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Calcium is required for normal growth and development as well as maintenance of the skeleton. Vitamin D is also essential for intestinal calcium absorption and plays a central role in maintaining calcium homeostasis and skeletal integrity. In addition, both micronutrients have important roles in non-skeletal-related physiological processes. Of concern, significant proportions of some population groups fail to achieve the recommended calcium intakes in a number of western countries. Furthermore, while cutaneous biosynthesis upon exposure of skin to ultraviolet B light is the major source of vitamin D for most people, this does not occur during winter time. Thus, there is an increased reliance on dietary sources during winter months to help maintain adequate vitamin D status. Since vitamin D is found naturally only in a limited number of foods, the usual dietary vitamin D intake by many European populations is not sufficient to maintain adequate vitamin D status. This paper will briefly review these important issues together with consideration of the potential role for supplementation with calcium and vitamin D in terms of improving their intakes in the population. It will also focus on the issues of efficacy as well as safety considerations of supplements.

Francois Jacob's article 'Evolution and Tinkering' published in Science in 1977 is still the locus classicus for the concept of tinkering in biology. It first introduced the notion of tinkering to a wide audience of scientists. Jacob drew on a variety of different sources ranging from molecular biology to evolutionary biology and cultural anthropology. The notion of tinkering, or more accurately, the concept of bricolage, are conceptual abstractions that allow for the theoretical analysis of a wide range of phenomena that are united by a shared underlying process--tinkering, or the opportunistic rearrangement and recombination of existing elements. This paper looks at Jacob's analysis as itself an example of conceptual tinkering. It traces the history of some of its elements and sketches how it has become part of an inclusive discourse of theoretical biology and evolutionary developmental biology that emerged over the last 30 years. I will argue that the theoretical power of Jacob's analysis lies in the fact that he captured a widespread phenomenon. His conceptual analysis is thus an example of an interdisciplinary synthesis that is based on a shared process rather than a shared object.

The management and processing of so-called data streams has recently become a topic of active research in several fields of computer science, notably database systems and data mining. A data stream can roughly be thought of as a transient, continuously increasing sequence of time-stamped data. In this paper, we consider the problem of clustering parallel streams of real-valued data, that is to say, continuously evolving time series. More specifically, we are interested in grouping data streams the evolution over time of which is similar in a specific sense. In order to maintain an up-to-date clustering structure, it is necessary to analyze the incoming data in an online manner, tolerating not more than a constant time delay. For this purpose, we develop an efficient online version of the fuzzy C-means clustering algorithm. A fuzzy approach appears to be particularly useful for this type of application, in which the clustering structure is subject to continuous changes.

The aim of the present paper is to update the status regarding human acetaldehyde levels in blood, breath and saliva during normal ethanol oxidation, i.e. without deficiency in, or inhibition of, aldehyde dehydrogenase activity. The previous conclusion according to which no detectable (

Background Adherence to oral hygiene is an important aspect of the treatment of periodontal disease. Traditional educational interventions have been shown to be of little value in achieving long term behaviour change. Objectives The aim of this review was to determine the impact of interventions aimed to increase adherence to oral hygiene instructions in adult periodontal patients based on psychological models and theoretical frameworks. This review considered the following outcomes: Observational measures of oral health related behaviour Self reported oral health related behaviours, beliefs and attitudes towards oral health related behaviour Clinical markers of periodontal disease. Search strategy The Cochrane Oral Health Group's Trials Register (2005), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library 2004, Issue 4), MEDLINE (from 1966 to December 2004), EMBASE (from 1980 to December 2004), PSYCHINFO (from 1966 to December 2004), Ingenta (from 1998 to December 2004) and CINAHL (from 1966 to December 2004). Reference lists from relevant articles were searched and the authors of eligible trials were contacted to identify trials and obtain additional information. No language restriction was applied. Selection criteria Randomised controlled trials testing the effectiveness of interventions based on psychological models compared with educational, attention or no active intervention controls to improve adherence to oral hygiene in adults with either gingivitis or periodontitis. Data collection and analysis Titles and abstracts of studies that were potentially relevant to the review were independently screened by two review authors. Those that were clearly ineligible were rejected. For the remaining studies, the full paper was reviewed by two review authors and where necessary further information was sought from the author to verify eligibility. Included studies were assessed on their quality using standard criteria. Main results The review identified four studies (including 344 participants) in which a psychological model or theory had been explicitly used as the basis for the design of the intervention. The overall quality of trials was low. Due to the hetereogeneity between studies, both in terms of outcome measures and psychological models adopted, a meta-analysis was not possible. The four studies adopted four different theoretical frameworks, though there was some overlap in that three of the studies incorporated elements of Operant and Classical Conditioning. Psychological interventions resulted in improved plaque scores in comparison to no intervention groups, and in one study in comparison to an attention control group. One study found decreased gingival bleeding in the active intervention group but no change in pocket depth or attachment loss after 4 months. Psychological interventions were associated with improved self reported brushing and flossing in both studies which assessed these behaviours. Only one study explored the impact of psychological interventions on beliefs and attitudes, the psychological intervention, in comparison to educational and no intervention controls, showed improved self efficacy beliefs in relation to flossing, but no effect on dental knowledge or self efficacy beliefs in relation to tooth brushing. Authors' conclusions There is tentative evidence from low quality studies that psychological approaches to behaviour management can improve oral hygiene related behaviours. However, the overall quality of the included trials was low. Furthermore, the design of the interventions was weak and limited, ignoring key aspects of the theories. Thus, there is a need for greater methodological rigour in the design of trials in this area.

Background The optimal treatment of superficial thrombophlebitis (ST) of the legs remains poorly defined. While improving or relieving the local painful symptoms, treatment should aim at preventing venous thromboembolism (VTE), which might complicate the natural history of ST. This is an update of a review first published in 2007. Objectives To assess the efficacy and safety of topical, medical, and surgical treatments in patients presenting with ST of the legs. Search methods For this update the Cochrane Peripheral Vascular Diseases Group searched their Specialised Register (last searched 29 November 2011) and CENTRAL (2011, Issue 4). We handsearched reference lists of relevant papers and conference proceedings. Selection criteria Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating topical, medical, and surgical treatments for ST of the leg that included participants with a clinical diagnosis of ST of the legs or objective diagnosis of a thrombus in the superficial vein. Data collection and analysis Two authors assessed the trials for inclusion in the review, extracted the data, and assessed the quality of the studies. Data were independently extracted from the included studies and any disagreements resolved by consensus. Main results Twenty-six studies involving 5521 participants with ST of the legs were included in this review. The methodological quality of most of the trials was poor. Treatment ranged from fondaparinux, low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), unfractionated heparin (UFH), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents (NSAIDs), topical treatment, oral treatment, intramuscular treatment, and intravenous treatment to surgery. In a placebo-controlled RCT of about 3000 patients, fondaparinux was associated with a significant reduction in symptomatic VTE (RR 0.15; 95% CI 0.04 to 0.50), extension (RR 0.08; 95% CI 0.03 to 0.22), and recurrence of ST (RR 0.21; 95% CI 0.08 to 0.54) with comparable rates of major bleeding (RR 0.99; 95% CI 0.06 to 15.86) relative to placebo. Both prophylactic and therapeutic doses of LMWH (RR 0.40; 95% CI 0.22 to 0.72 and RR 0.42; 95% CI 0.23 to 0.75, respectively) and NSAIDs ( RR 0.41; 95% CI 0.23 to 0.75) reduced the extension and recurrence of ST in comparison to placebo, with no significant effects on symptomatic VTE nor major bleeding. Overall, topical treatments improved local symptoms. However, no data were provided on the effects of these treatments on VTE and ST extension. Surgical treatment combined with elastic stockings in ST was associated with a lower VTE rate and ST progression compared with elastic stockings alone. Authors' conclusions Prophylactic dose fondaparinux given for six weeks appears to be a valid therapeutic option for ST of the legs. Further research is needed to assess the role of new oral direct thrombin and activated factor-X inhibitors, LMWH, NSAIDs; the optimal doses and duration of treatment; and whether a combination therapy may be more effective than single treatment. Adequately designed and conducted studies are required to clarify the role of topical and surgical treatments

Background Fluphenazine is one of the first drugs to be classed as an 'antipsychotic' and has been widely available for five decades. Objectives To evaluate the effects of oral fluphenazine for schizophrenia in comparison with placebo. Search strategy We searched the Cochrane Schizophrenia Group's trials register (September 2006) which includes relevant randomised controlled trials from the bibliographic databases Biological Abstracts, CINAHL, The Cochrane Library, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsycLIT, LILACS, PSYNDEX, Sociological Abstracts and Sociofile. References of all identified studies were searched for further trial citations. Selection criteria We sought all randomised controlled trials comparing oral fluphenazine with placebo relevant to people with schizophrenia. Primary outcomes of interest were global state and adverse effects. Data collection and analysis We inspected citations and abstracts independently, ordered papers and re-inspected and quality assessed trials. We extracted data independently. Dichotomous data were analysed using fixed effects relative risk (RR) and the 95% confidence interval (CI). Continuous data were excluded if more than 50% of people were lost to follow up, but, where possible, weighted mean differences (WMD) were calculated. Main results We found over 1200 electronic records for 415 studies, 47 of which were relevant but only seven could be included. Compared with placebo, in the short-term, global state outcomes for 'not improved' were not significantly different (n=75, 2 RCTs, RR 0.71 CI 0.5 to 1.1). There is evidence that oral fluphenazine, in the short term, increases a person's chances of experiencing extrapyramidal effects such as akathisia (n=227, 2 RCTs, RR 3.43 CI 1.2 to 9.6, NNH 13 CI 4 to 128) and rigidity (n=227, 2 RCTs, RR 3.54 CI 1.8 to 7.1, NNH 6 CI 3 to 17). We found study attrition to be lower in the oral fluphenazine group, but data were not statistically significant (n=227, 2 RCTs, RR 0.70 CI 0.4 to 1.1). Authors' conclusions The findings in this review confirm much that clinicians and recipients of care already know, but they provide quantification to support clinical impression. Fluphenazine's global position as an effective treatment for psychoses is not threatened by the outcome of this review. However, fluphenazine is an imperfect treatment and If accessible, other inexpensive drugs less associated with adverse effects may be an equally effective choice for people with schizophrenia.

Background: Surgical site infection has been estimated to occur in about 15% of clean surgery and 30% of contaminated surgery cases. Using plastic adhesive drapes to protect the wound from organisms that may be present on the surrounding skin during surgery is one strategy used to prevent surgical site infection. Results from non-randomised studies have produced conflicting results about the efficacy of this approach. A systematic review was required to guide clinical practice. Objectives: To assess the effect of adhesive drapes used during surgery on surgical site infection, cost, mortality and morbidity. Search methods: For this fourth update we searched the Cochrane Wounds Group Specialised Register (searched 4th March 2015); the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library 2015, Issue 2); Ovid MEDLINE (2012 to 3rd March 2015); Ovid MEDLINE (In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations, 2012 to 3rd March 2015); Ovid EMBASE (2012 to 3rd March 2015); and EBSCO CINAHL (2012 to 4th March 2015). Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials comparing any plastic adhesive drape with no plastic adhesive drape, used alone or in combination with woven (material) drapes or disposable (paper) drapes, in patients undergoing any type of surgery. Ring drapes were excluded. Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently selected and assessed studies for trial quality and both independently extracted data. We contacted study authors for additional information. Main results: We identified no new studies for this fourth update. The review includes five studies involving 3082 participants comparing plastic adhesive drapes with no drapes and two studies involving 1113 participants comparing iodine-impregnated adhesive drapes with no drapes. A significantly higher proportion of patients in the adhesive drape group developed a surgical site infection when compared with no drapes (risk ratio (RR) 1.23, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.02 to 1.48, P = 0.03). Iodine-impregnated adhesive drapes had no effect on the surgical site infection rate (RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.06 to 1.66, P = 0.89). Length of hospital stay was similar in the adhesive drape and non-adhesive drape groups. Authors' conclusions: There was no evidence from the seven trials that plastic adhesive drapes reduce surgical site infection rates, and some evidence that they increase infection rates. Further trials may be justified, using blinded outcome assessment to examine the effect of adhesive drapes on surgical site infection, based on different wound classifications.

Background Preformed metal crowns (PMCs) are recommended by the British Society of Paediatric Dentistry (BSPD) for restoring badly broken down primary molar teeth. However, few dental practitioners adopt this technique in clinical practice, citing cost and clinical difficulty as reasons for this. Whilst there is a subjective impression by clinical academics that PMCs provide a more durable restoration than filling materials, there appears to be little evidence within the literature to support this. Objectives The primary aim of this systematic review was to compare clinical outcomes for primary molar teeth restored using PMCs compared to those restored with filling materials. Search methods The literature was searched using: the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library 2005, Issue 3); MEDLINE (1966 to August 2005); EMBASE (1980 to August 2005); System for Information on Grey Literature in Europe (SIGLE) (1976 to August 2005). Relevant publications' reference lists were reviewed for relevant articles. The most recent search was carried out on 24 August 2005. Selection criteria Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that assessed the effectiveness of PMCs compared with filling materials or where there had been no treatment in children with untreated tooth decay in one or more primary molar teeth. Data collection and analysis Two review authors independently assessed the title and abstracts for each article from the search results to decide whether it was likely to be relevant. Full papers were obtained for relevant articles and all three review authors studied these. Main results Forty-seven records were retrieved by the search strategies of which some were duplicates. Of these, 14 studies were scrutinised. No studies met the inclusion criteria and six studies were excluded from the review as they were either retrospective in design or reported as prospective outcomes but not randomised. No data were available for extraction and analysis and therefore, no conclusion could be made as to whether PMCs were more successful than filling materials for restoring primary molar teeth. Authors' conclusions No RCTs were available for appraisal. Whilst this technique is recommended by the BSPD for use in clinical practice, the evidence to support this is not strong, consisting mainly of case reports and uncontrolled studies. It is important that the absence of evidence for PMCs is not misinterpreted as evidence for their lack of efficacy. There is a strong need for prospective RCTs comparing PMCs and fillings for managing decayed primary molar teeth. The lower levels of evidence that have been produced, however, have strength in that the clinical outcomes are consistently in favour of PMCs, despite many of the studies placing PMCs on the most damaged of the pair of teeth being analysed.

BACKGROUND: Pregnancy is presumed to be a major contributory factor in the increased incidence of varicose veins in women, which can in turn lead to venous insufficiency and leg oedema. The most common symptom of varicose veins and oedema is the substantial pain experienced, as well as night cramps, numbness, tingling, the legs may feel heavy, achy, and possibly be unsightly. Treatments for varicose veins are usually divided into three main groups: surgery, pharmacological and non‐pharmacological treatments. Treatments of leg oedema comprise mostly symptom reduction rather than cure and use of pharmacological and non‐pharmacological approaches. OBJECTIVES: To assess any form of intervention used to relieve the symptoms associated with varicose veins and leg oedema in pregnancy. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (31 May 2015) and reference lists of retrieved studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised trials of treatments for varicose veins or leg oedema, or both, in pregnancy. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently assessed trials for inclusion and risk of bias, extracted data and checked them for accuracy. MAIN RESULTS: We included seven trials (involving 326 women). The trials were largely unclear for selection bias and high risk for performance and detection bias. Two studies were placebo‐controlled trials. The first one compared a phlebotonic (rutoside) with placebo for the reduction in symptoms of varicose veins; the second study evaluated the efficacy of troxerutin in comparison to placebo among 30 pregnant women in their second trimester with symptomatic vulvar varicosities and venous insufficiency in their lower extremities. Data from this study were not in useable format, so were not included in the analysis. Two trials compared either compression stockings with resting in left lateral position or reflexology with rest for 15 minutes for the reduction of leg oedema. One trial compared standing water immersion for 20 minutes with sitting upright in a chair with legs elevated for 20 minutes. Women standing in water were allowed to stand or walk in place. One trial compared 20 minutes of daily foot massage for five consecutive days and usual prenatal care versus usual prenatal care. The final trial compared three treatment groups for treating leg oedema in pregnancy. The first group was assigned to lateral supine bed rest at room temperature, women in the second group were asked to sit in a bathtub of waist‐deep water at 32 ± 0.5 C with their legs horizontal and the third group included the women who were randomised to sitting immersed in shoulder‐deep water at 32 ± 0.5 C with legs extended downward. We did not include this study in the analysis as outcomes reported in the paper were not pre‐specified outcomes of this review. We planned to use GRADE methods to assess outcomes for two different comparisons and assign a quality rating. However, only two out of three outcomes for one comparison were reported and could be assessed. Evidence from one trial (rutoside versus placebo) for the outcomes of reduction in symptoms and incidence of complications associated with varicose veins and oedema was assessed as of moderate quality. Rutoside versus placebo One trial involving 69 women, reported that rutoside significantly reduced the symptoms associated with varicose veins (risk ratio (RR) 1.89, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.11 to 3.22; moderate quality evidence). The incidence of complications (deep vein thrombosis) did not differ significantly between the two groups (risk ratio (RR) 0.17, 95% CI 0.01 to 3.49; moderate quality evidence). There were no significant differences in side‐effects (RR 1.30, 95% CI 0.23 to 7.28). Women's perception of pain was not reported in this trial. External pneumatic intermittent compression versus rest One trial, involving 35 women, reported no significant difference in lower leg volume when compression stockings were compared against rest (mean difference (MD) ‐258.80, 95% CI ‐566.91 to 49.31). Reflexology versus resting Another trial, involving 55 women, compared reflexology with rest. Reflexology significantly reduced the symptoms associated with oedema (reduction in symptoms: RR 9.09, 95% CI 1.41 to 58.54). The same study showed a trend towards satisfaction and acceptability with the intervention (RR 6.00, 95% CI 0.92 to 39.11). Water immersion versus leg elevation There was evidence from one trial, involving 32 women, to suggest that water immersion for 20 minutes in a swimming pool reduces leg volume (RR 0.43, 95% CI 0.22 to 0.83). Foot massage versus routine care One trial, involving 80 women reported no significant difference in lower leg circumference when foot massage was compared against routine care (MD ‐0.11, 95% CI ‐1.02 to 0.80). No other primary or secondary outcomes were reported in the trials. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: There is moderate quality evidence to suggest that rutosides appear to help relieve the symptoms of varicose veins in late pregnancy. However, this finding is based on one study (69 women) and there are not enough data presented in the study to assess its safety in pregnancy. Reflexology or water immersion appears to help improve symptoms for women with leg oedema, but again this is based on two small studies (43 and 32 women, respectively).

Background Patients who continue to experience asthma symptoms despite taking regular inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) represent a management challenge. Leukotriene receptor antagonists (LTRA) and long-acting beta(2)-agonists (LABA) agents may both be considered as add-on therapy to inhaled corticosteroids (ICS). Objectives We compared the efficacy and safety profile of adding either daily LABA or LTRA in asthmatic patients who remained symptomatic on ICS. Search strategy The Cochrane Airways Group Specialised Register was searched for randomised controlled trials up to and including March 2006. Reference lists of all included studies and reviews were screened to identify potentially relevant citations. Inquiries regarding other published or unpublished studies supported by the authors of the included studies or pharmaceutical companies who manufacture these agents were made. Conference proceedings of major respiratory meetings were also searched. Selection criteria Only randomised controlled trials conducted in adults or children with recurrent asthma where a LABA (for example, salmeterol or formoterol) or LTRA (for example, montelukast, pranlukast, zafirlukast) was added to ICS for a minimum of 28 days were considered for inclusion. Inhaled short-acting beta(2)-agonists and short courses of oral steroids were permitted as rescue medications. Other daily asthma treatments were permitted, providing the dose remained constant during the intervention period. Two reviewers independently reviewed the literature searches. Data collection and analysis Data extraction and trial quality assessment were conducted independently by two reviewers. Whenever possible, primary study authors were requested to confirm methodology and data extraction and to provide additional information and clarification when needed. Where necessary, expansion of graphic reproductions and estimation from other data presented in the paper was performed. Main results Fifteen randomised controlled trials met the inclusion criteria; eleven trials including 6,030 participants provided data in sufficient detail to permit aggregation. All eleven trials pertained to adults with moderate airway obstruction (% predicted FEV(1) 66-76%) at baseline. Montelukast (n=9) or Zafirlukast (n=2) was compared to Salmeterol (n=9) or Formoterol (n=2) as add-on therapy to 400-565 mcg of beclomethasone or equivalent. Risk of exacerbations requiring systemic corticosteroids was significantly lower with LABA+ICS when compared to LTRA+ICS (RR= 0.83, 95% Confidence Interval (95%CI): 0.71, 0.97): the number needed to treat with LABA compared to LTRA, to prevent one exacerbation over 48 weeks, was 38 (95% CI: 23 to 247). The following outcomes also improved significantly with the addition of LABA compared to LTRA to inhaled steroids (Weighted Mean Difference; 95%CI): morning PEFR (16 L/min; 13 to 18), evening PEFR (12 L/min; 9 to 15), FEV(1) (80 mL; 60 to 100), rescue-free days (9%; 5% to 13%), symptom-free days (6%; 2 to 11), rescue beta(2)-agonists (-0.5 puffs/day; -0.2 to -1), quality of life (0.1; 0.05 to 0.2), symptom score (Standard Mean Difference -0.2; -0.1 to -0.3), night awakenings (-0.1/week; -0.06 to -0.2) and patient satisfaction (RR 1.12; 1.07 to 1.16). Risk of withdrawals due to any reason was significantly lower with LABA+ICS compared to LTRA+ICS (Risk Ratio 0.83, 95% CI 0.73 to 0.95). Withdrawals due to adverse events or due to poor asthma control, hospitalisation, osteopenia, serious adverse events, overall adverse events, headache or cardiovascular events were not significantly different between the two study groups. Authors' conclusions In asthmatic adults inadequately controlled on low doses of inhaled steroids, the addition of LABA is superior to LTRA for preventing exacerbations requiring systemic steroids, and for improving lung function, symptoms, and the use of rescue beta(2)-agonists.

Background Patients may control postoperative pain by self-administration of intravenous opioids using devices designed for this purpose (patient controlled analgesia or PCA). A 1992 meta-analysis by Ballantyne found a strong patient preference for PCA over conventional analgesia but disclosed no differences in analgesic consumption or length of postoperative hospital stay. Although Ballantyne's meta-analysis found that PCA did have a small but statistically significant benefit upon pain intensity, Walder's review in 2001 did not find a significant differences in pain intensity and pain relief between PCA and conventionally treated groups. Objectives To evaluate the efficacy of PCA versus conventional analgesia (such as a nurse administering an analgesic upon a patient's request) for postoperative pain control. Search methods Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were identified from the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library 2004, Issue 3), MEDLINE (1966 to 2004), and EMBASE (1994 to 2004). Additional reports were identified from the reference lists of retrieved papers. Selection criteria RCTs of PCA versus conventional analgesia that employed pain intensity as a primary or secondary outcome were selected. These trials included RCTs that compared PCA without a continuous background infusion versus conventional parenteral analgesic regimens. Studies that explicitly stated they involved patients with chronic pain were excluded. Data collection and analysis Trials were scored using the Oxford Quality Scale. Meta-analyses were performed of outcomes that included analgesic efficacy assessed by a Visual Analog Scale (VAS), analgesic consumption, patient satisfaction, length of stay and adverse effects. A sufficient number of the retrieved trials reported these parameters to permit meta-analyses. Main results Fifty-five studies with 2023 patients receiving PCA and 1838 patients assigned to a control group met inclusion criteria. PCA provided better pain control and greater patient satisfaction than conventional parenteral 'as-needed' analgesia. Patients using PCA consumed higher amounts of opioids than the controls and had a higher incidence of pruritus (itching) but had a similar incidence of other adverse effects. There was no difference in the length of hospital stay. Authors' conclusions This review provides evidence that PCA is an efficacious alternative to conventional systemic analgesia for postoperative pain control.

Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) is one of the novel separation techniques, being applicable, for example, to virtually all important biomass-derived monosaccharides. However, in spite of this fact the utilization of this technique in the pulp and paper industry is currently rather limited. In this chapter practical guidance and some application examples are given to show how carbohydrate material (polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, and neutral and acidic monosaccharides) in pulps and spent liquors can be analyzed by CZE. Emphasis is placed on sample preparation and separation conditions including comparison with other separation methods, such as gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), generally used for similar purposes. In addition, a short description of other significant degradation products (e.g. aliphatic carboxylic acids and lignin monomers) formed during delignification (e.g. cooking and bleaching) is given. It is concluded that these low-molecular-mass (LMM) degradation products could also be analyzed effectively by CZE.

Luminescence is a term used for both fluorescence and phosphorescence. These are emission processes following the absorption of light, and the distinction between them is based upon the process of the deactivation mechanism. Phosphorescence has been identified as the light emitted from the triplet excited state to the ground state, a spin-forbidden transition. Fluorescence is a radiational transition between electronic states of the same multiplicity. The first analytical uses of phosphorescence were published in the 1950s, but the technique was not widely accepted due to the practical aspect of measuring the signal at cryogenic temperatures (77 K). Developments in room temperature phosphorescence (RTP) have given rise to fundamental and practical advances which have stimulated interest in phosphorimetry. Solid-surface room temperature phosphorescence (SSRTP) has been generally observed by immobilizing the lumiphor on a solid support such as filter paper or polymeric resins. SSRTP has been shown to be a sensitive and selective approach for the analysis of trace components in biological, pharmaceutical, and environmental samples. Techniques such as SSRTP combined with flow injection analysis provide new avenues for optical sensing transduction and improvement of SSRTP techniques. Applications of SSRTP in flowing systems include the sensing of cations, anions, oxygen, glucose, ethanol, antibiotics, and moisture. A number of developments in RTP have focused on sensitized phosphorescence (SP) and on the use of ordered media (micelles and cyclodextrins (CDs)), allowing the observation of RTP in fluid solution. In SP the triplet energy of a donor (analyte) is transferred to an acceptor that phosphoresces in fluid solution and the emission of the acceptor is measured. Therefore, SP can only provide quantitative information. In ordered media, a micelle (or a CD) protects the long-lived triplet state from the quenching processes that normally take place in solution, allowing both quantitative and qualitative measurements. SP and ordered media RTP provide the limits of detection for many lumiphors in the nmol−1 range and calibration graphs have a wide linear range. As new instrumental and basic insights emerge in SSRTP, Micelle Stabilized Room Temperature Phosphorescence (MSRTP), and solution-sensitized RTP, these techniques will find much greater use in the trace and ultratrace analysis of dissolved, volatile, and gaseous substances in areas such as pharmaceutical analysis, environmental science, and clinical chemistry.

This article will deal with methods for analyzing residues of pesticides and mycotoxins from molds in food. A general description of each topic is given directing the reader towards some key reviews, books or manuals published in the field with specific references added for more recent papers or topics of particular interest; techniques such as chromatography, spectrophotometry and immunochemical methods have been reviewed. In the first section sampling procedures are discussed, in the second section an overall description of the analytical methods used for pesticide residues in food is given with particular attention to multiresidue methods, in general those used most for assessing residue levels in crops at the international level, with consideration given to those less used methods dedicated to specific compound classes not covered elsewhere. The third section deals with mycotoxins with a brief description of the various mycotoxin types and some properties, followed by some discussion of analytical methods. The description of analytical techniques has been divided into extraction, cleanup and instrumental determination techniques for both pesticides and mycotoxins. Some tables of experimental data are also given. The last section (four) deals with quality assurance aspects outlining the necessary steps, included interlaboratory trials, needed to validate a method and to assure reliability of the data.

This paper explores the miniaturization of analytical instruments using emerging microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology. MEMS provides an enabling technology base for miniaturization of many kinds. It has grown in parallel with the growth of the semiconductor industry since the discovery of silicon piezoresistance at the Bell Laboratories in the early 1950s, and borrows many principles and techniques from silicon “wafer fabs”. The technology is one of several that promises to revolutionize our lives in the 21st century. We review some of the processes developed to fabricate MEMS parts and give examples of components developed with this technology. Finally, we describe how this technology has been used to develop a portable gas chromatograph (GC) and other chemical instrumentation for the detection of gases and vapors in the field. We show, with experimental results, how analytical instrumentation can benefit from MEMS technology.

Triazine herbicides and some of their transformation products (TPs) are included in both the European Communities and United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) priority list of pesticides. Owing to their widespread use and toxicity profile this family of herbicides is one of the classes of chemical pollutants that are more intensively monitored by water authorities. Many analytical methods for their determination have been published. A critical overview of these methods is presented in this paper. Conventional extraction techniques are generally nonselective and can lead to analytical interferences caused by coextracted components present in the environmental matrices. Parameters affecting extraction and problems in isolating s-triazines, from water, soil, urine and food are discussed. The solid phase is particularly attractive because it may be coupled on-line with chromatographic systems. Many extraction systems, in sorbent cartridge or disk format, have been developed in the last few years. Recently, interest has been growing in employing new highly selective materials such as molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) and immunosorbents to extract triazines from complex matrices. Strong cationic exchangers allow an effective clean-up and are useful to improve the sensitivity of a method. Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is a new technique that can also be used for extracting analytes from water. This technique was successfully automated and coupled with liquid chromatography (LC). For solid matrices Soxhlet extraction is still widely used. Blending the sample in the presence of the solvent in high-speed homogenizer machines or in an ultrasonic bath ensures complete sample disruption and a better extraction of pesticides. Microwave-assisted solvent extraction, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) are alternatives for conventional extraction procedures. Both, gas chromatography (GC) and LC were successfully coupled with sensitive and selective detectors, but because of the legal implications, the analytical methods need sufficient specificity for testifying contamination. It has been recommended that analytical results indicating the presence of relevant concentrations should be confirmed by mass spectrometric methods. The use of chromatography with mass spectrometric detector and the most common interfaces (thermospray (TSP), electrospray (ES) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI)) are illustrated. Rapid screening based on immunoassay and biosensor technologies are described. Finally some examples of recent applications are summarized.

Titration remains a method of choice for quantitation and assay because the techniques are simple and the repeatability and accuracy can be better than with other analytical methods. Titration has moved from the laboratory bench to the process in order to obtain more timely information for the control of the process. This has become possible with the development of sampling techniques for getting clean samples from a pipe or tank, sensors suitable for remote measurements, highly precise automated titrant delivery pumps, and microprocessor-based controllers adapting the time-honored methodologies of the bench chemist. Topics discussed in this paper include theory, sampling techniques, titration control, detection and applications using pH, argentometric, redox, and photometric sensors.

Particle sizing is a rapidly growing field, not only because of its importance in a great variety of technological applications but also due to its outstanding relevance to numerous areas of scientific research. The currently available instruments to measure particle-size distributions are many and varied, the results often being dependent on the measuring technique used. It is thus essential to understand the physical principles behind each technique in order to make an adequate choice. Electrozone sensing, a widely used method of particle-size analysis, constitutes the main topic of this paper. A general description of its operating principle is provided, followed by some practical considerations mainly concerning sample preparation and the selection of electrolyte solutions and aperture tubes. Being a technique that requires prior calibration, emphasis is placed on the calibration procedures. The section dedicated to the measurement of special materials also reviews some recent improvements of this technique. Finally, a list of commercially available equipment is supplied, together with its most relevant features.

Background Bipolar disorder is a common recurrent illness with high levels of chronicity. Treatment resistance persists despite the use of established medications, such as lithium and valproate. New medications are required for the treatment of refractory cases. Some open-label reports have suggested that the anticonvulsant tiagabine may be efficacious in bipolar disorder. There is a need to clarify the evidence available, in the form of randomised controlled trials, for its use in the treatment of acute affective episodes in bipolar disorder Objectives To review the evidence for the efficacy and acceptability of tiagabine in the treatment of acute mood episodes in bipolar disorder. Search strategy The following databases were searched on 13-10-2005. The Cochrane Collaboration Depression, Anxiety and Neurosis Controlled Trials Registers (CCDANCTR-Studies and CCDANCTR-References),The Cochrane Controlled Clinical Trials Register (CCCTR),EMBASE,MEDLINE,LILACS,PsycLIT andPsyndex. Reference lists of relevant papers and major textbooks of mood disorder were searched. Handsearches were done (specialist journals and conference proceedings). Authors, other experts in the field and pharmaceutical companies were contacted for knowledge of suitable published or unpublished trials. Selection criteria Randomised controlled trials, which compared tiagabine with placebo or with active agents in the treatment of any acute mood episodes in bipolar disorder, were selected. Studies of participants with bipolar disorder were to be included. Subjects could be of either sex and of all ages. Data collection and analysis Data extraction and methodological quality assessment were performed independently by two reviewers. For analysis, relative risk was used for binary efficacy outcomes and the weighted mean difference or standardised mean differerence was used for continuously distributed outcomes Main results We did not find any studies which fulfilled the Cochrane criteria of randomised controlled trials. However, one uncontrolled open label study and one case series were found. There were also three case reports/series of acute treatment which were continued into maintenance therapy, and one open non-randomised study with this design. The results of these studies are inconsistent. Authors' conclusions We found no randomised controlled trials of tiagabine in bipolar disorder. In the reported cases, a significant proportion of patients suffered episodes of syncope or seizure. There is a need for randomised controlled trials examining the efficacy and acceptability of tiagabine in the acute treatment of bipolar disorder, after the nature of these episodes has been clarified.

Background The treatment of deep dental decay has traditionally involved removal of all the soft demineralised dentine before a filling is placed. However this has been challenged in three groups of studies which involve sealing soft caries into the tooth. The three main groups either remove no caries and seal the decay into the tooth, remove minimal (ultraconservative) caries at the entrance to a cavity and seal the remaining caries in, or remove caries in stages over two visits some months apart to allow the pulp time to lay down reparative dentine (the stepwise excavation technique). Objectives To test the null hypothesis of no difference in the incidence of damage or disease of the nerve of the tooth (pulp), progression of decay and longevity of restorations irrespective of whether the removal of decay had been minimal (ultraconservative) or complete. Search strategy The Cochrane Oral Health Group Trials Register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, PubMed and EMBASE databases were searched. The reference lists in relevant papers were checked. Selection criteria Randomised controlled trials and controlled clinical trials comparing minimal (ultraconservative) caries removal with complete caries removal in unrestored permanent and deciduous teeth. Data collection and analysis Outcome measures recorded were exposure of the nerve of the tooth (pulp) during caries removal, patient experience of symptoms of pulpal inflammation or necrosis, progression of caries under the filling, time until the filling was lost or replaced. Due to the heterogeneity of the included studies the overall estimate of effect was calculated using a random-effects model. Main results Four studies met the inclusion criteria; two stepwise excavation studies and two ultraconservative caries removal studies. Partial caries removal in symptomless, primary or permanent teeth reduces the risk of pulp exposure. We found no detriment to the patient in terms of pulpal symptoms in this procedure and no reported premature loss or deterioration of the restoration. Authors' conclusions The results of this systematic review reject the null hypothesis of no difference in the incidence of damage or disease of the nerve of the tooth (pulp) irrespective of whether the removal of decay had been minimal (ultraconservative) or complete and accepts the null hypothesis of no difference in the progression of decay and longevity of restorations. However, the number of included studies is small and differ considerably. Partial caries removal is therefore preferable to complete caries removal in the deep lesion, in order to reduce the risk of carious exposure. However, there is insufficient evidence to know whether it is necessary to re-enter and excavate further but studies that have not re-entered do not report adverse consequences.

Background People with pes cavus frequently suffer foot pain, which can lead to significant disability. Despite anecdotal reports, rigorous scientific investigation of this condition and how best to manage it is lacking. Objectives To assess the effects of interventions for the prevention and treatment of pes cavus. Search methods We searched the Cochrane Neuromuscular Disease Group Specialized Register (17 August 2010), MEDLINE (January 1966 to August 2010), EMBASE (January 1980 to August 2010), CINAHL (January 1982 to August 2010), AMED (January 1985 to August 2010) and reference lists of articles. We contacted experts in the field to identify additional published or unpublished data. Selection criteria We included all randomized and quasi-randomised controlled trials of interventions for the treatment of pes cavus. We included trials aimed at preventing or correcting the pes cavus deformity. Data collection and analysis Two authors independently selected papers, assessed trial quality and extracted data. Main results Four trials were included in the review. One new trial of botulinum toxin was identified in the updated search. Only one trial of custom-made foot orthoses fully met the inclusion criteria. Three additional studies (botulinum toxin, footwear and off-the-shelf foot orthoses), all assessing secondary outcomes were included. We could not pool data used in the four studies due to heterogeneity of diagnostic groups and outcome measures. The one trial that fully met the inclusion criteria investigated the treatment of pes cavus pain in 154 adults over three months. The trial showed a significant reduction in the level of foot pain with custom-made foot orthoses versus sham orthoses (WMD 10.90; 95% CI 3.21 to 18.59). Furthermore, a significant improvement in self-reported foot function and physical functioning was reported with custom-made foot orthoses. There was no difference in reported adverse events following the allocation of custom-made or sham orthoses. Secondary biomechanical outcomes improved with the use of custom-made foot orthoses and footwear (pedobarography), but not with intramuscular injections of botulinum toxin (radiographic) or off-the-shelf foot orthoses (electromyography). Authors' conclusions This updated review shows that custom-made foot orthoses are significantly more beneficial than sham orthoses for treating foot pain associated with pes cavus in a variety of clinical populations. We also show that some secondary biomechanical outcomes improve with custom-made foot orthoses and footwear, but not with botulinum toxin or off-the-shelf foot orthoses. There is an absence of evidence for any other type of intervention for the treatment or prevention of pes cavus.

Stocks and flows of biomass are vital compon ents of the biogeochemical system of theEarth. Biomass builds up the ecosystem, which contains the reservoir of genetic andspecies diversity and provides environmental services such as water purification,waste assimilation, soil fertility rehabilitation, water runoff regulation and floodcontrol. Biomass is also crucial for human subsistence in other ways as it serves asfood, and can be used for energy purposes and for the production of, e.g., sawn wood,paper, and various chemicals. Throughout history, human societies have ultimatelydepended on the management and harvest of biological (land and water) resources,and their inability to sustain their productiv ity have led to the end of their civilizations(Ponting, 1992). Thus, human beings have always influenced their habitats, and still today theconversion of ecosystems to land for biomass production is perhaps the most evidentalteration of the Earth. However, emissions to air and water also lead to substantialenvironmental impacts and a large portion of these emissions come (directly or indi-rectly) from other than land use activities. The industrialized society of today is uniquehistorically in that access to biomass does not impose the ultimate limit: humans havelearned to decouple industrial activities from biological productivity by exploiting fossilresources in the form of petroleum, coal and gas and this ability proved a powerfuldriver of societal development in the twentieth century. The role of biomass as a source

Process feedback is an essential ingredient in process change planning and software project management. In this paper, we discuss on-going work with an industrial partner to integrate feedback from the software development process with a discrete event simulation model to improve process performance predictions. A flexible metrics repository provides feedback that is used to generate updated simulation model parameters at predefined project milestones. Model predictions using updated parameters and current project data are compared to Outcome Based Control Limits (OBCLs) defined for the project. These predictions enable the program manager to take corrective action as necessary with the simulation model providing feedback and insight on potential performance impacts of the proposed corrective actions. This creates a feedback loop with the process enhancing model predictions supporting project management decisions.

Metal orthopedic implants have been used for many decades with great success. Replacement joints and plates for bone fractures are usually made from titanium, cobaltchromium or stainless steel. Through recent advancements in biomodeling, custom orthopedic implants can be designed. However, fabrication of these custom implants can be prohibitively expensive with traditional processes. With the introduction of Electron Beam Melting (EBM), direct fabrication of fully dense metal components is possible. In this paper, the development of titanium for the EBM-process will be discussed, and direct fabrication of custom designed orthopedic implants made out of steel and titanium will be demonstrated.

The first descriptions of large protein interaction networks have revealed unexpected topological properties that have been linked to various aspects of cell physiology. In this paper are reviewed the proposed connections between local or global features of protein networks and biological parameters like protein essentiality or mutational robustness. Keywords: network; protein; interaction; topology; mutational robustness; essentiality

Quantum chemical research has made significant progress in the understanding of the electronic structure and the nature of the interatomic interactions yielding chemical bonds in molecules. Ad hoc models of chemical bonding have been complemented or replaced by more sophisticated approaches for analyzing the bonding situation in molecules. The new methods build a well-defined bridge between the heuristic bonding models using pictorial approaches and the physical mechanism of a chemical bond. Bonding models can be examined with quantum chemical methods, which show that chemical intuition and physics do not exclude each other. The paper describes important methods using charge and energy partitioning approaches, which are helpful and widely used in modern theoretical inorganic chemistry for understanding the electronic structure and bonding situation of main-group compounds. The application of the methods to representative main-group compounds is described and the results are critically discussed. Keywords: chemical bonding; bonding models; charge decomposition analysis; energy decomposition analysis; molecular electronic structure

This paper avoids the linear route to establishing where the biggest impact on customer service lies and instead examines the influences on the quality of the customer experience from all angles in an organization. From the culture and policies of the organization itself, to the front-line individuals and their managers, it is evident that customer satisfaction is influenced at many levels and this directly affects organizational success and competitive standing. The Cranfield Top Executive Leadership studies, across 12 countries, examine senior managers' commitment to customer focus. The sample's division, into three distinct groups according to their customer focus commitment levels, highlights a range of arguments about individual, management and corporate dedication to levels of customer satisfaction with hints at where these may conflict with each other. By taking a rounded look at the customer focus process from all its pivots within an organization, potential bottlenecks in the process are also highlighted. Most interestingly, it is concluded that there is actually little difference between the groups in pure quantitative terms, but it is that small difference indeed which makes all the difference to a substantial increase in positive customer experience.

The Dry Central Andes stretching from latitude 31 S to 35 S are climatic deserts, yet they support rich agriculture and large urban centres thanks to melt water from glaciers and snow covered mountains. Most of the agriculture of the Chilean Central Valley is irrigated (Schwerdtfeger 1976), and all drinking water for Santiago de Chile, with over five million inhabitants (one third of the population of Chile), comes from water reservoirs fed by snow and ice melt during the summer. On the Argentinian side of the Andes, with barely 180 mm of annual precipitation, the provinces of Mendoza (population over 1.5 million) and San Juan are the country’s main wine producers and the region has rich agricultural farms. This production is only possible thanks to a well developed irrigation system making efficient use of the summer melt water from the Cordillera. The contrast between the desert natural vegetation and the lush green of the cultivated farms is evident over the whole province, stressing the vital role of the mountains as “water towers of the world for the 21st Century.” (Liniger et al. 1998) In this paper we present results from a field campaign and associated modelling, comparing the components of energy balance in this area with that of Alpine basins and presenting low cost remote sensing techniques suitable for use in a region where access is difficult and expensive. Particular attention is given to penitentes: surface ablation forms that are common on most glaciers of the Central Andes at high altitude, and have an important effect on the energy and mass balance of the snow cover. The relative importance on snow ablation and therefore on water resources will be addressed

Background Bipolar disorder is a common recurrent illness with high levels of chronicity. Treatment resistance persists despite the use of established medications, such as lithium and valproate. New medications are required for the treatment of refractory cases. Retrospective and open-label trials have suggested that the anticonvulsant topiramate may be efficacious in bipolar disorder. There is a need to clarify the evidence available in the form of randomised controlled trials for its use in bipolar disorder. Objectives To review the evidence for the efficacy and acceptability of topiramate in the treatment of acute mood episodes in bipolar disorder. Search methods The Cochrane Collaboration Depression, Anxiety and Neurosis (CCDAN) group search strategy was used. The following databases were searched: The Cochrane Collaboration Depression, Anxiety and Neurosis Controlled Trials Register (CCDANCTR), September 2003; The Cochrane Controlled Clinical Trials Register (CCCTR), September 2003; EMBASE (1980 to December 2003); MEDLINE (1966 to December 2003); LILACS; PsycLIT; Psyndex. Reference lists of relevant papers and major textbooks of mood disorder. Handsearches (specialist journals and conference proceedings). Authors, other experts in the field and pharmaceutical companies were contacted for knowledge of suitable published or unpublished trials. Selection criteria Randomised controlled trials which compared topiramate with placebo or with active agents in the treatment of any acute mood episodes in bipolar disorder. Participants were patients with bipolar disorder and were males and females of all ages. Data collection and analysis Data extraction and methodological quality assessment were performed independently by two reviewers. For analysis, relative risk was used for binary efficacy outcomes and the weighted mean difference or standardised mean differerence was used for continuously distributed outcomes. Main results One randomised controlled trial met the inclusion criteria for the review, a comparison between topiramate and bupropion sustained release (SR) in the adjunctive treatment of depressed patients with bipolar disorder. However, the trial had several limitations in methodology and in the description of data. Its data regarding efficacy required clarification before it could be analysed according to the protocol of this systematic review. From the limited data available, topiramate had efficacy similar to bupropion SR in the adjunctive treatment of bipolar depression. Both groups of subjects suffered a high drop-out rate. There was no significant difference between the topiramate and the bupropion treated groups in those dropping out for any reason (relative risk 1.60, 95% confidence interval 0.65 to 3.96). There was no significant difference in those withdrawing from the study due to adverse effects (relative risk 1.50, 95% confidence interval 0.51 to 4.43). Although the data on weight loss were not analysed formally, weight loss was marked in the topiramate treated group. Several unpublished trials have been identified and data from these trials may be included in future reviews. Authors' conclusions There is insufficient evidence on which to base any recommendations regarding the use of topiramate in any phase of bipolar illness, either in monotherapy or as an adjunctive treatment.

Background Femoral pseudoaneurysms may complicate up to 8% of vascular interventional procedures. Small pseudoaneurysms can spontaneously clot, while others need definitive treatment. Surgery is considered the gold-standard treatment, although is not without risk in patients with severe cardiovascular disease. Less invasive treatment options, such as Duplex ultrasound-guided compression and percutaneous thrombin injection are available, however, evidence of their efficacy is limited. Objectives To assess the effects of different treatments for femoral pseudoaneurysms resulting from endovascular procedures, specifically assessing less invasive treatment options such as ultrasound-guided compression or percutaneous thrombin injection. Search strategy We searched the Cochrane Peripheral Vascular Diseases Review Group's Specialised Register and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library Issue 3, 2005 (last searched October 12, 2005). Additional searches were also made of bibliographies of papers found through these searches and by handsearching relevant journals. Selection criteria Randomised controlled trials comparing two treatments for femoral pseudoaneurysms following vascular interventional procedures were considered for inclusion in the review. Data collection and analysis Two studies were included in the analysis: ultrasound-guided application of a mechanical device (FemoStop) versus blind application; ultrasound-guided compression versus percutaneous thrombin injection. Data were extracted independently by both authors. Main results Mechanical compression with a FemoStop was effective in achieving thrombosis of the pseudoaneurysm although ultrasound-guided application of this failed to confer any benefit (relative risk (RR) 1.07; 95% confidence intervals (CI) 0.75 to 1.53, P = 0.7). Percutaneous thrombin injection was more effective than ultrasound-guided compression in achieving thrombosis of a pseudoaneurysm (RR 7.50; 95% CI 2.06 to 27.25, P = 0.002 at 24 hours after treatment; RR 2.50; 95% CI 1.35 to 4.65, P = 0.004 at 48 hours after treatment). There was no statistically significant difference in the length of hospital stay between the two groups and no complications were reported. Authors' conclusions The limited evidence base appears to support the use of thrombin injection as an effective treatment for femoral pseudoaneurysm. A pragmatic approach may be to use ultrasound-guided compression as first-line treatment, reserving thrombin injection for those in whom the procedure fails.

The term telepresence was first used in the context of teleoperation by Marvin Minsky (suggested to him by his friend Pat Gunkel) in a bold 1979 funding proposal Toward a Remotely-Manned Energy and Production Economy, the essentials of which were laid down in his classic 1980 paper on the topic (Minsky 1980). It refers to the phenomenon that a human operator develops a sense of being physically present at a remote location through interaction with the system’s human interface, that is, through the user’s actions and the subsequent perceptual feedback he/she receives via the appropriate teleoperation technology. The concept of presence had been discussed earlier in the context of theatrical performances, where actors are said to have a ’stage presence’ (to indicate a certain strength and convincingness in the actor’s stage appearance and performance). Bazin

Microarray technology makes it possible to simultaneously study the expression levels from thousands of genes and is widely used in functional genomics research. The analysis of microarray data provides a challenge to researchers because of its high dimensionality and complexity. Extensive research has been devoted recently to address the statistical issues raised from the analysis of the microarray data, and a comprehensive review is not possible here given space limitations and the proliferation of new papers. Instead, this chapter reviews some of the more basic statistical methods used for microarray gene expression data analysis. We divide the methods into three major areas: differential expression, classification, and clustering. Keywords: microarray; gene expression; differential expression; classification; clustering; transcriptomics

This paper provides a framework for understanding competition and industry structure in the context of Fiber to the Home (FTTH). We present engineering cost models, which indicate that FTTH is a decreasing cost industry, thereby making facilities based competition an unlikely outcome. Non-facilities based competition (or service level competition) in FTTH can happen in data-link layer (or transport) services via unbundled dark fiber (i.e. unbundled network elements) and in higher layer (voice, video and data) services via logical layer unbundling (or open access). FTTH architectures differ in the extent to which they support unbundling and therefore the extent of non-facilities based competition in FTTH depends on the architecture of the shared network over which multiple service providers offer service. Among the four different FTTH architectures considered, the curbside single-wavelength Passive Optical Network architecture (PON) that has isolated pole-mounted splitters has the most economical fiber plant but permits unbundling only at the logical layer. Consequently, though a PON supports ‘open access’ based competition in higher layer services like voice, data and switched digital video, it does not facilitate competition in data-link layer services or in the provision of analog broadcast video services. In complete contrast, the Home Run architecture has the highest initial (fiber related) capital cost, but permits unbundling of both the physical plant and at the logical layer. The Home Run architecture therefore supports a per subscriber choice of data-link layer services (via UNE based competition) as well as competition in higher layer voice, video and data services (via open access). This work further identifies deployment strategies, which can facilitate physical plant unbundling at costs much lower than the Home Run architecture. Physical plant unbundling is made possible by establishing Optimal Fiber Aggregation Points (OFAPs) that aggregate multiple distribution fibers (or homes). Unbundling is achieved at the cost of longer distribution loop lengths (vis-a-vis a curbside PON). Ideally, both passive splitters and active electronics can be deployed at an OFAP. OFAP architectures further lead to higher utilization of splitter and Optical Line Termination (OLT) ports in markets that have less than 100% penetration thereby providing the service provider with a real option to (i) defer investment in OLT ports (ii) deploy multiple data-link layer technologies and (iii) effectively phase in new technologies - under both monopoly and competition.

A large number of models for simulating water flow and solute transport in the unsaturated zone are now increasingly being used for a wide range of applications in both research and management. Modeling approaches range from relatively simple analytical and semianalytical solutions, to complex numerical codes. While analytical and semianalytical solutions are still popular for some applications, the ever-increasing power of personal computers and the development of more accurate and numerically stable solution techniques have motivated much wider use of numerical codes in recent decades. The wide use of numerical models is also significantly enhanced by their availability in both the public and commercial domains, and by the development of sophisticated graphics-based interfaces that can tremendously simplify their use. In this paper I focus mainly on numerical models, give a brief history of their development, and discuss some of the more often used numerical techniques including relatively efficient matrix solvers that now are available for multidimensional models. Names and web addresses of some of the more popularly used numerical codes simulating vadose zone processes are also provided. Finally, some typical problems in which the numerical codes have been applied are identified. Keywords: unsaturated zone; water flow; solute transport; matrix solvers; numerical modeling

This article reviews the hydrologic importance of fog in its various forms. Meteorologically, fog is defined as a ground-touching cloud with a visibility in the horizontal of less than 1000 m. The most widely occurring fog types include radiation fog, sea fog and steam fog, and advection fog, but often fog is also referred to by its location of occurrence (coastal, valley, or mountain fog). The physical processes underlying the various types of fog are described briefly. The use, advantages, and limitations of the most common types of fog collectors, fog detectors, and fog droplet spectrometers are dealt with before embarking on a discussion of techniques for the measurement and modeling of fog deposition on forest vegetation. Results of fog deposition measurements made at selected locations (representing coastal vs. inland, lowland vs. montane, and temperate vs. tropical conditions) are compared. The data confirm the importance of fog interception at many coastal and montane sites across the tropical to mediterranean and warm-temperate climatic spectrum. Under more continental conditions, contributions by fog are usually more modest except on windy mountain ridges and summits. Finally, the paper indicates the chief gaps in knowledge regarding the measurement and importance of fog as a hydrologic input. Keywords: fog; fog climatology; fog deposition; fog interception; fog measurement; forest hydrologic cycle; modeling; tropical montane cloud forest; water balance

The incoming solar radiation from the sun (insolation) that reaches the Earth's surface (about 50% of that emitted from the sun) determines the exchange of energy between the land and the atmosphere and consequently, controls climate and climate change. Environmental satellites are considered useful tools for providing information on surface radiative fluxes at various temporal and spatial scales, improving estimation of terrestrial water and energy storage. For several years now, observations from satellites have been used to obtain information on the various components of atmospheric and surface radiative fluxes, initially, retrospectively, and more recently, operationally. In this paper, discussed are the needs for information on radiative fluxes in hydrological applications, methodologies for obtaining such information by methods of remote sensing, accuracy of such estimates, and current status of data availability. Examples of applications in hydrological studies and climate research are provided, and links to international activities and future prospects are indicated. Keywords: insolation; satellite estimates of surface radiation; shortwave radiation; surface radiative fluxes

Knowledge of soil properties and processes are crucial to the understanding of the terrestrial hydrologic cycle and the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems. In this paper, we present the current state and potential of hyperspectral remote sensing techniques for quantitative retrieval of soil properties. Remote sensing is used to detect chemical and physical soil properties either (i) directly from the bare soil pixels, (ii) through advanced spectroscopy methods in mixed “soil-vegetation-litter” pixels, and (iii) by measurements of the overlying vegetated canopy to infer soil properties and moisture status. Optical-geometric properties of soil surfaces reveal information on soil physical features, such as soil structure, crusting, and erosion. We also investigate the use of vegetation water indices to infer soil drying and wetting in the soil root zone. We conclude with a discussion on future needs and directions for remote sensing of soil properties. Keywords: soil properties; hyperspectral remote sensing; vegetation water indices; soil moisture; salinity; soil structure; organic matter; mineralogy

Remote sensing techniques can be use to monitor water quality parameters (i.e., suspended sediments-turbidity, chlorophyll, temperature). Optical and thermal sensors on shoreline booms, boats, aircraft, and satellites provide both spatial and temporal information needed to monitor changes in water quality parameters for developing management practices to improve water quality. Recent and planned launches of platforms equipped with improved spectral and spatial resolution sensors should lead to greater use of remote sensing techniques to assess and monitor water quality parameters. Integration of remotely sensed data, GPS, and GIS technologies provides a valuable tool for monitoring and assessing waterways. Remotely sensed data can be used to create a permanent geographically located database to provide a baseline for future comparisons. The integrated use of remotely sensed data, GPS, and GIS will enable consultants and natural resource managers to develop management plans for a variety of natural resource management applications. This review paper identifies current knowledge regarding the assessment of water quality, and identifies promising techniques for high resolution assessment. Keywords: algae; algorithms; carotenoids; chlorophyll; GIS; GPS; remote sensing; satellites; suspended sediments; turbidity; water quality

The accurate knowledge of hydraulic properties for unsaturated soils is critical in addressing problems in a variety of disciplines such as hydrology, ecology, environmental sciences, soil science, and agriculture. The purpose of this paper is to review the characterization of unsaturated soil hydraulic properties for their applicability in models simulating unsaturated water transport. In a theoretical section, we present the fundamentals for the definitions of the hydraulic properties in the framework of the continuum theory as well as provide the common parameterizations of the hydraulic functions. The characterization and parameterization of hysteresis and the phenomenon of dynamic effects in hydraulic properties are addressed in subsequent sections. Finally we discuss issues related to the handling of spatial and temporal variability, including geostatistical characterization, upscaling, and scale dependency of effective properties. The review closes with a summary on limits and opportunities for modeling water transport with Richards' equation. Keywords: soil hydrology; unsaturated zone; vadose zone; hydraulic properties; hydraulic functions; hydraulic conductivity; retention characteristic; unimodal; bimodal; parametric models; hysteresis; dynamic effects; spatial variability; effective properties; upscaling

Clouds and the precipitation that comes from them are important elements of the hydrological cycle. Clouds provide a blanket for our Earth, both shielding it from radiation from the Sun and trapping heat escaping from the surface. They also generate precipitation through the condensation-coalescence mechanism, which involves only liquid cloud drops, or through ice initiation leading to large ice particles and eventually snow or rain. Mean annual precipitation amounts reach a maximum near the equator, near 8 mm day−1, and decrease poleward to about 1 mm day−1. A good understanding of both cloud and precipitation processes is very important for climate and weather predictions. This paper outlines some of the most important processes and provides reference material where more detailed information can be obtained. Keywords: clouds; precipitation; snow; rain; ice crystals; latent heat; size distribution; clausius-clapeyron; terminal fall velocity

The continuous and persistent weathering of the continents and the ensuing transport of both eroded and anthropogenic products by rivers account for almost all the dissolved solutes, particulates, and sediment-associated contaminants delivered to the ocean. Transported within this riverine load are essential nutrients (e.g. P, N, C), (oxy)hydroxides of Fe/Mn that act as highly efficient riverine scavengers, an ever-changing suite of man-made organic and inorganic constituents, as well as a wide variety of natural solutes (e.g. Si, Ca, Mg, Sr). The environmental behavior of these river-borne constituents is controlled by dynamic phase partitioning between operationally defined dissolved, colloidal, and particulate pools control. As most trace elements are bound onto river particulates, their fate is defined foremost by the nonconservative nature of such solids as they move along the particle-size continuum or are exchanged and remobilized in river bed and floodplain sediments. This paper describes the global riverine transport of sediment-associated contaminants to the ocean. Keywords: sediment-associated contaminants; river discharge; suspended sediment concentration; phase partitioning; storage; remobilization; scavenging; redox cycling

The article gives an introduction to classical vector radiative transfer theory (RTT). It comprises a brief summary of the fundamental quantities in RTT and the corresponding definitions. Based on these quantities, the transfer equation for radiation will be introduced in its basic form for a plane-parallel, horizontally homogeneous atmosphere. Polarization and the Stokes vector are introduced, which extend the scalar radiative transfer equation to the more general form of the vector radiative transfer equation. Scattering processes and interactions with the surface are discussed within the mathematical framework given in the first part of the paper. As an example, the theoretical concept presented is then applied to passive microwave remote sensing. A solution for the radiative transfer equation, which is commonly used for the retrieval of atmospheric quantities (e.g. water vapor) and land surface properties (e.g. soil moisture), is derived based on approximations and simplifications. More general approaches to solve the radiative transfer equation including multiple scattering are described and discussed in a separate section.

Floodplain sedimentation plays a keyrole in the sediment budget of river basins, but it also relates to river management, flood protection, civil engineering, and ecological rehabilitation of rivers. Understanding of the process, therefore, is essential both from a geomorphologic and river management points of view. This paper provides a review of recent research on floodplain sedimentation, focusing on field-based methods to reconstruct and document spatial patterns of overbank sedimentation, as well on mathematical modeling approaches. Examples of floodplain sedimentation over various timescales are given for the lower Rhine River in the Netherlands. The final section synthesizes the processes, their controls, and the resulting patterns and amounts of floodplain deposition. Keywords: alluvial rivers; floodplain; sedimentation; river basin; sediment budget; contaminants; Rhine

This paper illustrates the main features of the hydraulics of mountain streams. The effects of small submergence and riverbed steepness on sediment motion initiation and transport are discussed together with the effect of big roughness elements and pool-riffle and step-pool sequences on velocity distribution and flow resistance. Finally, the most used torrent defense techniques are described. Keywords: rivers; torrent; mountain rivers; incipient motion; sediment transport; steps and pools; check dams

Ground-based radar measurements have provided a wealth of information about precipitation systems, how they evolve and organize themselves. Advances in Doppler and polarimetric radar technology, in particular, have yielded unprecedented insight into the dynamics and microphysics of precipitation formation. This paper summarizes the basic components and principals of radar measurements, and discusses how radar can be used to identify different types of precipitation particles as well as recognize nonmeteorological radar echoes, and obtain quantitative precipitation estimates. Keywords: radar; Doppler; polarization; storm structure; wind analysis; precipitation measurement

Computational river models are in widespread use for estimating flood extent and the effectiveness of proposed flood mitigation schemes. This paper investigates the application of commonly used computational models to river floods, highlighting the advantages and shortcomings and current research activity. 1D, quasi-2D, 2D, and 3D computational models are applied to simulate a large-scale physical model tested in the Flood Channel Facility (FCF), Wallingford, as well as field data from the River Severn near Shrewsbury. The results reveal that commonly used 1D models give a reasonable representation of flood levels and flood extent but do not include floodplain/main channel interaction losses associated with compound flows and can be in error in their predictions. This deficit can be overcome in a straightforward manner by using a modified conveyance at each cross section based on the depth-integrated turbulent form of the Navier–Stokes equation. This so-called Lateral Distribution Method (LDM) has been incorporated into a new Conveyance Estimation System (CES) funded by the EA/Defra Joint Research Programme in Flood and Coastal Defence and developed by HR Wallingford Ltd for use with 1D models. Alternatively, 2D models can be more useful when simulation of flood inundation extent is important. The use of 3D models is becoming more common due to their ability to simulate very complex flow patterns over short river reaches. Initial results indicate that the choice of mesh discretization in a 3D model has a significant influence on the ability of the model to reproduce secondary velocity fields correctly. Problems of data requirements, friction and free surface representation still persist in 3D models in general. Keywords: rivers; flooding; modelling; flood risk

Fluid removal from subsurface reservoirs, in the form of gas, oil, groundwater, geothermal water, and brine, produces a compaction of the depleted formations which migrates totally or partially to the ground surface thus inducing anthropogenic land subsidence. The paper presents: (i) a list of the major subsiding areas worldwide, (ii) a review of the mechanism which causes a measurable settlement above aquifer systems and gas/oil fields, (iii) a description of the currently available techniques to measure land subsidence and in situ rock compaction, (iv) a brief description of some mathematical models to predict the magnitude of subsidence, and (v) a description of a few remedial options that are available to control the event and mitigate the related environmental impact. Keywords: fluid withdrawal/injection; land subsidence; mathematical modelling; monitoring technique

Background Phenylketonuria is an inherited disease characterised by an absence or deficiency of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. The aim of treatment is to lower blood phenylalanine concentrations to prevent developmental delay. Current treatment is based on a low phenylalanine diet in combination with a protein substitute (mixtures of amino acids free from or low in phenylalanine). Guidance regarding the dosage and distribution of this protein substitute, over a 24-hour period, is unclear and there is variation in recommendation between treatment centres. Objectives To assess in children and adults with phenylketonuria, who are adhering to a low phenylalanine diet, the benefits and adverse effects of protein substitute, its dosage and distribution of dose. Search strategy We searched the Cochrane Cystic Fibrosis and Genetic Disorders Group Trials Register which comprises of references identified from comprehensive electronic database searches and handsearches of relevant journals and abstract books of conference proceedings. We also contacted manufacturers of the phenylalanine-free and low phenylalanine protein substitutes for any data from published and unpublished randomised controlled trials. Date of the most recent search of the Group's Trials Register: August 2005. Selection criteria All randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials comparing: any dose of protein substitute with no protein substitute; an alternative dosage; or the same dose, but given as frequent small doses throughout the day compared with the same total daily dose given as larger boluses less frequently. Data collection and analysis Both authors independently extracted data and assessed trial quality. Main results The searches identified 20 trials, of which one, including a total of 28 participants, was eligible for inclusion in the review. This was a two-phase trial, with only phase one being a randomised controlled trial. As data from both phases were combined in the analysis presented in the published paper, we are currently unable to include any data from the randomised controlled trial in the analysis of this review. Authors' conclusions No conclusions could be made about the short- or long-term use of protein substitute in phenylketonuria due to the lack of adequate trial data. A randomised controlled trial is needed to investigate the use of protein substitute in phenylketonuria. Until further evidence is available current practice in the use of protein substitute should continue to be observed and monitored with care.

According to psychiatrist Anthony Storr, ’sexual intercourse is one of the most natural and certainly the most rewarding and the most life-enhancing of all human experiences'. Few of us would argue with that, but although sex plays a vital part in our lives, it has for long periods been associated with guilt and shame, rather than enjoyment. Perhaps this explains why it is only in the last hundred years or so that psychologists, biologists, and others have tried to discover the truth about human sexual behavior in a scientific and objective manner. One of the main tools used in such investigations has been the sample survey, and this paper presents a brief (and therefore necessarily incomplete) history of surveys about sex. Keywords: sex; sample surveys; contraception; sexual behavior