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A simple filter paper method for estimating a wide range of moisture potentials has been tested for fifteen soils ranging in texture from sands to heavy clays. The method has given estimates of moisture potential from -0.1 to -900 bars with an accuracy that should be acceptable for many types of field experimentation. Relationships between 15-bar percentages determined by both the filter paper and pressure membrane methods, and biologically determined permanent wilting percentages for wheat, are discussed.

Translation (by J. E. Upson) of an unpublished paper presented at a meeting of the Royal Netherlands Geological and Mining Society in 1950. Data from borings in the Ijsselmeer basin indicate that, in general, the chloride concentration increases gradually with depth in ground waters of the Pleistocene deposits, mainly pre-Riss fluviatile sands, which overlie fine-grained marine Tertiary (and Icenian) sediments. The observed depth/salinity curves can best be explained by postulating an essentially continuous modification of fresh waters by upward diffusion of salt from the marine deposits during the past 500,000 years.

Dean (1892) saw that South Carolina oysters did not live below low tide in high-salinity areas and he postulated a previous "ostreous golden age" when there was more fresh water draining into the bays. Oemler (1894) noted failure of oyster plantings in high-salinity waters of Georgia and concluded that the American oyster could not endure waters of great density in the South. Ritter (1896) observed that oysters in Mississippi and Alabama did not "thrive so well" in waters of high salinity. Grave (1905) noted a much lower mortality following plantings in low salinity compared to those at high salinity in North Carolina waters. He said that reduction of salinity by a few points would exclude many oyster enemies. Pearse and Wharton (1938) found that attacks by the Florida oyster "leech," a turbellarian, declined during low-salinity periods. Various oyster growers and State officials have remarked, during the past fifty years, that oyster production bordering the lower Mississippi River failed as levees cut off fresh water and caused the salinity to increase (Gunter 1952). Ray, Mackin, and Boswell (1953) have stated that mortality caused by the fungus parasite Derwnocystidium inarinum is greatest in summer at moderate and high salinities in Louisiana. Some cases of high mortality associated with high salinity were mentioned by Sewell H. Hopkins in "History of some oyster mortalities reported in foreign countries," an unpublished paper read before the Symposium on Oyster Pathology held at Pensacola, Florida on February 1, 1950. This communication presents certain data on the relation of oyster mortality to salinity. They were gathered in the course of a field study on the south Texas coast.

Juvenile coho salmon were exposed for 200 days to neutralized, filtered bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) at concentrations of 0.1 and 0.25 of the samples' 96-h LC50 values. From 50 to 200 days, mean weights of fish exposed to 0.25 LC50 BKME were significantly higher than control values; those of fish in 0.1 LC50 BKME were consistently but not significantly higher than control weights. By 200 days, mean weight of fish receiving the higher BKME concentration was twice that of controls. Length and condition factor of this group of fish were also increased. Growth results are considered in terms of BKME-induced behavioral changes, increased nutrient supply, effluent salinity, hormetic effects, and hormonal changes.Lactate levels were elevated in the blood and muscle of coho fry exposed to the higher BKME concentration only; serum pyruvate levels were decreased in fish receiving either concentration. The serum lactic acid:pyruvic acid ratio was increased in both groups of fish continuously exposed to BKME. It was concluded that these fish had developed an oxygen debt.Plasma glucose levels were elevated in BKME-exposed fish. The liver muscle glycogen ratio was increased in fish held in 0.1 or 0.25 LC50 BKME for 200 days. Body moisture and lipid content were not altered by prolonged exposure to BKME. Body protein content was decreased in those exposed to 0.25 LC50 effluent. Total blood cell, erythrocyte, leukocyte–thrombocyte and differential leukocyte counts were not altered. Numbers of circulating neutrophils were increased by the higher effluent concentration.The chronic stress response pattern displayed was similar to a previously proposed stage of resistance to stress for mammals.

subject of research for many years research to determine the mechanisms by which coagulation proceeds, in order to allow a greater degree of control over treatment processes the behavior of a given water is not always predictable. Numerous articles have been published on the theory of the action of metal coagulants. A large number of these have been listed in a comprehensive bibliography on coagulation prepared by R. F. Packham of the British Water Research Association.1 It has been shown that the coagulation of water may be affected by the type and amount of turbidity present, cations and anions in solution, size distribution of particles, pH, coagulant type and dosage, and alkalinity and salinity. Any experimental conditions must include these factors, and any departures from the given conditions must be evaluated as to the overall effect on

1. 1. Acclimatized specimens of Hydrobia ulvae show a linear increase in oxygen consumption with decreasing salinity. The quantity of amino acid tends to decrease with decreasing salinities. 2. 2. Specimens transferred to different salinities may show a temporary increase in oxygen consumption and α-alanine concentrations. The temporary increase in oxygen consumption appears to be a standard increment. The increase in α-alanine presumably reflects quantity of pyruvate, the respiratory substrate. 3. 3. The linear relationship of oxygen consumption to salinity in acclimatized animals is related to osmoregulation. The temporary, incremental increase in oxygen consumption may be related to the cyclical behavioural activity of the prosobranch mollusc H. ulvae under estuaraine conditions.

1. Attempts to obtain good cultures of Thalassiosira gravida in a purely artificial medium, made by dissolving in doubly distilled water Kahlbaum's pure chemicals in the proportions in which the salts occur in sea-water, adding nitrates, phosphates and iron according to Miquel's method and sterilizing the medium, have not succeeded.If, however, a small percentage of natural sea-water (less than 1 per cent will produce a result) be added to the artificial medium and the whole sterilized excellent cultures are obtained, which are often better than any which have been got when natural sea-water forms the foundation of the culture medium.The result appears to be due to some specific substance present in minute quantity in the natural sea-water which is essential to the vigorous growth of the diatoms. The nature of this substance it has not been possible to determine, but some evidence seems to suggest that it is a somewhat stable organic compound.Provided the 1 per cent of natural sea-water is added, the various constituents of the artificial sea-water forming the basis of the culture medium can be varied in amount within wide limits. The salinity of the medium can also be considerably altered without serious detriment to the cultures.The experiments recorded are of interest as furnishing another instance of the importance in food substances of minute traces of particular chemical compounds. They may also eventually throw light upon the nature of the conditions in the sea which are specially favourable to the production of plant life and therefore also of the animal life which that plant life sustains.

In the previous paper, it was shown that the movements of yellow-fin sole, Limanda aspera (PALLAS), is related to the change of bottom temperature on the trawl fishing ground in the eastern Bering Sea, 1960. In this paper, the authors compare the oceanographical conditions in 1963 with 1960, and they report on the distribution of yellow-fin sole and alaska pollack, Theragra chalco-gramma (PALLAS), in 1963. The results are as follows: 1. The sea water temperature on the bottom in the central portion of cold water mass in 1963 was 1°C higher than in 1960. The isothermal-line of 0°C in the cold water mass extended from south-east of St. Matthew Island to 57°N, 164°W in 1960, but in 1963 it was found to exist only in the south eastern part of the island. 2. The open sea water of high salinity reached from the southern part of Bristol Bay across the bay to the north-side of the cold water mass in 1960, but in 1963 it was found only in the southern part of the bay. 3. Yellow-fin soles were distributed in a large number on the north-side of the cold water mass, limited to only a few at the center and none in the southside in July, 1963. 4. Between April and June, the shoals of yellow-fin sole moved from the north-western part of Unimak Island to the shallow coast of Bristol Bay. In July, the shoals moved toward off-shore region with the rise of bottom temperature in the shallow region and then migrated northwestward across the region (around 57°30'N, 163°W). At the both fronts of cold water and coastal water increased the density of the shoals more in the region above mentioned. 5. Alaska pollacks were distributed in a large number on both the east and south-sides of the cold water mass, and none on the north-side in July, 1963, because they are controled by open sea water with high temperature and high salinity. 6. The stomachs of alaska pollack contained aboundant Thysanoessa raschii and Parathe-misto libellula which were living near the surface of the water. The distribution of this fish proved to have relations not only to the bottom water con-ditions but also to the water conditions at different levels.

Evaluation of the chloride exchanges of Nereis diversicolor in the steady state has shown that this worm ‘cuts its losses’, i.e. reduces the fluxes, of chloride at very low salinities (Smith, 1970a), and that this reduction of chloride loss takes place mainly in the urinary component of the efflux, as has also been suggested by previous authors. Jorgensen & Dales (1957) measured the rates of osmotic gain or loss of water, and concluded that at low salinities N. diversicolor could reduce its permeability to water by over 60%. Assuming a comparable reduction in permeability to chloride, they calculated that the observed reduction of chloride efflux could be accounted for by reduction of urine volume, without the necessity of postulating the production of a urine rendered hypotonic to the body fluids by recovery of solutes by the nephridia. Potts & Parry (1964), on the other hand, in their review of the previous authors’ work, felt unable to accept the evidence for a reduction of permeability to water and, on the assumption of no permeability changes, drew up a balance sheet in support of the hypothesis that reduction of chloride loss was achieved in N. diversicolor by recovery of ions from a consequently hypotonic urine. These views are not mutually exclusive, and the problem is not to choose between them but to obtain evidence to indicate the extent to which each postulated mechanism may be operative. In the previous paper (Smith, 1970a), evidence was presented compatible with the concept that the urine of N. diversicolor may be hypotonic in chloride to the coelomic fluid at low salinities, although this evidence was indirect and not conclusive. In a subsequent paper (Smith, 1970b) direct evidence will be presented that the urine of N. diversicolor is hypo-osmotic. In order fully to evaluate the hypothesis of Jorgensen & Dales it would be necessary to measure both permeability to water and urine volume. So far, it has not been possible to measure urine volume, but data on permeability to water have been obtained, and an estimate of water fluxes attempted.

∗ The problem of the origin, occurrence, and distribution of soluble salts and the formation of chloride brines in the crust of weathering are treated in the present paper as a process caused chiefly by the dynamics of natural waters and the mobility of the chemical constituents dissolved in water. The hydraulic gradients and velocity of underground flow, the intensity of the water exchange with the earth's surface, the relation of the water-bearing bed to water (e.g., intensive flush, hampered flush, salt accumulation), the subsurface drainage conditions, the duration of time of the contact of water with the geological formations along with the chemical composition of rock material and the water which occurs in them and the structural features of the area, are considered as the chief factors governing the salinity variation of subterranean waters. Nearly ten thousand chemical analyses of natural waters, including fresh water and brines, subterranean waters from the numerous artesian basins, oilfield areas, geysers, mud volcanoes, from various sedimentary formations, metamorphic and igneous rocks from the different parts of the globe, have been classified, tabulated and plotted and considered in this paper. The relationship between the types of the products of weathering and the major geochemical types of subterranean waters has been found and used for the classification of water. The variation in salinity of subterranean waters with the change of the hydraulic gradients, with depth of water, with the distance from the outcrops and with the distance from the sea, have been illustrated by numerous data. The principles of the distribution of subterranean waters of the different hydrochemical facies (low saline facies, transitional facies, high saline facies) in the crust of weathering in relation to the hydrodynamic cones, salinity concentration and geological environment (structures, relation to water, depth) are indicated. The application of the integral frequency curves of the chemical composition of the different types of subterranean waters associated with oil-pools has been demonstrated for practical use in the search for oil. Ionic ratios Cl ′ Mg .. ; SO ′' 4 Cl ′ ; Ca .. Mg .. ; Na . + K . Na . + K . + Ca .. + Mg .. in subterranean waters and in oceanic water have been treated as the objective criterions showing the origin of highly-concentrated chloride brines. The metamorphism of natural waters in the crust of weathering is considered as proceeding either in the normal course (bicarbonate waters → bicarbonate-chloride waters → chloride-bicarbonate waters → chloride-sulphate or sulphate-chloride waters → sulphate waters → chloride waters), or in the reverse course, which is, for the major geochemical groups of water, as follows: bicarbonate sulphate chloride ← ← waters waters waters This process is formulated in this paper as the cycle of metumorphism of natural waters.

In the previous paper the author has reported on a newly established indicator of sea-water pollution, B. O. I. and has showed a few examples of the pollution survey using the indicator. The B. O. I. was able to indicate the sea-water pollution caused by organic source, which was hardly indicated by B. O. D. or C. O. D. method. In this paper he presented the data concerning B. O. I. value in unpolluted fishing areas adjacent to the coast of Nagasaki Prefecture to elucidate the B. O. I. value in an unpolluted area and to make the B. O. I. value a determination standard of pollution. In the results of the research, it is confirmed that an area, in which the B. O. I. value is below 1.5 is an unpolluted one. Since the B. O. I. value means the oxygen consumption of microorganism at 30°C in 24 hours and the number of microorganism is equivalent to the number of marine bacteria, the number of microorganism can be calculated by using the value of oxygen consumption of marine bacteria per unit cell, 20.2×10-12mg O2/cell/hr, which was estimated by ZoBell. The B. O. I. value of 1.5 corresponds to the number of bacteria, 4×105/cc. A survey was conducted into distribution of pollution in sea-water by using surface sea-water in Nagasaki Harbor. The largest value was obtained at the innermost of the harbor and the value decreased with the stations toward the mouth of the harbor. Vertically, the B. O. I. value was the largest in the surface and oxygen content and salinity became larger with depths. This phenomenon is considered to be due to the entrainment of the surface sea-water, which may bring water masses high in oxygen content from the mouth of the harbor. The number of microorganism in the water of Nagasaki Harbor was 1-2×106/cc. This is equivalent to the number of marine bacteria calculated by using B. O. I. value. The number of bacteria in the mud of the sea-bottom of the harbor was 109/cc.

On the basis of results from a substantial number of field projects, polymer flooding has been found to be successful over broad ranges of polymer flooding has been found to be successful over broad ranges of reservoir conditions and fluid characteristics. But it is a complicated process to design a polymer flooding program, and the many variables process to design a polymer flooding program, and the many variables involved require sophisticated calculations that are best handled with a computer. Introduction Papers by Pye and Sandiford in 1964 established Papers by Pye and Sandiford in 1964 established the fact that the mobility of the brine used in waterflooding was greatly reduced by the addition of very small amounts of hydrolyzed polyacrylamide, a water-soluble polymer. This reduction in brine mobility resulted in greater oil recovery than that attributable to conventional waterflooding. Many additional papers sustaining and extending this information have since appeared in the literature. To date, very little field information has been available from which to draw conclusions regarding the most suitable reservoir and fluid characteristics for polymer flooding applications. The purpose of this polymer flooding applications. The purpose of this paper is to present basic conditions and test results paper is to present basic conditions and test results for a large number of polymer flood projects and to examine the ranges of some of the more important parameters within which success has been achieved. parameters within which success has been achieved. In addition, the effects of variations in several important reservoir and polymer properties upon polymer flood recovery are illustrated with the aid polymer flood recovery are illustrated with the aid of a computer program. Such effects are not readily observable by field testing. Field Test Results Tables 1 and 2 list reservoir and fluid properties for 61 polymer flood projects begun between 1964 and mid-1969. All projects with which we or our colleagues have been associated are included. We believe that the polymer used in these 61 projects represents more than 95 percent of all the polymer injected to date as a mobility control agent in flooding. Although the individual projects vary greatly in size, the combined amount of polymer used amounts to several million pounds under commercial rather than purely experimental conditions. Specifically excluded from these tables are those projects employing polymers on a small-volume, short-term basis for injection profile correction, and projects where polymer solutions profile correction, and projects where polymer solutions are used to displace miscible fluids. Also excluded are previously reported research pilot tests. previously reported research pilot tests. Table 1 lists 29 projects from which significant information concerning the applicability of the polymer flooding process can be obtained. Table 2 lists polymer flooding process can be obtained. Table 2 lists 32 additional projects from which such conclusions cannot be drawn either because of some gross reservoir defect rendering the reservoir unsuitable for any displacement process or because the project was started too recently to be interpreted. In each table, most of the more important reservoir and fluid characteristics are listed together with the recommended polymer flood plan. The sequence in which the polymer flood plan. The sequence in which the projects are listed is determined by the stage of projects are listed is determined by the stage of depletion (Column 14) at which the project was begun that is, P indicates a start near the end of primary; ES, early secondary; LS, late secondary; and T, tertiary. Test results are indicated in Column 20 and are defined both in the footnotes of each table and in the following paragraph. JPT P. 675

Nine species of fungi are known to occur on various species of Synedra (Sparrow, 1960: 1086). Of these, Ectrogella perforans Peter? sen, E. licmophorae Scherffel, and E. eurychasmoides J. & G. Feldmann are known from strictly marine habitats, occurring in species of Licmophora. In 1962 and 1964 specimens of Synedra infected by fungi were collected in three brackish water areas of one North Carolina estuary. This paper reports these fungi. Inasmuch as two of the fungi occurred in a rather unusual habitat, a brief statement on major features of the collection sites is given. A more or less regular collection program for fungi in the Neuse River of Eastern North Carolina has been under way since 1955. In 1956, seven promi? nent station sites were established along a salinity gradient in this estuary. Monthly or bimonthy samplings for various fungi have been made since 1956, and in 1962 these same stations became the sites for either regularly or intermittently scheduled plankton tows. Salinity, temperature and pH of the waters at these stations have been determined at each sampling since 1956, and in the years 1958-1960, dissolved oxygen, nitrate and phosphate tests were also made. Thus, rather complete records of major environmental factors are extant. The fungi reported in this paper were each found once at one of three stations in the estuarine system. Flanner's Beach Station is near the uppermost reaches of the estuary. Salinity ranges here from 7.816.9%c, but predominates in the region of 8-11%C. Adam's Creek Station, some six nautical miles east of Flanner's Beach has had, in nine years, a salinity range of 7-23.1%0 (predominantly 12-17%c), while the Core Creek Station three nautical miles nearer the mouth of the estuary has had a somewhat higher range: ll-26.5%c, generally 18-23%c. Diurnal tidal cycles are evident at all three stations, but the highest amplitude is at Core Creek. Although Synedra species are to be found in the fresh-water sector of the river, they are not thus far known to be infected by fungi.

FINE-TEXTURED EARTH MATERIALS, SUCH AS CLAY OR CLAYEY SAND AND GRAVEL, ARE POTENTIALLY IMPERVIOUS TO WATER. SOMETIMES, HOWEVER, EXPERIENCE IN THE USE OF SUCH MATERIAL FOR WATERTIGHT CONSTRUCTION HAS BEEN DISAPPOINTING. IN SOME CASES, CLAY MEMBRANES PLACED WITH THE GREATEST OF CARE HAVE BEEN FOUND TO BE SEMI-PERVIOUS AND HAVE FAILED TO PERFORM THE FUNCTION FOR WHICH THEY WERE DESIGNED. THIS PAPER DESCRIBES SUCH AN EXPERIENCE AT TREASURE ISLAND, THE SITE OF THE GOLDEN GATE INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY, CALIFORNIA, AND THE SIMPLE METHOD IN WHICH THE DEFECT WAS REMEDIED BY UTILIZING AN ELECTRO-CHEMICAL PHENOMENON OF COLLOIDAL CLAY. THE PAPER DESCRIBES THE NOVEL METHOD BY WHICH THE 10-IN. CLAY LINING OF THE BOTTOM OF THE SEVEN-ACRE FRESH-WATER LAGOON WAS SEALED BY A PRIMING OF SALT WATER PUMPED IN FROM THE BAY. THE LINING WAS COMPACTED BY USE OF A 14-TON FLAT ROLLER, BUT WITH COMPARATIVELY LOW AVERAGE DENSITY AND INCLUSION OF CONSIDERABLE AIR. INITIAL SEEPAGE LOSS FROM FRESH WATER IN A TEST POOL WAS 1.00 IN. PER DAY. THIS WAS REDUCED TO 0.10 IN. PER DAY BY THE SALT WATER TREATMENT DESCRIBED HEREIN. /AUTHOR/

The following mosquitos should be added to the list given in my earlier paper on this subject (Bull. Ent. Res. 28, 1937, pp. 405—407).1. Anopheles elutus, Edwards.The larvae are found in the same habitats as those of A. maculipennis, but seem to show a greater preference for waters near the sea-shore. A. elutus appears to be considerably rarer in Corfu than A. maculipennis, but sufficient data are not yet to hand to settle this question.2. Anopheles plumbeus, Stephens.Not common. I have obtained the larvae from the rot-holes of oak, elm and white poplar, but never so far from those of olive-trees. They favour deep holes containing plenty of rotting material.3. Aëdes (Ochlerotatus) caspius, Pallas.The larvae are sometimes present in fresh, but more frequently in slightly brackish waters. They are often gregarious with the larvae of O. detritus, Hal., but are much less abundant than the latter.4. Aëdes (Ochlerotatus) pulchritarsis, Rondani.The larvae live in rot-holes of oak, elm and white poplar, and are sometimes met with in considerable numbers in the same hole. They prefer holes in which the collected water has become thick and very dark amber in colour owing to the presence of decaying wood debris.5. Orthopodomyia pulchripalpis, Rondani.The larvae are found in the same habitats as those of O. pulchritarsis and are often gregarious with the latter. They are less plentiful, on the whole, than O. pulchritarsis and prefer somewhat clearer water.Note.—In my paper referred to above I mentioned that Finlaya echinus, Edw., is commoner in Corfu than F. geniculatus, Oliv. This statement is due to an error of determination arising from the fact that in many of the Corfu larvae of F. geniculatus the bristles of the abdominal tufts are somewhat more developed than those described in some text-books.

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. This paper was prepared for the 38th Annual California Regional Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, to be held in Los Angeles, Calif., Oct. 26–27, 1967. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon requested to the Editor of the appropriate journal, provided agreement to give proper credit is made. Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers Office. Such discussions may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines. Abstract The objective of this study was to investigate the relative effectiveness of fresh and salt waters in flooding oil from cores containing clays. Both synthetic and natural water-sensitive cores were flooded with waters of various salinities. In general, it appears that water sensitive cores will produce more oil with a freshwater flood than 'with a brine flood. However, the fresh-water flood is accompanied by a lowering of permeability and the development of a relatively high pressure drop. If the freshwater flood does not develop a high pressure drop, then no additional oil is produced. Introduction Oil reservoirs are often composed of sands containing various amounts of clays. Certain of these clays possess a dual nature in that they are essentially unaffected by salt water, but are greatly affected by fresh water. The effect of clays on flow of liquids in rocks has been discussed widely in the literature. Johnston has indicated that clays are important in the oil recovery process because they occur as small particles adjacent to the sand grains, where they usually contact water. Whereas clays are relatively inert to oil, they sometimes show extreme reactivity to water. Fancher, Lewis and Barnes found that the permeability of certain oil sands is affected by hydration of clays. In 1945, Johnston and Beeson presented data on the permeability of 1,200 samples of oil sandstones. They showed that the permeability of about 70 percent of the samples decreased on contacting fresh water. Many other investigators have shown that salinity has a great effect on permeability of cores containing clays. While most of this work is concerned with permeability variations, only one study apparently has been made to determine if clay hydration affects oil recovery. The idea that clay hydration could affect oil recovery seemed plausible after considering the mechanics of the process. Petrographic studies by Morris, Anne and Gates have shown that the clays occur in the pore spaces, attached to the sand grains. When these clays hydrate and swell, the pore space available to liquids probably decreases.

INTRODUCTION Shales have recently been shown to be sensitive to both fluid and solid transmitted pressures, in the earth. l The salinity principle has shown that shale porosity, fluid pressure, rock stress and water salinity exist in mechanical and thermal equilibrium. The following two equations have been shown to be applicable whenever marine sands and shales are subject to variations in salinity gradients. (available in full paper) The porosity ?sh is directly related to the effective pore pressure, ?-P, which is the difference between solid and fluid transmitted stresses. The constant c depends upon geologic time and may be found in Ref. 1. It also may be noted on a graph of shale porosity or sand salinity whenever a profile of these parameters is available down to 8, OOO-ft depth. In general, c is 6 × 10−5/ft, for middle Pliocene, but may be solved directly from the SP curve. (available in full paper) Hence, the SP and density logs may be used to corroborate each other when viewed kiloscopically [on a kilometer scale]. In general, these three equations can be used to locate faults, unconformities and zones of high pressure. Pressures may be accurately calculated from Eq. 2 whenever the density log is run over the entire length of the wellbore. In the following equation a simple method uses the two depths at which similar shale densities are found. (available in full paper) In Eq,. 4, G fluid is the weight in Ib/gal of the average salt water gradient at any depth D. .6D is the difference between depths at which the shale densities are equivalent; G is the pore pressure gradient encountered by the drill. Since all parameters in Eqs. 2 and 3 are now measurable, with the exception of ?; the rock stress is now calculable. However, since there generally is no way by which to check the calculations, the author will restrict the analysis to more practical evaluations. Quick checks on rock stress calculations are possible with casing collapse, sand fracturing and thrust, faulting. Sand fracturing will be reserved for I a subsequent paper. FAULT STRESSES Fig. 1 shows a salinity analysis where a review of the introductory statements is possible. The following features are plainly visible in Fig. 1.The critical compaction depth for Gulf Coast shales is 3)100-ft or less. Shales bind salt readily below that depth.Sand salinity varies quite uniformly, according to Eg. 3, on a depth profile with the exception of some faulting near 7, 000 ft. At this depth) salinity decreases in the downthrown block [in tension], while compression causes salinity increases in the up-thrown block.The boundary between Pleistocene and Pliocene is readily apparent at 5) 500 ft. This unconformity yields a salinity contrast due to a possible difference in compaction between the two intervals.Overpressure may be located and calculated at the depths of lowest water salinity. Both acoustic travel time and shale porosity yield similar pressure gradients.The shale-compaction coefficient of 4.96 × 10-5/ft indicates that the zone below 4, 000 ft is upper P1iocene. l

Forty years ago a suggestion was made (Bunge)1 that the sodium chloride in the human tissues might be a relic, an inherited feature of some aquatic marine ancestor. The same idea was expressed in certain papers by Quinton,2 who stated that so far as salinity is concerned the blood of most animals is an altered sea water. In 1903,3 Macallum, then unaware of the suggestions of Bunge and Quinton, advanced the theory “that the blood plasma of vertebrates and invertebrates with a closed circulatory system is, in its inorganic salts, but a reproduction of the sea water of the remote geological period in which the prototypic representative of such animal forms first made their appearance”. He regarded the differences between the blood salinity of the higher vertebrates and the present-day ocean as due to changes in the composition of the sea water since palaeozoic or mesozoic times. Macallum followed up his first statement by more detailed papers, and made some valuable analyses of blood to support his thesis. He is now generally credited with being the originator of this interesting conception. In 1912 I discussed the matter4 from the point of view of certain experiments and observations on marine and fresh-water invertebrates, and came to the conclusion that whilst one might accept the well-regulated saline composition of the blood of teleost fishes, amphibia, and the higher groups as being to a certain extent an heirloom of an ocean environment, there was no reason whatever to believe that the favoured salinity associated with independence represented the composition of any particular primeval ocean. At that time I stated that the investigations of osmotic regulation did not preclude the idea that the early vertebrates with an independence in blood salinity had evolved in fresh water.

The categories glycophyte, intolerant halophyte, faculta- tive halophyte, and obligate halophyte were defined in relative terms. An obligate halophyte was defined as a plant with optimal growth at moderate or high salinity and incapable of growth at low salinity. A selective literature review summarized field and laboratory evidence con- cerning salt-tolerance limits for marine angiosperms, mangroves, and plants of coastal strand, salt desert, and salt marsh. Extensive field observations, corroborated by several workers, were considered very strong, but not conclusive, evidence in defining tolerance limits of species. Even from field observations, however, very few species appeared to be restricted to salinities above 0.5%. Laboratory techniques were not consistent and seldom approximated natural conditions. Neverthe- less, no laboratory-based evidence was found which definitely showed any angiosperm to be an obligate halophyte, although some were shown to be facultative. Ability to reproduce, rather than short-term growth, Reviews by Uphof (1941), Chapman (1960), and Bernstein (1962) cover aspects of geographic distribution, taxonomic relationships, ecol- ogy, and physiology of halophytes. This paper examines only the litera- ture dealing with the range of salt tolerance of angiosperms from several habitats. The term halophyte, alone or coupled with a number of modifiers, has been defined in several contradictory ways. Some of these defini- tions will be reviewed here, and a single set of terms and definitions to be used as a basis for the rest of the paper will be presented. Schimper (1903) defined a halophyte as a plant which lived normally in saline habitats, but which could ". . . thrive on ordinary soil, for instance on garden-soil, without any addition of common salt." Schimper did not define a saline habitat, but his discussion implied it to be one with more than 2% NaCl. Warming (1909) similarly avoided implying that halophytes were restricted to saline habitats. Stocker (1928) defined halophyte and saline habitat more precisely: a normal glycophyte (non-halophyte) is able to tolerate up to 0.5% NaCl and a halophyte is able to tolerate, at any stage of its life, a salt concentration greater than 0.5%.

It has been long known that certain marine fishes enter fresh-water in addition to anadromous species that run up rivers to spawn. Gunther (1880, p. 202) said: "Almost every large river offers instances of truly marine fishes . . . ascending for hundreds of miles of their course; and not periodically,, or from any apparent physiological necessity, but sporadically throughout the year . . ." Ordinary faunistic surveys, which are usually made without salinity determinations, indicate that this phenomenon is more common in the tropics than in temperate regions. Nevertheless, it is common in North America and several authors have mentioned it. Marine fishes are found in the Atchafalaya River of Louisiana over 160 miles from the sea (Gunter, 1938b) and numerous marine species occur in fresh-water at Homasassa Springs, Florida (Gunter, 1942, Herald and Strickland, 1949). Bailey, Winn and Smith (1954) qttestioned these records but furnished others for the Gulf Coast. Odum (1953) has shown that the fresh-waters of Florida generally, including Homosassa Springs are quite high in salt content. Crabs (Gunter, 1938b) and other marine animals also enter fresh-water, but the action is much more common to fishes and doubtless takes place at all coastal river mouths to some extent. Some fresh-water fishes also descend the rivers and spend a time at sea. Myers (1938, 1949) has proposed a six division classification of fishes with regard to salt tolerance, which is particularly useful in zoogeographic studies. In this paper we are not particularly concerned with those problems. Remarks and records in the literature on the salinity where fishes are captured are scattered, incomplete and hard to find because they are included as side issues in papers devoted to other subjects. The writer attempted to summarize the information for North and Middle America by compiling a list of the fishes of the continent which have been found in both freshwater and sea water (Gunter, 1942). Due to the incompleteness of the literature, the help of a number of ichthyological workers was solicited. The response was gratifying and several unrecorded observations were brought to light. This paper is essentially a revision and extension of the former list. An animal which will withstand or tolerate gross salinity changes is said to be euryhalin. There are all degrees of euryhalinity, grading from animals which can withstand little or no salinity change to those which can change from sea water to fresh-water or vice versa and live in either environment indefinitely. There are also degrees of rapidity withwhich animals can undergo salinity changes, but little is known of this aspect of the subject. The term euryhalin has never been rigidly defined and any rigid definition is essentially arbitrary. The writer (Gunter, op. cit.) defined an euryhalin

The distribution of free-living nematodes inhabiting the intertidal muds of the Blyth estuary has been studied in relation to salinity distribution. This paper presents the results of the investigations into the salinity variations in both the tidal water of the estuary and the interstitial water of its muds, while the distribution of the free-living nematodes will form the subject of a later paper. In this country the salinity conditions in the estuary of the River Tees (Alexander, Southgate & Bassindale 1935), the estuary of the River Severn and the Bristol Channel (Bassindale 1943a, b), and the River Tamar (Cooper & Milne 1938, Milne 1938, 1940, Percival 1931, Spooner & Moore 1940) have been studied in detail. The River Blyth estuary is much smaller than any of these, and only the general principles found in the larger estuaries can be applied to it. Day (1951) and Yonge (1949) give reviews of these general estuarine conditions. The distribution of free-living nematodes in water of varying salinity has been the subject of much research in the Baltic Sea and in certain areas of the Zuiderzee, while in this country Rees (1940) has dealt with free-living nematodes as part of a larger study of the ecology of a mud flat in the Bristol Channel. Bassindale (1943b, p. 3) has pointed out that 'it has long been known that if the salt content of the water in which they live is changed sufficiently slowly, many animals can acclimatize themselves to large changes. Thus although the magnitude of the change is important, the rate of change is also significant'. In the Zuiderzee and Baltic, rates of salinity change are much less rapid than those found in estuaries, and the distribution of nematodes under conditions of high rates of change has not previously been studied. Nematodes live in the interstitial water of the mud, and Rees (1940) has shown that the greater part of this constituent of the microfauna is concentrated in the surface 2 cm of intertidal mud. It was therefore necessary to investigate salinity conditions in the interstitial water near the surface of the mud. Reid (1930, 1932), Alexander et al. (1932) and Smith (1955) have worked on the salinity of interstitial water in mud and sand, and all have found that salinity conditions tend to be more stable with increasing depth, and that salinities could be maintained at a high level-varying with depth-below nearly fresh overlying water at low tide. Reid states that '. . . marine burrowing animals living in estuaries are in no way

An experiment to investigate the structure of the oceanic mixed layer was conducted between 28 September and 14 October, 1971, at 21N and between 66 and 67W aboard the NOAA Discoverer. During the experiment a quartz thermometer system capable of measuring temperature changes to within 0.001C was deployed from a surface buoy. Time-series temperature data were obtained from 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 m depths and digitally recorded with a sampling interval of 1.1 min. This paper presents the results of an analysis of the temperature fluctuations in the mixed layer at selected levels for a three-day period characterized by fair weather conditions. STD measurements indicate there were no observable changes in salinity during this period. The observations show downward propagation of the diurnal heat wave at a rate of about 5 m hr−1 resulting in a turbulent exchange coefficient for the diurnal cycle of the order of 100 cm2 sec−1. During the heating portion of the cycle, which occurs during the day, the mix...

This paper reports the effects of sodium chloride on the in vitro activity of malate dehydrogenase and on the specific activity of malate dehydrogenase isolated from various halophytes and glycophytes grown under saline and non-saline conditions. The influence of substrate salinity on respiration and dark CO2 fixation was also studied. The species used were the halophytesAster tripolium, Atriplex spongiosa, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, Plantago maritima, Salicornia brachystachya, andSpergularia salina, and the glycophytesAster amellus, Plantago major, andSpergularia rubra.When added to the test solutions, sodium chloride stimulates the activity of malate dehydrogenase. Further addition of sodium chloride results in rapid decline of activity at salt concentrations which vary with the species. Malate dehydrogenase isolated from both glycophytes and halophytes do not show any significant difference in their response to sodium chloride, indicating salt tolerance. Enzyme isolated from halophytes grown under saline conditions is as sensitive to sodium chloride as enzymes isolated from the same plants grown in the absence of additional NaCl. A double reciprocal plot shows a competitive interaction between sodium chloride and oxaloacetate. The addition of sucrose during the in-vitro assay of malate dehydrogenase results in a stronger inhibition than that caused by isosmotic NaCl solutions.Enzymes extracted from seedlings of halophytes and glycophytes grown at various levels of sodium chloride showed important changes in specific activity of malate dehydrogenase (tested without additional sodium chloride in an in-vitro assay). In glycophytes, specific activity decreases with increasing substrate salinity, whereas in halophytes specific activity first increases, to a symptote and finally decreases. A double reciprocal plot shows a non-competitive interaction between sodium chloride and oxaloacetate indicating that the ratio of malate dehydrogenase to total extractable protein is altered by sodium chloride. The respiration of these seedlings runs parallels the specific activity of the malate dehydrogenase whereas CO2 dark fixation declines with increasing substrate salinity.The results are discussed with respect to compensatory reactions rather than compartmentalisation due to the addition of sodium chloride.

In this paper, the morphogenesis of zoospore derived from plurilocular sporangium produced on the thallus of Cladosiphon okamuranus, as well as the influence of water temperature, salinity and illumination on the growth of its germlings were examined in the laboratory.1) The development of most zoospores from plurilocular sporangia showed the discoid type. The discoid germlings derived newly formed plurilocular sporangia and developed into the thalli of sporophyte. However, when the discoid germlings were cultured at a higher temperature (25°C ), there were no growth of the erect germlings; showing only repeated generations of discoid development by the zoospores from their plurilocular sporangia.2) Suitable culture conditions for the attachment of zoospores from plurilocular sporangia in the laboratory were 20-25°C in water temperature, nearly 31‰ in salinity and 1-2.5klx in illuminance.3) As regards the adequate culture conditions for the growth of germlings before reaching 1 mm in height, the water temperature was 25-30°C, but when they began to develop into erect germlings, best growth occurred between 15-20°C, the adequate conditions being 15-45‰ salinity and 5-10klx illuminance.

The paper gives a brief review of chemical reactions and equilibria which occur in hydrothermal Experimental work, reacting rocks and water at high temperature, has shown that it is not always necessary to postulate a magmatic fluid origin for chemicals in natural hot waters. Only a few elements in waters, such as Cl, B, Cs, are not involved to any great extent in temperature and pressure dependent chemical equilibria with rock minerals. These elements are useful in identifying and following flows of particular waters within a field. From knowledge of acid-base equilibria, the pH of hot water at deep levels can be obtained, and also the variation in pH with time during drillhole production. Combined with metal ion concentrations, the pH enables an interpretation in terms of water chemistry of mineral alteration assemblages, including the tendency for calcite formation. Phase diagrams, using ratios αNa/αH, αx/αH, αCa/α2H, αMg/α2H, etc., as parameters show how mineral assemblages in hydrothermally altered rock change as waters cool and lose carbon dioxide on approaching the surface. As equilibrium exists between hot water and rock minerals at deep levels, the silica concentrations and Na/K ratios in waters flowing rapidly to the surface given an accurate measure of the deep temperature. Also, the pH of deep hot water is a function of the water salinity, except in areas where waters contact sulfur deposits. It is shown that calcium concentration in thermal waters, for a given temperature, is approximately proportional to the square of sodium ion concentrations. Estimates of mCO2 in underground waters can be made through knowledge of any two of the variables, salinity, calcium concentration, and bicarbonate concentration in surface discharges. The concentration of carbon dioxide in deep hot water is the factor determining whether or not waters will deposit calcite in drillpipes. With increasing mCO2, calcium carbonate replaces minerals such as wairakite and epidote as the equilibrium calcium phase in the rock. An outline is given of isotope exchange equilibria which can be used for determining temperatures at depth in a field. Oxygen and sulfur isotope exchange, both between solutes, and between solutes and minerals, are the most promising in this respect. Base metal sulfide deposits are not limited to hydrothermal areas of highly saline waters. Minerals such as galena, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite are found at deep levels in the Broadlands geothermal field of dilute chloride waters, while at the surface in the area precipitates of antimony and arsenic sulfides rich in gold, silver, thallium, and mercury are formed from spring and drillhole waters.

INTRODUCTIONThe problems involved in the identification of freeliving marine nematodes have stood in the way of ecologists for some time. Although considerable advances are now being made on the continent (particularly in Kiel Bay and the Mediterranean) and in North America, our lack of knowledge of the British species is still lamentable. In order to rectify this state of affairs to some extent, a study of the distribution of nematodes in the Exe estuary was planned to cover as wide a spectrum of physical and chemical conditions as possible, ranging from fine muds with a low interstitial salinity at the head of the estuary to coarse sands with a high salinity at the mouth. It is hoped that the characterization of the fauna of various habitats in the estuary will form a basis for further ecological studies in other areas. Not surprisingly, a large proportion of the species found were new British records, and some new to science. The fourteen species of this latter group discussed in this paper are described elsewhere (Warwick, 1970).

The carnivorous marine mite Halacarus basteri was reared on blotting paper in artificial sea water of different salinities. The mites find their food by aid of chemically working sense organs which are situated on the tarsi of the first pair of the legs and perhaps at the top of the pedipalpi. All stages of development straddle with their legs when in open water. Thus the legs become gliding filaments which reduce the sinking speed. Development from egg to the propagating mite takes one year. Sperm transmission is carried out indirectly by spermatophores (Fig. 2).In their normal range of life (salinity from 8 to 25‰) the mites behave poikilosmotic and hyperosmotic. Between 25 and 45‰ they show a hypertonic-hypotonic regulation (Fig. 3). In extreme salinities the mites swell or shrink; they recover in normal salinity (Fig. 4). The mites stand extremely low temperature without damage (Fig. 5).

The so-called isosmotic intracellular regulation includes an adjustment of the number of moles of the intracellular solutes concomitantly to the volume regulation of the cells. For this reason, the apparent linear correlations between the specific weight, and both the water content (g water/g wet tissue) of a tissue of an isosmotic animal and the salinity of the sea water will be observed. Also, when the water content of a tissue is expressed as g water/cm 3 tissue, and is thus independent of the tissue specific weight, an apparent linear correlation between water content and the salinity of the sea water is observed. These differences in the water content between cells adjusted to different osmolalities are due to a replacement of solutes by water, or vice versa , during the cell's volume regulation. This exchange process establishes thereby a mechanism which might enable the animal to maintain the volume of an osmotically adjusted tissue constant and independent of the salinity of the sea water. In the present paper, a physico-chemical treatment of the processes underlying the observed correlations is given. Simple equations describing the correlation between the water content of a tissue (in g water/cm 3 tissue) and the osmolality are presented. It is shown that the coefficient of this correlation is mainly dependent on the mean apparent molar volume of the solutes used by the tissue in the isosmotic intracellular regulation. Isosmotic common mussels ( Mytilus edulis ) were adapted to a wide range of sea water salinities, and the specific weight and the water content of the muscle tissue of these animals were measured and related to the sea water salinity. By comparison of such experimental data with those obtained by calculations according to the equations presented and the assumed composition of the intracellular fluid, it is possible to evaluate the completeness of the volume regulation. The reliability of the evaluation of the completeness of this act according to the present method is discussed and also compared to the reliability of the method usually employed. It is concluded that, in general, the present method yields the better information.

This paper gives a brief statement of the prominent features of the location, construction, and operation of an aerial tramway built to carry salt, at the rate of 20 tons per hour, a distance of 13...

This paper deals with variations in abundance and rates of growth of Mya arenaria L. occurring in areas not far removed from each other, yet possessing significant ecological differences. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence region, the clam beach selected for intensive study is located on the south shore of the Gulf about two miles above the mouth of the Bideford River. The Bay of Fundy experiments were conducted at Clam Cove, Deer Island, situated near the mouth of the Bay. In comparing the two regions, consideration was given to certain environmental factors (Newcombe '35c), such as beach soil, food, water temperature, salinity; to the relative abundance of MAlya at several intertidal levels, including relative abundance of different length classes at each level; and to seasonal as well as annual growth rates for " small " and "large" specimens. On a basis of comparable growth experiments, it has been possible not only to establish differential growth rates for the two regions, but to throw some light on the relative importance of certain environmental factors in affecting the extent of growth.

Two marine and 14 clinical isolates ofA. boydii and its byssoid phase,M. apiospermum, were compared with respect to their saline tolerance, morphological development, and sporulation on various commercial and compounded media. Isolates from sea-water and human infections were morphologically alike, and possessed similar saline tolerance. Most strains had salinity optima near 9‰, about the salinity of blood. Only marine isolates fruited well on Sabouraud's dextrose agar and other routine mycological media. On a medium containing wood and sea-water, and few soluble organics, 12 strains formed mature ascocarps or synnemata, or both. Low nutrient level media containing wood or cellulosic paper, with or without sea-water, were recommended for the propagation and conservation of sporulating cultures of many saprobic Ascomycetes and synnematous Fungi Imperfecti.

In a previous paper, we have reported on environmental characteristics of cultural grounds of a laver, Porphyra tenera Kjellman in Matsushima Bay. The present work carried out to make clear the environmental factors affecting upon the production of laver at Matsukawa-Ura Inlet from October in 1952 to March in 1953 is a comparative study with the preceeding work at Matsushima Bay. The results are summarized as follows: 1. The inlet water was remarkably interchanged with Sendai Bay water by tidal currents. The quantities of water of all inflowing rivers into this inlet were so small that the most part of the inlet except small areas lccated near river mouth was chiefly occupied by the water with nearly equal salinity to Sendai Bay water. Therefore, the cultural grounds would always be exposed to the outside waters of the inlet. 2. Though the contents of nutrient salts in Sendai Bay water were generally poor, the nutrient supplies during the cultural season from autumn to early spring were relatively abundant owing to nutrient rich water of Oyashio which had sometimes inflowed to Sendai Bay. Therefore, it seems reasonable to suppose that the production of laver in this inlet may be attributed to the inflow of Oyashio. 3. According to chemical analysis of laver, the nitrogen contents fluctuated from 1.93 to 6.52 in per cent of dry weight and the phosphorus contents were 0.237±0.057 in per cent of dry weight. The low values and the small variation of phosphorus contents suggest that the necessary amount of phosphorus to support the growth of laver is about 0.2 per cent of dry weight of laver. On the other hand, N:P ratio had considerable variance, showing the values between 7.2 and 28.2. The change in N:P ratio was chiefly due to the fluctuation of nitrogen contents. The nitrogen contents of the samples collected after January were almost below 3 per cent of dry weight. This low value seems to be the results of insufficient supply in nitrogenous nutrients.

Experiments in the mass culture of Phneodactylum using 15-L cultures, with inorganic fertilizers or sewage effluent as a nutrient source, are described. Following inoculation, growth may start immediately or after a short lag. A logarithmic growth phase is followed by a period of constant population density or by an immediate decline. Growth rate in the logarithmic phase varied from 0.25 division/day in winter to >l division/day in summer. Purified sewage effluent, with or without salinity adjustment, is at least as good as inorganic fertilizers as a source of nutrients for the growth of PhaeoductyZum. INTRODUCTION purified sewage effluent reduced the saSome of the problems encountered in linity of the culture in the jars to which it the mass culture of marine plankton algae was added, the salinity in some cases was (Ansell, et al. 1963) cannot be investigated adjusted by the addition of a mixture of easily in large tank cultures, partly because NaCl, MgCla, NazSOJ, CaClz, KCl, and of the difficulty in controlling environmenNaIICOR in the proportions recommended tal conditions sufficiently accurately, and by Harvey ( 1955) for the preparation of partly because the setting up of a largeartificial sea water. Additions of sewage scale tank culture is a time-consuming opeffluent were made to give as near as poseration. Investigation of some problems sible 0.8 mg P/L. h as therefore been carried out using Cell counts, determinations of inorganic smaller scale outdoor cultures, and this panitrogen and phosphorus fractions in the per outlines the work carried out in this medium, and chlorophyll content determiway. nations were carried out by the methods described in part II of the present series MATERIAL AND METHODS of papers (Ansell, et al. 1963). The experiments were conducted using We gratefully acknowledge the co-oper15 L of culture in battery jars of 20-L total ation received from Mr C. L. Bennett, capacity, which were placed on the roof of Superintendent of Broadstone Sewage PuPoole Electricity Generating Station, As in rification Works* previous series (Raymont and Adams 1958; Ansell, et al. 1963), flue gas from the staRESULTS tion boilers, or “pure” carbon dioxide from The general conditions prevailing in the cylinders was used to reduce the pH as series of experiments to be described are required. No attempts were made to conshown in Table 1. Series xiv-xvi, xviii, xxi, trol conditions of temperature and light and xxixa used normal nutrient additions; which therefore showed their usual diurnal and seasonal rhythms. in series xxviii, xxx, xxxii, and xxxiv puriNutrient additions were usually designed fied sewage effluent provided the source to give 0.8 mg P/L and 6.0 mg N/L (25.8 of nutrients, except in control jars where the normal nutrients were used. pg-at. P/L and 428.5 pg-at. N/L), using The results in general confirm earlier ammonium sulphate and disodium hydrogen phosphate as fertilizers. In experiments observations made on the growth of Phaeodactyluna in outdoor battery jar cultures where purified sewage effluent was used as ( Raymont and Adams 1958). The rates nutrient source, the effluent was collected of growth obtained are summarized in Tafrom Broadstone Sewage works. Since such ble 2.

A previous paper (Part I)4 has shown that when vegetation and land slope are favourable to the capture of aerosol, the salinity of rainfall provides no measure of rate of acquisition of cyclic salt by a given land area.

His paper is based on my earlier studies dealing with the effect of T Stemperature and salinity on various life processes in aquatic invertebrates, especially in the amphipod Gammarus duebeni Lillj. (Kinne, 1952, 1953a, b, 1956a), the hydroid Cordylophora caspia (Pallas) (Kinne, 1956b, 1957, 1958b), and the gastropods Lymnaea stagnalis L. and Planorbarius corneus L. (Kinne, unpublished ms.). The work presented here concentrates on growth and turnover of food into body substances in the eurythermal and euryhaline fish, Cyprinodon macularius Baird and Girard. It demonstrates that growth, food intake, and food conversion vary greatly within the ranges of temperature and salinity to which this species is exposed in its natural habitat. It also shows that

From 1957 to 1960, vegetable crops were grown in sand culture under glass at various concentrations of NaCl to study their relative salt tolerance, visual symptoms of salt injury, and effect of NaCl on absorption of nutrient elements and carbohydrate content of plants. HOAGLAND's solution was used as the basic solution (control), and 1000, 2000, 4000 8000, or 16000 ppm of NaCl was added to it. The present paper, as a part of the studies, deales with the results of experiments on six fruit vegetables, namely, tomato, pepper, cucumber (the 1000 ppm treatment was omitted), broad bean, snap bean (the 100 and 16000 ppm were omitted), and strawberry. 1. With increasing concentration of NaCl, plants were dwarfed and the emergence of lateral shoots was restricted. Concentrations of NaCl above 8000 ppm in cucumbers, broad beans, and snap beans, and above 4000 ppm in strawberries caused severe dying off of older leaves and finaly death of entire plant. With the increase of NaCl, the fresh weight of tops (vines) was reduced, excpet that tomatoes showed the greatest weight at the 1000 ppm treatment The yield of fruits, however, was reduced in any crop with the increase of NaCl. The concentrations of NaCl in the solution corresponding to a 50 percent reduction in yield of fruits of tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers, broad beans, and strawberries were about 3500, 3000, 3000, 2500, 2000, and 1000 ppm, respec-tively. In tomatoes, and peppers, the reduction in yield of fruits was more significant than that of vines. The dry weight percentage of tops generally decreased in high salt treatments. 2. The number of flowers tended in general to parallel declining vegetative growth as salinity in-creased. The rate of fruit setting was reduced mark-edly in the treatments above 8000 ppm in tomatoes and above 4000 ppm in peppers. In most crops, the dates of first flower opening and of first harvesting were not so remarkably affected by NaCl treatments, but in peppers, severe shedding of early fruits in higher salt treaments retarded the first harvest. No apparently harmful effects of NaCl treatments were observed on the fertility or germination percentage of pollens, and on the seed set. 3. Symptoms of salt injury were as follows: In tomatoes, leaves were dark green from 1000 to 8000 ppm, but were chlorotic at the 16000 ppm. In pep-pers, leaves were chlorotic and leaf margins incurl-ed at the 16000 ppm. In cucumbers, above 8000 ppm, leaf margins incurled and interveinal chlorosis occurred starting from older leaves before the death of the plant. In snap beans, leaves were dark green at the 2000 and 4000 ppm, while at the 8000 ppm older leaves developed severe burn between veins before the death of the plant. In strawberries, severe mar-ginal burn occurred in older leaves and petals were greenish at the 2000 and 4000 ppm. Blossom-end rot occurred to a high degree at the 1000 ppm and above 8000 ppm in tomatoes, and at the 2000 ppm in pep-pers. Broad beans developed no specific symptoms. 4. With increasing concentration of NaCl, the accumulation of Na in leaves increased almost linearly, except in peppers and snap beans, while Cl accumu-lated linearly in any crop. Cl accumulated in leaves in greater equivalent amounts than Na except in broad beans. Antagonistic relations between Na and other cations, i. e. K, Ca, and Mg, varied with ions or vegetables, and the total amount of these four cations in leaves decreased in peppers and snap beans and increased in the others with the increase of NaCl. The variation in the content of N or P was rather slight as compared with cations and was variable with the vegetable species. There was no definite tendency in the contents of carbohydrates.

BERNSTEIN, LEON. (U. S. Salinity Lab., Riverside, Calif.) Osmotic adjustment of plants to saline media. II. Dynamic phase. Amer. Jour. Bot. 50(4): 360-370. Illus. 1963.-The time-course of osmotic adjustment in bean and pepper plants to increased salinity of the medium was determined by periodic sampling of plants following salt additions to the medium. Bean plants adjusted to increases of 1 atm OP within a day, the adjustment in roots occurring primarily at night following salt addition at 6 PM, whereas leaves and stems made most of their adjustment in the daytime. Pepper plants did not adjust completely to 1.5 atm NaCl additions in 48 hr, but OP increased by about the same amount in both species (0.5-1.0 atm per day). Diurnal fluctuations in OP of leaves and stems of both species and in roots of pepper were matched by parallel fluctuations in K concentrations. Added NaCl caused increased concentrations of K in leaves and stems which were more or less replaced by more slowly absorbed ions, Ca and Mg in bean leaves and Na in bean stems. Other salts produced comparable immediate effects on K level, but K was replaced more rapidly if the cation added was readily accumulated by the bean (Ca). In roots, Na uptake predominated if Na salts were added but K uptake was important on the CaCl2 treatment. The K effects suggest a passive distribution of K between the cell and the medium. IN THE PREVIOUS report (Bernstein, 1961), the essentially complete osmotic adjustment of all plant parts examined to increased osmotic pressure (OP) of the medium was demonstrated. Leaves, stems, and roots increased in OP by approximately the same amount as the OP of the medium was increased. It was concluded, therefore, that a decreased osmotic gradient for water uptake such as might occur in plants unadjusted to the increased OP of the medium could not be responsible for impaired growth of these adjusted plants on the saline media. In the experiments described in Part I (Bernstein, 1961), the plants were cultured on solutions of graded salinity for several weeks or longer, and the rate of osmotic adjustment could only be inferred from approximate data for cotton roots in which OP was found to adjust to the higher OP of the medium within a day, even when the OP of the medium had been increased by 1.5 or 3 atm. The time-course of osmotic adjustment merited further study to determine whether plants or parts of plants suffered any decrease in potential osmotic gradient for any significant period of time following an increase in salinity. The present report is concerned, therefore, with the short-term changes in OP of tissues immediately following increases in salinity of the medium, and some of the factors involved in these changes. Several recent papers 1 Received for publication September 17, 1962. Contribution from the U. S. Salinity Laboratory, Soil and Water Conservation Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Riverside, California, in cooperation with the 17 western states and Hawaii. Capable technical assistance by Mr. Brian Estes and cation analyses by Mr. Martin Derderian are gratefully acknowledged. contribute significantly to our understandilng of these problems, and these will be discussed in connection with the present findings. MATERIALS AND METHODS-Plants were grown in the greenhouse in water cultures using a modified half-strength Hoagland solution (Bernstein, 1961). In the experiment with dwarf red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), seed was germinated between moist cloths for 48 hr at 30 C, and the seedlings were cultured for 7 days in nursery trays in the greenhouse. Uniform plants were selected to establish twelve 7-plant cultures in 5-gal glazed crocks 6 days before treatment was initiated. At this time, the cordate leaves were almost fully expanded, and the first trifoliolate leaves were just beginning to expand. The experimental period was October 20-26, 1960. Pepper plants (Capsicum frutescens var. grossum) were started from seed in vermiculite 3 weeks before setting out 5 plants in each of sixteen 5-gal cultures. The plants were allowed to grow 1 month with periodic solution renewal before treatment was initiated. At this time, the first flower buds were appearing, and the stem had branched once. The slower growth of the pepper plants necessitated using older plants than in the case of the bean to provide enough material for analysis. The experimental period for the pepper experiment was November 30-December 7, 1960. Except for 1 or 2 partly cloudy days in each of these experiments, the weather was clear and warm, with maximum daily temperatures of 29-34 C, and minimum relative humidities of about 40% in the October experiment and about 20% in the other experiments. Night temperatures in the greenhouse were 16-21 C. Treatment consisted of adding NaCl to the base nutrient solution to increase the OP of the

Summary This paper examines, quantitatively as far as possible, the effects of rainfall, evaporation, run-off from the coasts, turbulent mixing and the mean current on the distribution of the mean salinity in the Irish Sea and its mean seasonal variation. An attempt is made to apply Knudsen's method to determine the mean flow of water through the Irish Sea, dividing it into three successive regions. The results are inconsistent unless it is assumed that the effects of transport of salt by longitudinal mixing are comparable with the effects of advection by the mean flow. By applying Knudsen's method to the central part of the Sea only, the mean flow across the Dublin-Holyhead section is estimated to be 0.35 cm./sec. (III km./year), only about one-third of the previously accepted value. The coefficient of eddy diffusion in the direction of the current, Kx, is estimated to be between 5 × 104 cm.2/sec. in the southern entrance. In the central part of the Irish Sea, Ky (transverse to the current) is estimated to be 0.36 × 106 cm.2/sec. The mean seasonal variation of salinity near the coasts is shown to be closely related to the variation in the influx of fresh water from rivers. It seems probable that the greater excess of rainfall over evaporation in summer is the main cause of the low salinity found above the thermocline in those areas in the southern entrance where temperature and salinity layering occur in summer. From the form of the solution obtained for an idealized type problem in diffusion and advection, general conclusions are drawn as to the effects on salinity of seasonal variations in run-off, excess of rainfall over evaporation, salinity of the incoming water and the rate of flow.

1. Our present information on non-genetic adaptation of intact aquatic organisms to temperature and salinity does not yet provide a sufficient platform for a detailed analysis. Only a few of the publications available deal with non-genetic adaptation exclusively; many are primarily devoted to other topics. The mechanisms of most types of adjustments appear to be rather complex and are not yet well understood. The net result of non-genetic adaptation is compensation for adversive aspects in a changing environment. 2. Non-genetic adaptation may involve quantitative changes in lethal limits, activity, metabolism, reproduction and other functions as well as in body dimensions, architecture of organs and cells, cell number per organ and in the quantity and activity of enzymes. It practically involves all levels of organismic function and structure. Non-genetic adaptation is not the result of a single process but represents a syndrome. The capacity for non-genetic adaptation depends on the genetic background of the organism involved; it may be different in different ontogenetic stages, such as egg, larva and adult, and may bear relations to metamorphosis and reproduction. There appears to be some evidence that non-genetic adaptations which have been acquired during the most sensitive phase of an individual's life cycle may be transferred to the next generation as non-genetic transmission (e. g.Prosser 1958). 3. There is urgent need for carefully conducted long-term experiments. Much of our present knowledge on non-genetic adaptation has been obtained from organisms kept under inadequate conditions; numerous experiments seem to have been conducted on sick or dying specimens. Even the small amount of information available at this time has therefore to be evaluated with some critical skepticism. Poor conditions and poor health are dangerous prerequisities for the analysis of such a complex and subtle process as is non-genetic adaptation. 4. Assessment of quantitative aspects of non-genetic adaptation requires distinction between its amount, stability and velocity. To illustrate this point, let us consider a euryplastic organism with a considerable capacity for non-genetic adaptation. In such an organism the amount of non-genetic adaptation tends to reach the highest values during early ontogeny and thereafter to decrease gradually with increasing age of the individual. The maximum amount of a given acclimation may only be attainable in individuals born and raised in the test environment. The amount may be expressed in “percentage perfection”. The perfection of a nongenetic adaptation is 100 per cent in the rare case of an “ideal” or “perfect” acclimation, i. e. if the steady-state performance following a significant change in temperature or salinity goes back to its original level after stabilization. In most cases the percentage perfection is much smaller. Thus in the crabPachigrapsus crassipes perfection of acclimation to a seasonal range of about 10°C (Southern California) was calculated byRoberts (1957) from rate-temperature curves for individuals acclimated to experimental temperatures to be about 30 per cent. The degree of stability of a non-genetic adaptation, too, seems to decrease with increasing age: adjustments during early ontogenetic development tend to be more stable than those performed during later periods of ontogeny and may even be — at least in part — irreversible throughout the rest of the life of the individual concerned. Examples areCrangon crangon (Broekema 1941),Gammarus duebeni (Kinne 1953, 1958b),Lebistes reticulatus (Gibson 1954,Fry 1957,Tsukuda &Katayama 1957,Tsukuda 1960),Cyprinodon macularius (Kinne 1962). Reversible acclimations need reinforcement if they are to be maintained. The velocity of non-genetic adaptation tends to increase with increasing rates of metabolism. In the fishCyprinodon macularius, for example, speed of acclimation increases with temperature and seems to be proportional to growth rate: fast-growing fish adapt faster than slow-growing ones (Kinne 1960, 1962). 5. Most authors have considered non-genetic adaptations to a single environmental factor, namely either to temperature or salinity. Organisms, however, react to their total environment rather than to single entities. It is therefore of particular importance to study the combined effects of two or more components of the environment. Very little is presently known about the combined effects of temperature and salinity on the process of non-genetic adaptation (e. g.Dehnel 1960,Todd &Dehnel 1960,Matutani 1962,Alderdice 1963,Kinne 1963b, 1964a, b).McLeese (1956) analyzed the combined effects of temperature, salinity and oxygen on the survival rates of American lobsters (Fig. 8) (see alsoAlderdice 1963), and at the present Symposium,Roberts (1964) reported that the perfection of thermal acclimation of respiration in sunfishLepomis gibbosus becomes a function of day length above temperature of about 10°C. 6. There appears to be some evidence that acclimation to one factor, say salinity, proceeds at different rates and at different efficiencies under different levels of other simultaneous acclimations, for example, to temperature or oxygen (Kinne 1964a, b). Furthermore, inharmonious interrelations between one functional or structural adaptate relative to another may be a fundamental way of limiting the total resulting amount of non-genetic adaptation. The maximum amount of acclimation to a given temperature is presumably only attainable at normal or near optimum salinities, and, conversely, maximum acclimation to salinity is presumably only possible under corresponding temperature conditions. 7. Very little is known about the process of de-adaptation. Does the process of de-acclimation display a similar or a different time course than the respective acclimation? Can de-acclimation from one factor, such as temperature, be initiated or hastened by applying a new stress, such as extreme salinity? De-acclimation may involve active changes and not just a cessation of a given non-genetic adaptation. Thus upon return from high altitude to sea level, erythropoiesis not only stops, but erythrocyte destruction is accelerated (Merino 1950). Apparently, acclimation and de-acclimation are two opposed processes in competition, reaching equilibrium only under constant environmental conditions. 8. The information presented in this paper pertains to reactions of intact, whole individuals. Can we expect cells, tissues or organs removed from multi-cellular animals to preserve and display the full amount of a given non-genetic adaptation acquired in the intact organism? Presumably not, if a substantial part of that acclimation is based on adjustments in organismic integration. But even in other cases, removed cells or organs may often tend to lose part or all of the acclimation acquired due to damages caused by operation procedures. Another important question is whether or not there exists a relationship between the amount of acclimation retained in isolated cells and (a) the level of organismic organization of the test organism (e. g. in the series plant, protozoan, crustacean, fish), or (b) the degree of disturbance caused by the removal of these cells. 9. The amount of cellular acclimation to a given environmental situation may very well be different in different tissues or organs. Thus non-genetic adaptation to changes in salinity may express itself in cells of epidermis, gill or gut rather than in muscle or nerve cells. InCordylophora caspia, for example, acclimation to different salinities results in considerable adjustments in the cells of tentacles, hydranth body and “neck”, while those of the hydrocaulus and stolons remain practically unaffected (Kinne 1958a), and in male rats, cold acclimation causes a remarkable increase in the amount of brown fat, while other tissues do not seem to show such intensive modifications (Smith 1964).

For the purpose of improving the water injectivity for waterflooding, experiments on the injection of water using both oil field brine and artificial brine were carried out. Results obtained are shown on figures in this paper. These figures show that oil sand which contains clay is very sensitive to salinity of water and, therefore, permeability of the oil sand is extremely reduced by low salinity water.

The teleost fishes live in two different environments, the fresh water of lakes and rivers, and the salt water of the sea. With few and unimportant exceptions, these habitats are, respectively, very much hypotonic and very much hypertonic to the fish blood. In both cases continual performance of osmotic work is required for the maintenance of the normal blood concentration. The vast majority of fishes are able to exist only in one type of environment, although some variation in that environment is tolerated. The most pronounced exceptions are various species of the eel, Anguilla ; other species showing similar but generally less ability include the salmon, the stickleback (genus Gasterosteus ), and some of the Cyprinodonidæ, notably species of Fundulus . All species of teleosts, apparently, show adaptive responses in blood concentration to slight changes in the salinity of the environment, and the work of many investigators, particularly Duval (1925) and Smith (1930), indicates that the adaptive responses and mechanisms in the eel differ only in degree from those in the osmotically less resistant fishes. The “chloride cells” of the eel gills discovered recently (Keys and Willmer, 1932), were found in all species of fish examined, and were present merely in greatest numbers in the eel.

It has been argued (McLaren, 1963, 1965) that reproduction and development of copepods may be physiologically (rather than trophically) determined when food is sufficiently abundant: thus, under these conditions the rates of development and egg production, and the total number of eggs laid by a female in her lifetime vary only with the physical factors of the environment such as temperature, salinity and pressure, temperature being by far the most important. This paper is part of a continuing study of the physiological controls of growth and development as part of a general investigation on productivity of marine zooplankton.

A study was made to determine the effect of environmental parameters on the germination, growth, and development of Suaeda depressa (Pursh) Wats. Germination tests showed that seeds germinated in solutions containing up to 4 % NaCl with no toxic effects indicated after treatment with distilled water. The rate of germination and the percentage germination decreased with increased salinity. The effect of environmental parameters on growth was measured by shoot height, side shoot development, leaf length, and dry weight. Growth was greatest in 1 % NaCl solutions with adequate available nitrogen. With increased salinity and low available nitrogen levels plant growth decreased. A 10-hr photoperiod stimulated immediate floral induction. Although flowering and completion of the life cycle occurred in solutions containing up to 4 % NaCl, increased salinity decreased the rate of floral induction and the dry weight of flowers and fruit produced. This study indicates that environmental parameters such as salinity, available nitrogen, and photoperiod can create a variety of growth forms, causing taxonomic confusion. SUAEDA DEPRESSA, an annual leafy succulent, is distributed west of the Mississippi River from southern Canada to Mexico. In this area, S. depressa is narrowly restricted to wet saline soils with poor drainage (Ungar and Capilupo, 1969). The restriction of certain species to saline environments was reported by Miller and Egler (1950) and Adams (1963). Coupland (1950) and Ungar (1964, 1965) concluded that distribution and zonation in saline soils was controlled by competition among species and individual tolerances to salinity. Laboratory studies by Binet (1963) indicated that S. vulgaris Moq. could grow under nonsaline conditions but made its best growth in 1.0 % NaCl nutrient solutions. The distribution of halophytes such as S. depressa is apparently controlled by soil salinity, with other edaphic and climatic factors playing a secondary role (Ungar and Capilupo, 1969). Gates, Stoddart, and Cook (1956) indicated that changes in the chemical factors of soils in saline areas were inconsistent with the distribution and zonation of the vegetation. Studies by Ungar (1968) and Ungar, Hogan, and McClelland (1969) showed that even though S. depressa most commonly occurred in heavy clay soils, the soil texture varied greatly and apparently had little influence on its distribution. Suaeda depressa has ' Received for publication 17 January 1972. 2 Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson 85721. We wish to thank Dr. J. W. O'Leary and Dr. L. A. Larson for critically reading this manuscript. This research was partly supported by National Science Foundation research grant GB-6009. been found growing in soils ranging from 0.374.44 % in salinity, in which NaCl made up 93 % of the total salts (Ungar, 1968). Macroclimatic factors vary greatly along S. depressa's northsouth distributional axis and appear to have little significance in determining its distribution (Gleason and Cronquist, 1963). The purpose of this study was to observe the effects of different environmental conditions on the germination and growth of S. depressa. Specific attention was placed on height, branching, and leaf length and how they correlated with saline environments. METHODS AND MATERIALS-The seeds of Suaeda depressa were collected on October 3, 1964 at Cloud County, Kansas, and stored at 5 C until the initiation of the study in April 1970. There was no loss in viability over the storage period. Germination stludies-The seeds were germinated on two sheets of Whatman #2 filter paper in 100 mm x 15 mm petri dishes. All germination studies were initiated in the dark in 6 ml of distilled water with NaCl as noted. The results are based on 10 replicates of 25 seeds each for each test solution. Emergence and radicle growth to 0.5 cm in length were used as germination criteria. A temperature regime of 15 + 1 C for 14 hr and 5 + 1 C for 10 hr was used. This temperature regime was used to approximate the 11 C mean under natural conditions for April when seeds germinate in nature. All germination

This paper contains a discussion of the observations on the salinity of the surface waters of the Irish Sea, which have been made by a number of authorities from the year 1905 until the end of 1939. Its objects are: (1) To put on record the chief variations of the salinity in the central part of the sea during the whole period of observation. (2) To calculate grand mean values of the characteristics of the salinity and of its seasonal variation for stations distributed over the whole area of the sea. (3) To investigate the degree of correlation between the salinities at pairs of stations, and to find for what time-differences the coefficients of correlation attain maximum values. (4) To investigate the degrees of correlation between the salinities at different stations and the rainfall and barometric gradients; and to find the time-lags which correspond to maximum correlation coefficients. (5) To obtain from the correlation coefficients such indications as they may afford of the mean currents of the sea. For the first and second of the above objects all the observations have been used, but the correlation coefficients given are based on the series of observations which began in 1934. Many correlation coefficients based on the earlier series have been evaluated, but they showed little concordance among themselves and were often in disagreement with those of the later series.

This paper begins with a discussion of the geologic structure and origin of the Caspian depression, describes the history of changes in level of the Caspian, and the different terrace levels formed by these changes. Next the stratigraphy and structure of the complex Azerbaijan coastal area are covered. Composition of the sediments brought in by the various rivers is strongly affected by climate, e. g. , the Volga and Ural bring in much dissolved carbonate from the black-earth soils. A small amount of windblown material is contributed. Fluctuations in level of the sea, consequently its salinity, are mainly influenced by discharge of the Volga. Chemistry of the Caspian is discussed; it is everywhere oversaturated with respect to calcium carbonate and greatest salinities are attained on the eastern side. All waters contain oxygen except the deepest holes, for circulation reaches the bottom almost everywhere, consequently sediments are greenish gray, not black. Regional variation in phosphate and silica conte...

The investigation was initiated in order to determine the extent of the Fraser River's effect on temperature, salinity, currents, and fish food, probable factors in the direction of salmon migrations. A correct valuation of the Fraser River in these respects has necessitated a survey of the Strait of Georgia waters and an estimate of the relative importance of water entering the Strait from other sources, from the sea through the passes and from other rivers. It is believed that the data presented may have a potential economic value as a basis for a further knowledge of the habits of fish, the establishment of oyster beds, the development of clam beaches and of crab and shrimp industries and the location of summer resorts. Conclusions regarding the interrelations of salinity, temperature, pH, tidal movements and phytoplankton, may be of scientific interest.The following conclusions discussed in the paper may be emphasized: (1) The Strait of Georgia is a great basin, connected with the sea by narrow passes, which receives water from a number of large rivers, notably the Fraser River. (2) The river water is conserved during the summer and forms a marked upper layer, epithalassa, which is characterized by low salinity and high temperature. The increase in temperature as compared with sea water may amount to 10 °C. or 18° F. (3) Throughout the greater part of the region this epithalassa has a stability which is sufficient to resist tidal and wave movements. (4) Since time is a factor, the heating effect of the sun, insolation, upon the epithalassa becomes most evident at regions some distance from the river mouth. In the case of a large river, as the Fraser, this distance may exceed ten miles. (5) Abundant fish food in the form of plankton is present and the amount is greatest at the regions where the most complete mixing of the river and of the sea water takes place. Evidently each water source contributes certain conditions or factors favorable for plankton growth. Further investigation to determine the exact nature of these conditions is in progress. (6) Mass movements of the epithalassa accompany tidal changes, resulting in variations of salinity, temperature and plankton at any point according to the source of the translocated water and the phase of the tide.

The author has put forth efforts to make clear the influences exerted by the treatments of rice plants with sodium chloride or sea-water, upon the germination force under saline water and some biochemical characters of the seeds obtained therefrom. The results may be summarized as follows: 1) Treatments of rice plants with saline water exerted injurious influences upon their growth and yield, and greater influences were caused according to the strength of salinity. When treated at their tillering stage or ear-forming stage, the plants suffered much greater injury, bringing about much smaller yield. Especially the weight of one grain showed a remarkable fall through the treatment at the latter stage. 2) It can be considered that the germination under saline water of the seeds thus obtained varied much more with the stages at which the treatments had been carried out than with the concentrations of NaCl with which the parent plants had been treated. And especially the treatment from the heading stage to the maturing stage exerted a greater influence upon the germination of the seeds thus obtained, while the weights of seeds seemed to have little connection with the germination under saline water and the growth of seedlings. 3) The embryos of the hulled rice yielded through the above treatments came to have a greater TTC reducing activity, and the paper-electrophoretic patterns of protein in the hulled rice in question were somewhat different from those of the others. 4) Judging from these results, the activity of the enzymes in the seeds obtained through the above treatments seemed to have changed its degree, which caused the seeds to show the singularly, in their germination under saline water.

There has been considerable discussion as to whether any physical constant of sea-water can be used to give an accurate measure of its total salinity, and from theoretical reasoning it would appear obvious that, in so complex a mixture, no physical constant can give an accurate measure of either the total amount of dissolved salts or of the chlorine present. In a paper communicated to this Society, Mr J. J. Manley showed that the optical method for distinguishing between various samples was as delicate as the relative density method, but the refractometer used was expensive and not fitted for use on board ship.

The study of the distribution of animals in nature is especially interesting when several species of one genus occupy the same general area. Along the east coast of the United States there are three species of fiddler crabs of the genus Uca which live in the salt marshes. All three are found in the marshes surrounding Sapelo Island, Georgia, and this paper deals with experiments concerning their distribution in these marshes. I deal with the problem of why the crabs live in certain habitats within their range and not in others, not what determines or has determined their geographical range. The three species of crabs are: Uca mtinax, the largest, generally associated with brackish water; CUca ptigilator, commonly known as the sand fiddler crab, and Uca. pitgnax, found generally throughout the salt marsh. Components of the environment which might be important in determining the distribution of these animals are substratum, food, salinity, exposure or tides, and other animals. The effects of these factors can be evaluated by answering the questions: W~hat is the substratum choice of the animals when other factors are constant? Does the presence of other species of fiddler crabs affect this choice? Can the three species survive in all types of salt marsh or are they restricted to certain types ? What are the salinity and temperature tolerances and salinity preferences of the species ? \Vlhat do the crabs feed on and how is this food distributed in the marsh? Adult animals were used in most of the experiments. It is true that choice of area for settling by the megalops larvae is important in the distribution of the adults; nevertheless, adult fiddler crabs can and do move considerable distances over the marsh and could easily move to an environment different from that chosen by the larvae.

In a previous paper (COCHE, 1967), results concerning the salinity tolerance of coho salmon fry were presented. The present study deals with the ability of yearlings to dispose of the chloride they passively absorb when abruptly transferred from fresh to salt water . Coho salmons normally reside one year in the stream where they were born, the majority of them migrating seawards in the spring of their second year . At this time, they average 12 cm in length and important morphological and physiological changes (smoltification) occur, which prepare the juvenile salmon to be successful in their new environment, the ocean (MALIKOVA, 1957). At this stage of their life, they are capable of passing from fresh water to sea-water, approximately 30 p.p.th. total salt content . The general problem of osmoregulation in fish was reviewed by BLACK (1951a and 1957). But very few studies have been published concerning the osmotic regulation of juvenile coho . BLACK (1951 b) experimented with coho and chum fry . Personally (COCHE, 1967), we made a preliminary study of the survival of coho fry, when transferred from fresh water into sea-water solutions of various salinities . Salinity acclimatization was also tested .