of GLOF disasters, as well as the conditions and mechanisms of GLOF disaster formation, and proposes an integrated risk management strategy to cope with GLOF disasters. It aims to facilitate the mitigation of the impacts of GLOF disasters on mountain economic and social systems, and improve disaster risk analysis, as well as the capability of risk management and disaster prevention and reduction.

The 16th of June 1818, the failure of the Giétro glacier in the Swiss Alps provoked an outburst flood that devastated the Bagnes valley, causing 34 deaths and major damages to buildings, road system, hydraulic infrastructures and crops. This disaster had a major impact on the economy of the valley and created a great movement of solidarity. It remains today a well-known historical natural disaster. In order to reconstruct the course of the wave and to map the flood, we used an interdisciplinary approach by crossing historical and geomorphological data. We first compiled and mapped the large number of historical data available in the local and state archives. These data were then completed by geomorphological observations made on the field and on numerical documents. The resulting map presents the spatial extent of the flood and water depths. This article shows the validity of interdisciplinary approaches for reconstructing past natural disasters.

Remote seismic observations of a glacial lake outburst flood highlight potential for improving early warning systems., Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are a substantial hazard for downstream communities in vulnerable regions, yet unpredictable triggers and remote source locations make GLOF dynamics difficult to measure and quantify. Here, we revisit a destructive GLOF that occurred in Bhutan in 1994 and apply cross-correlation–based seismic analyses to track the evolution of the GLOF remotely (~100 kilometers from the source region). We use the seismic observations along with eyewitness reports and a downstream gauge station to constrain a numerical flood model and then assess geomorphic change and current state of the unstable lakes via satellite imagery. Coherent seismic energy is evident from 1 to 5 hertz beginning approximately 5 hours before the flood impacted Punakha village, which originated at the source lake and advanced down the valley during the GLOF duration. Our analysis highlights potential benefits of using real-time seismic monitoring to improve early warning systems.

The Teesta basin in Sikkim Himalaya hosts numerous glacial lakes in the high altitude glacierized region, including one of the largest and the fastest-growing South Lhonak Lake. While these lakes are mainly located in remote and unsettled mountain valleys, far-reaching glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) may claim lives and damage assets up to tens of kilometers downstream. Therefore, evaluating GLOF hazard associated with current and potential future glacier-retreat-driven changes is of high importance. In this work, we assess the future GLOF hazard of the South Lhonak Lake by integrating glacier and hydrodynamic modeling to calculate the lake's future volume and hydraulic GLOF characteristics and impacts along the valley. We identify the increased susceptibility of the lake to potential avalanche impacts as the lake grows in the future. Here we model six avalanche scenarios of varying magnitudes to evaluate the impact-wave generated in the lake and overtopping flow at the dam. Avalanche simulations indicate that the frontal moraine is susceptible to overtopping. The overtopping flow hydraulics is evaluated along the channel assuming no erosion of the moraine. Further, we consider three lake-breach scenarios to model GLOFs originating from the lake, flow propagation, and its downstream impacts. The uncertainty in the breach parameters including breach width and time of failure are calculated to estimate the upper and the lower hydraulic limits of potential future GLOF events. Further, the uncertainty in the flow hydraulics was evaluated using dynamic flood routing of six GLOFs that originate from the lake. Hydrodynamic GLOF modeling resulted in a predicted peak discharge of 4311 m3s−1, 8000 m3s−1, and 12,487 m3s−1 for breach depths of 20 m, 30 m, and 40 m respectively. The large-potential scenario suggests that maximum flow depth and flow velocity at Chungthang, a town proximally located to a major hydropower station built-in 2015, could reach up to 25–30 m and 6–9 m s−1, respectively. Mapping infrastructure exposed to GLOFs in the Teesta valley shows that many settlements and assets located along the river channel at Chungthang are potentially exposed to future GLOFs, indicating the need to conduct a full environmental impact assessment and potentially undertake GLOF risk mitigation measures.

In this paper we present a suite of erosional remnants, mega deposits and subtle bar morphology that we relate to the outburst flood from the glacial lake Nedre Glomsjo at the end of the last Ice Age. By using large datasets of airborne LiDAR data implemented in a geographic information system (GIS), we have mapped flood related features along the Glomma and Vrangselva rivers in southeastern Norway. The unprecedented overview of the valley reaches obtained by the vegetation-free LiDAR-derived digital elevation models (DEM) has revealed a set of hitherto undocumented landforms. Persisting erosive lines – indicators of the uppermost flooded level – are carved into surficial deposits in the hillsides and are found as high as 80–90 m above the modern valley floor. By using the indicators as an upper flood boundary, we have computed cross-sectional profiles showing that the flood in some reaches inundated more than 120 000 m2 of the valley. Large, streamlined bed forms, which we interpret as flood bars, drape sections of the valley floor, some several kilometers long. The most morphologically striking – pendant bars – are developed behind flood flow projections, such as bedrock knolls or in lee of a valley bend. Flood bars occur in the entire study area, but are more widespread in the north and generally decrease in size moving in a downstream direction. Kettle holes and ice-block obstacle marks from icebergs arrested during the flood are common. These features support the theory of a catastrophic drainage event, but also indicate a pattern of differential erosion and deposition that allowed us to interpret palaeoflow on individual bars. Vast aeolian dune fields in the region are interpreted as a secondary product of the flood, as deposits related to the event were mobilised by northerly winds momentarily after the flood waned. The dune fields cover an excess of 50 km2 and reveal that the region was a highly active periglacial desert after the flood. Our mapping highlights the outburst flood's role as a landscape-defining event. Morphological evidence determine the southern fringe of the Scandinavian ice sheet to c. 15 km north of Elverum at the time of the outburst flood. From calibrating existing 14C dates we postulate an age of c. 10–10.4 cal ka BP for the Nedre Glomsjo drainage event and the contemporaneous margin of the ice sheet.

Unlike glaciers in other parts of the world, Karakoram glaciers seem to be stable or gaining in mass in response to global climate change, a phenomenon known as ‘the Karakoram anomaly’. Many of the glaciers experience irregular, frequent, and sudden advances (surges) that pose an increasing threat of ice dam lake formation and subsequent outburst flooding throughout the region. In this study, we document 179 glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) that occurred from 1533 to 2020 in five major valleys. Sixty-four of the events took place after 1970, and 37 of these had remote sensing imagery that covered the GLOF formation to breaching sequence. Thirty-six glaciers were associated with GLOFS due to ice-front advance building ice barriers in rivers. The Kayger and Khurdopin glaciers are the most hazardous examples, being responsible for 31.8% of major GLOFs in the entire Karakoram. Using a cross-correlation feature-tracking technique on remote sensing imagery, we analyzed ten surge glaciers and documented six surge events from 1990 to 2019. Results show periodic surge cycles for the Khurdopin, Kyager, Shishper, and Chilinji glaciers of c. 15–20 years, with a surge velocity in the mid-2010s higher than that of the late 1990s for all studied glaciers. The higher velocity of a glacier increases the risk of flooding downstream of the terminus because the transfer of a huge ice mass towards the terminus during the surge is a key factor for formation and reformation of series of ice-dammed lakes, thus determining the magnitude and frequency of outburst flood events. The response of Karakorum glaciers to global warming and climate forcing, comprising a continuum of glacier mass gain, ice thinning and ice advance, has resulted in lake formation and ice dam failures. We predict the frequency of GLOFs will increase in the future. These findings support the increasing anomalous behavior of glaciers in the Karakoram region. To synthesize the detailed observations, a conceptual model is presented of ice-dammed lake formation and GLOF initiation in response to glacier surging.

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) are one of the most destructive natural disasters. Understanding GLOF evolution, and their impacts, plays a fundamental role in GLOF hazard assessment and risk management. Reconstructing historical GLOFs is an important exercise because detailed case studies of such glacial hazards are rare, which hinders the capacity of glacial hazard practitioners to learn from these events. In this study, we reconstruct a historical GLOF from moraine-dammed Chongbaxia Tsho (89.745°E, 28.211°N) in the Eastern Himalaya, which is a unique case study because the outburst flood cascaded into two further lakes downstream. We employ a combination of i) multi-source and multi-temporal satellite imagery, ii) field investigation (including an unmanned aerial vehicle survey), iii) numerical dam breach and hydrodynamic modelling and, iv) qualitative and quantitative cryospheric and meteorological analysis, to investigate the evolution of the GLOF hazard, simulate moraine dam failure and GLOF propagation, and explore the role that long- and short-term climate trends played in providing the conditioning factors for the outburst. Chongbaxia Tsho expanded rapidly between 1987 until 2001 in response to glacier recession most likely caused by a regional warming trend of +0.37 °C per decade. Based on satellite image analysis we refine the outburst date to be 6 August 2001, instead of 6 August 2000, as previously reported, and attribute an ice avalanche into the glacial lake originating from the receding parent glacier as the most likely trigger for moraine dam failure. Through DEM differencing and lake level decrease, we estimate that a total water volume of 27.1 ± 1.6 × 106 m3 was released from the lake during the event, and using dam breach modelling we estimate that the peak discharge at the breach was >6600 m3 s−1. The GLOF flowed through downstream Chongbamang Tsho and Chongbayong Tsho, both of which served to attenuate the GLOF and reduce downstream losses; the latter stored an estimated 96% of the flood volume. Precipitation totals in the weeks preceding the GLOF exceeded the historical mean by up to 40%, and may have contributed to instability of the parent glacier, and generation of an ice avalanche with enough impact energy to cause lake water to overtop the moraine dam and initiate breach development. A future GLOF from Chongbaxia Tsho cannot be ruled out, but more field data, including detailed lake bathymetry, and information pertaining to the sedimentological and geotechnical characteristics of the moraine dam, are required for a more robust parameterization of a predictive GLOF model and quantification of the hazard posed by a future GLOF.

The presence of glacial lakes in the Himalaya makes it a potential mountain hazard, as catastrophic failure of such waterbodies may lead to high-magnitude glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) events that can cause significant damage to the low-lying areas. The present study evaluates the hazard potential of the South Lhonak lake located in the state of Sikkim, using both one and two-dimensional hydrodynamic modeling approaches. Different breach parameters were calculated based on the lake bathymetry and moraine dimensions. The worst-case GLOF scenario is revealed during an overtopping failure of the moraine, producing a peak flood of 6064.6 m3 s−1 and releasing a total water volume of 25.7 × 106 m3. The GLOF hydrograph is routed to calculate peak flood (m3 s−1), inundation depth (m) and flow velocity (ms−1) along the main flow channel. The interaction of the flood wave with a major topographic obstruction located 15.6 km downstream of the lake, shows a significant reduction of the flow energy leading to a minimization of the South Lhonak GLOF impact. The flood wave reaches the nearest town Lachen, located at a distance of 46 km downstream from the lake, at 3 h 38 min after the initiation of the breach, with a peak flood of 3928.16 m3 s−1 and a maximum flow velocity of 13.6 ms−1. At Chungthang town, located at a distance of 62.35 km from South Lhonak lake, the flood wave potentially inundates settlements along the bank of the flow channel, where a peak flood of 3828.08 m3 s−1 is reached after 4 h of the initial dam breach event. The study also incorporates modeling of a framework to propose a potential flood remediation measure of the South Lhonak lake GLOF by demonstrating the effect of a lateral inline structure along the flow channel, to check the flow of the potential flood wave.

Glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs), especially those in the Arctic, can deliver exceptionally high volumes of sediment and solutes to fjords and shallow-marine settings, in comparison to typical seasonal river flows. These sediments and solutes strongly affect coastal geomorphology and aquatic ecosystems, yet are rarely observed. In this study, we have quantified the short-term geomorphological response of the most distal part of the Zackenberg River (northeast Greenland), where it enters Young Sund, to a glacier lake outburst flood that occurred on August 6th 2017. The main aims were to: (1) quantify riverbank and floodplain geomorphology changes that occurred as a consequence of the flood; (2) analyse the spatial patterns of those geomorphological changes and suggest the key controls on them. We used a time-series of very high-resolution UAV-generated images taken on the 5th, 6th, and 8th of August 2017, which enabled us to compare pre- and post-flood fluvial geomorphology. The GLOF induced intense and widespread geomorphological changes, which was surprising because several floods of a similar magnitude have occurred along this river. Approximately 30% of the area of interest experienced changes that were larger than the minimum level of detection (0.15 m). Lateral erosion reached almost 10 m in some places. The total volume loss from bank erosion was at least 26,561 m3 (+/− 14%), whereas the deposition was at least 7745 m3 (+/− 39%). Such an intensive geomorphological response resulted from a combination of factors; namely: (1) bank geometry; (2) composition of bank material; (3) time of occurrence of the event; (4) presence of permafrost; (6) channel geometry; and (7) multitude and diversity of geomorphological processes. We speculate the severity of the geomorphological impact relative to that from previous floods could have been due to warming air temperatures that provided sediment from thawed permafrost, and to an aggrading delta that raised the river base level. Overall, we contend that climate warming will not only make outburst floods from glaciers more likely but that those floods will achieve more geomorphological work with mechanical erosion of permafrost. Erosion and gravitational failures during future flood events will perhaps become even more widespread and intense.

In April 2000 a large-scale rock avalanche dammed the Yigong Zangpo River, forming an extensive rockslide-dammed lake. The impoundment lasted for 62 days before a catastrophic breaching caused a massive outburst flood in the Yarlung Zangpo (Tibet) and the Dihang rivers (India) that travelled downstream to the main floodplain of the Brahmaputra in northeastern India. In response to discrepancies in the published literature on the event, we present a review and re-evaluation of the characteristics of the rock avalanche and associated landslide-dammed lake. We use digital topographical data (SRTM-3) and dynamic landslide modelling (DAN-W and DAN3D) to determine the salient characteristics of the damming landslide and to characterise its behaviour. Our analysis indicates that the volume of the damming rockslide was ca. 115 Mm3, including 91 Mm3 from the initial rockslope failure (bulked during disaggregation to 109 Mm3) and 6 Mm3 from entrainment during its 10.1 km travel down Zhamulong gully. The debris travelled with an average velocity of 15–18 m/s and resulted in a landslide dam on the Yigong River with a minimum height of about 55 m. Using LANDSAT-7 imagery (obtained before, during, and after impoundment) in conjunction with an SRTM-3 DEM, we reproduced the filling of the lake. We determine that the landslide dam formed an extensive reservoir with an impounded volume of 2.015 Gm3 and a maximum possible lake level of 2264 m asl (rounded to 2265 m asl). Our figures differ from those previously published but are believed to be well-constrained verifiable estimates of the volumes of the 2000 Yigong events. The outburst occurred after an attempt by army personnel to manually dig a spillway over the landslide debris and resulted in the entire volume of the lake draining in about 12 h. The outburst flood travelled over 500 km south into India, with a recorded rise in river level of 5.5 m at the Pasighat gauging station, 462 km downstream. In terms of historical outburst volumes from rockslide-dammed lakes, the volume of the 2000 Yigong event is only exceeded by that of the 1841 outburst flood from the Indus River rockslide-dammed lake, northern Pakistan.

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are a serious and potentially increasing threat to livelihoods and infrastructure in most high-mountain regions of the world. Here, we integrate modelling approaches that capture both current and future potential for GLOF triggering, quantification of affected downstream areas, and assessment of the underlying societal vulnerability to such climate-related disasters, to implement a first-order assessment of GLOF risk across the Himalayan state of Himachal Pradesh (HP), Northern India. The assessment thereby considers both current glacial lakes and modelled future lakes that are expected to form as glaciers retreat. Current hazard, vulnerability, and exposure indices are combined to reveal several risk ‘hotspots’, illustrating that significant GLOF risk may in some instances occur far downstream from the glaciated headwaters where the threats originate. In particular, trans-national GLOFs originating in the upper Satluj River Basin (China) are a threat to downstream areas of eastern HP. For the future deglaciated scenario, a significant increase in GLOF hazard levels is projected across most administrative units, as lakes expand or form closer towards steep headwalls from which impacts of falling ice and rock may trigger outburst events. For example, in the central area of Kullu, a 7-fold increase in the probability of GLOF triggering and a 3-fold increase in the downstream area affected by potential GLOF paths can be anticipated, leading to an overall increase in the assigned GLOF hazard level from ‘high’ to ‘very high’. In such instances, strengthening resilience and capacities to reduce the current GLOF risk will provide an important first step towards adapting to future challenges.

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) constitute a major threat in glacierized regions. Despite a recent increase in the size and number of glacial lakes worldwide, there is only limited evidence that climate change is affecting GLOF frequency. GLOFs are particularly common in the Baker River watershed (Patagonia, 47°S), where 21 GLOFs occurred between 2008 and 2017 due to the drainage of Cachet 2 Lake into the Colonia River, a tributary of the Baker River. During these GLOFs, the increased discharge from the Colonia River blocks the regular flow of the Baker River, resulting in the inundation of the Valle Grande floodplain, which is located approximately 4 km upstream of the confluence. To assess the possible relationship between GLOF frequency and climate variability, four sediment cores collected in the Valle Grande floodplain were analyzed. Their geophysical and sedimentological properties were examined, and radiocarbon-based age-depth models were constructed. All cores consist of dense, fine-grained, organic-poor material alternating with low-density organic-rich deposits. The percentage of lithogenic particles, which were most likely deposited during high-magnitude GLOFs, was used to reconstruct the flood history of the last 2.75 kyr. Results show increased flood activity between 2.57 and 2.17 cal kyr BP, and between 0.75 and 0 cal kyr BP. These two periods coincide with Neoglacial advances that are coeval with periods of lower temperature and increased precipitation. Our results suggest that GLOFs are not a new phenomenon in the region. Although rapid glacier retreat is likely responsible for high GLOF frequency in the 21st century, high-magnitude GLOFs seem to occur more frequently when glaciers are larger and thicker.

Kedarnath (3,533 m, 30°44′05″N, 79°04′02″E) is situated within a kilometre of the termini of the Chorabari and Companion glaciers in the Indian Himalaya. An outburst flood from a lake (3,845 m) formed by right lateral moraine of the former caused severe damage to the village on 17 June 2013. We determined various physical parameters of the lake from three digital elevation datasets (CartoDEM, SRTM and ASTER) and selected the SRTM-derived data as they appeared to portray the region more accurately. The obtained parameters were used in predictive equations suggested by different authors to estimate peak discharge of the flood. We also compared high-resolution images of 10 December 1965 (Corona), June 2011 (Bing) and 25 June 2013 (Catrosat-1 Pan + LISS-4mx) to assess the damage caused to the village besides other geomorphic changes. The results showed that at least 149 mm of rainfall in its 291-ha catchment was required to fill up the lake, without considering the presence of antecedent water and loss from seepage and evaporation. At the point of breaching, the lake released 0.43 × 106 m3 of water with a peak discharge of 1,352 cumecs. The north-western section of Kedarnath village was on the direct path of the debris flow triggered by the flood and was almost completely destroyed. The southern and south-eastern sections were least affected. Out of 37,299 m2 of pre-event roof area of Kedarnath (259 structures), 44.2 % were obliterated and 26.7 % were partly damaged, representing 138 and 56 structures, respectively. Only one-quarter of the structures of the village emerged intact or slightly affected after the event.

Climate change has led to the formation of numerous high-altitude lakes of glacial origin in the Himalaya. Safed Lake is one of the largest glacial lakes, located at an elevation 4882 m a.s.l. in the state of Uttarakhand, central Himalaya, India. A temporal analysis of the lake surface using satellite imagery shows that the lake has grown more than double its size from 0.10 km2 to 0.23 km2 over the past 50 years. In this study, we performed a hazard assessment of the lake using 1D and 2D hydrodynamic modeling. We identified the potential glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) triggering factors and evaluated the impact of a moraine breach event of the lake on the nearest village located 16.2 km downstream of the lake. A series of dynamic simulations were performed for different scenario-models based on varied breach depths, breach widths and time of moraine failure. In a worst-case GLOF scenario where breach depth reached up to 60 m, hydrodynamic routing of the breach hydrograph along the given channel revealed inundation depth up to 5 m and flow velocities up to 3.2 m s&minus, 1 at Milam village. Considering the flat geometry of the frontal moraine, hazard assessment of the lake was performed by for different breach incision depths (30 and 15 m). In addition, the study incorporated a series of hydrodynamic routing to understand the sensitivity of GLOF to different model input parameters and terrain conditions. The sensitivity of the initial GLOF hydrograph to breach formation time (Tf) was evaluated by considering different hypothetical breach scenarios with a varied time of failure. Increases of 11.5% and 22% in the peak flooding were recorded when the moraine failure time was decreased by 15 and 30 min respectively. The two-dimensional sensitivity revealed flow velocity (m s&minus, 1) to be more sensitive to change in Manning&rsquo, s N when compared to the inundation depth (m). Changes of 10.7% and 0.5% in the mean flow velocity (in m s&minus, 1) and flow depth (in m) were recorded when dN was 0.01. The flow velocity was more sensitive to the slope and the top-width of the channel when compared to the inundation depths. A regression of flow velocity versus slope gives a correlation coefficient of 0.76. GLOF flow hydraulics are sensitive to changes in terrain elevation, where flow depth and velocity vary in a similar manner.

Floods from moraine-dammed lake failures can have long standing effects not only on riverine landscapes but also on mountain communities due to the high intensity (i.e. great depth and high velocities) and damaging capacity of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). GLOFs may increase in frequency as glaciers retreat and new lakes develop and there is an urgent need to better understand GLOF dynamics and the measures required to reduce their negative outcomes. In Patagonia at least 16 moraine-dammed lakes have failed in historic time, however, data about GLOF dynamics and impacts in this region are limited. We reconstruct a GLOF that affected a small village in Chilean Patagonia in March 1977, by semi structured interviews, interpretation of satellite images and 2D hydraulic modelling. This provides insight into the GLOF dynamics and the planning issues that led to socioeconomic consequences, which included village relocation. Modelling shows that the water released by the GLOF was in the order of 12–13 × 106 m3 and the flood lasted for about 10 h, reaching a maximum depth of ~ 1.5 m in Bahia Murta Viejo, ~ 26 km from the failed lake. The lake had characteristics in common with failed lakes worldwide (e.g. the lake was in contact with a retreating glacier and was dammed by a narrow-steep moraine). The absence of land-use planning and the unawareness of the GLOF hazard contributed to the village flooding. The Rio Engano GLOF illustrates how small-scale and short-distance migration is a reasonable coping strategy in response to a natural hazard that may increase in frequency as atmospheric temperature rises and glaciers retreat.

We present geomorphological evidence of large, previously undocumented, early Holocene ice-dammed lakes in the Scandinavian Mountains of northwestern Sweden. The lakes extents indicate that the last remnants of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet were located east of the mountain range. Some early pioneering works have presented similar reconstructions, whereas more recently published reconstructions place the last ice remnants in the high mountains of Sarek. Using high-resolution airborne LiDAR data we have mapped a large number of hitherto undocumented shorelines in some of the main valleys within the northern Scandinavian mountain range. Our results indicate that a larger system of ice-dammed lakes existed in this region than previously thought. The lakes were dammed between the main water divide to the west and the retreating ice sheet margin to the east. The shorelines dip towards the northwest with gradients ranging from 0.5 to 0.4 m/km, from the oldest to the youngest. Further, we have compiled Lateglacial and Holocene shoreline data along the Norwegian coast and from within the Baltic Sea basin and reconstructed the isostatic uplift along a 1400 km long northwest-southeast transect from the Norwegian Sea to Lake Ladoga. By comparing the measured ice-dammed lake shoreline gradients to the dated marine shorelines, we infer that the lakes may have existed for several centuries following 10.2 cal ka BP. We also describe large deposits and extensive erosive features, which demonstrate that a catastrophic glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) took place eastward along the Pite River Valley. Based on cross-cutting relations to raised shorelines developed in the early Holocene Ancylus Lake (Baltic Sea basin) we conclude that the flood and thus the final phase of deglaciation took place within the time interval 10.3–9.9 cal ka BP. publishedVersion

Natural glacier events such as ice avalanches, debris flows or glacier lake outburst floods (GLOF) may have hazardous impacts on the downstream area of the glacier and can cause severe destructions. The Inylchek Glaciers in Kyrgyzstan, are one of the largest non-polar glacier systems in the world. Each year, an ice-dammed lake is formed (Lake Merzbacher) by melt-water which drains predominantly every year suddenly within a few days causing a destructive flood. To understand the mechanism of the GLOF, a network of continuously operating GPS stations at the Inylchek Glaciers provide daily horizontal and vertical positions of the ice-dam in front of the Merzbacher Lake. Irrespective of the general motion during the year, the ice-dam is strongly influenced by the formation and outburst of the lake. Especially the vertical position and surface velocities increase shortly before the GLOF supporting the assumption that the ice-dam adjacent to the lake becomes afloat. After the GLOF, e.g. in 2014, the elevation decreases rapidly by 20 m within 8 days. In 2015, the GLOF changes in timing, magnitude and available lake water volume but the motion pattern of the ice-dam is similar compared to the year before. These comparable results have the potential to develop an early warning system for the glacier-dammed lake outburst flood.