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Algae, which has high photosynthetic efficiency, non-arable land requirement and the ability to utilize salt or brackish water, is a promising renewable source for biofuel and other value-added biochemical production. Examination of the economic viability of such algae-based bioproducts is trending. The results of the examinations indicate that many parameters are decreasing the viability of the commercialization of algal biofuels and other commodity products. This chapter covers several different components of an integrated algal biorefinery, as an alternative approach to democratize algal products by decreasing the costs of production. The main sections touch base on strain improvements and other upstream components followed by sustainability issues. The chapter is finalized with the techno-economic assessments (TEA) of algal biorefineries with various production scenarios. The major components affecting the total cost of algal biochemical production are indicated by TEA, and their effect on the viability of the biorefineries are discussed.

Green coffee beans decaffeination and irradiation are important coffee post-harvest processing steps that allow to produce decaffeinated coffee products and raw material after insect and microbial disinfestation, respectively. Insects can cause damage to food as well as leading to consumer objections. The decaffeination process aims at producing coffee products without the caffeine referred to by many as the main motive for not consuming coffee. In addition, it is important to control microbial contamination of the green coffee during all stages of processing, including the raw crop stage, harvesting, processing, packing and exportation, avoiding the production of mycotoxins. The aim of this chapter is to briefly discuss the post-harvest processing steps and their impact on the quality of the final product.

Coffee is one of the most consumed beverages in the world, and its consumption increases every year. The quality of a cup of coffee depends on many factors related to coffee, water and the coffeemaker. Coffee species, variety and origin have a clear influence on the chemical composition and quality of coffee brew, but many other factors from harvesting to roasting, grinding and brewing processes can contribute to maintain the high quality of the coffee beans or, on the contrary, to decrease or even ruin it. Each coffee brewing method has specific requirements in order to prepare a good quality cup. According to the methodology used for coffee brewing, the physico-chemical characteristics and chemical composition of coffee brews can substantially vary from one method to another. This chapter describes the different brewing methods and the requirements on water pressure, grinding grade, extraction time and water quality. Further, physico-chemical characteristics and chemical composition of brews will be discussed in detail.

This paper focuses on the complex conservation of the multi-material sculpture Love Me (1998) made by the British artist Sarah Lucas. The fragility of the constituent materials, combined with frequent transportations and installation/de-installation in art shows worldwide, had produced a deformation on one leg of the artwork. The goal of this experimental study was to develop a treatment methodology to ease out the dent and find a consolidant able to secure the area from further damage. A novel traction system, borrowed from medical limb-lengthening surgery, was developed and several types of tie rods and protecting layers were tested. Moreover, innovative materials based on nanocellulose particles were evaluated as strengthening agents for the papier-mâche layers and compared to traditional strengthening products. Due to the lack of information obtained from the experimentation, the use of nanocellulose particles was not considered safe for the treatment, which was done using more traditional materials, namely wheat starch and Kozo Japanese paper. Nevertheless, the results of the preliminary trials laid the foundation for the use of these novel products for conservation purposes.

Electronic Laboratory Notebooks (ELNs) have the potential to not only replace paper notebooks for recording our research and our day-to-day activities, but they can also provide a myriad of additional capabilities for supporting scientists that go far beyond what is possible in a paper notebook. However, we know that many scientists are sceptical of the technology and have anxieties about the complexity of the software, and perceived ease of use is of primary importance to users in selecting an ELN provider. It is essential to ensure that usability is at the forefront in the design of digital tools to encourage adoption and also to ensure that the users get the best value out of the functions that are provided. The design of interfaces for digital tools not only impacts whether users are willing to use them, but also whether users are able to make the best use of them. In this chapter, we discuss a variety of user experience design techniques, including interaction design, that are used to help make software both useful and usable for the intended audience. We will investigate how these techniques can be used to identify requirements for new tools based on user needs and present some examples of potential ELN capabilities based on the needs and behaviours of real-world researchers. This chapter also includes guidelines and best practices for designing interfaces for desktop, mobile, and Web-based software.

Until relatively recently, scientific data has mostly been captured in paper notebooks or on paper forms. With the proliferation of digital technologies has come an even greater proliferation in the amount of scientific data produced and that subsequently needs to be managed. Although there are some challenges in managing data in paper-based form, there are significantly larger challenges in managing data in both paper and digital format. There is also an increasing desire for scientific data to be shared more widely in order that research can be validated and data reused. Both the creators and users of scientific data need to be able to find the data and then make sense of it in order to use it. In this chapter, we will discuss the issues and challenges around research reproducibility, and how data management practices can help. We discuss the role of metadata, standards, identifiers, and provenance in data curation and their importance for discoverability and reuse. We also look at the vulnerability of digital data and the steps that need to be taken to ensure that data is preserved for future access and reuse.

Nano-enabled products and their applications have continued to evolve in recent years. Indeed, nanotechnologies have been integrated into many academic and industrial sectors, and have spurred new directions in terms of research, patents, commercial opportunities and technology transfer. However, many nanopatents are of dubious scope and breadth yet continue to be granted by patent offices internationally. Underpinning many issues in the regulation and patenting of such technologies is the difficulty that has been encountered in agreeing a definition, and this continues to pose a significant problem to regulators, policy-makers, drug companies, ethicists and legal professionals. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the regulatory and scientific landscape for nanotechnologies applied to medicine. The first US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved nanodrug, Doxil®, is discussed as a paradigm for some of the sentient points. The chapter also provides information on the utility of physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling for nano-enabled regulatory submissions, and a view of important gaps in knowledge relating to the mechanistic basis for modeling in the context of efficacy and safety of novel materials. There are potentially serious and inhibitory consequences if nanodrugs are overregulated, and a balanced approach is required, at least on a case-by-case basis, that addresses the needs of commercialization against mitigation of inadvertent harm to patients or the environment. Obviously, not every nanotherapeutic or nano-enabled product needs to be regulated. However, more is clearly needed from regulatory agencies like the FDA and European Medicines Agency than a stream of guidance documents that are in draft format, position papers that lack any legal implication, presentations that fail to identify key regulatory issues and policy papers that are often short on specifics. There is a very real need for regulatory guidelines that follow a science-based approach that are responsive to the associated shifts in knowledge and risks.

PARP1 is the founder and most abundant of a superfamily of 17 enzymes, it plays a key role in the repair of DNA single-strand breaks, the most common form of endogenous DNA damage. PARP inhibitors were first developed to inhibit DNA repair and resistance to DNA damaging anticancer therapy. In 2005 two landmark papers were published showing that PARP inhibitors as single agents selectively kill cells lacking homologous recombination DNA repair, including those with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. Four PARP inhibitors are now approved for the treatment of cancer: 3 for ovarian cancer, 2 for breast cancer 2 for metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer and 1 for pancreatic cancer with other tumour types under investigation. This chapter describes the journey from identification of the enzyme to the present day.

We demonstrate a rapid, 2-step, and ultrasensitive assay approach for quantification of target protein molecules from a single droplet test sample. The assay is comprised of antibody-conjugated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) that are “activated” when they are mixed with the test sample and bind their targets. The resulting liquid is passed through a microfluidic channel with a photonic crystal (PC) biosensor that is functionalized with secondary antibodies to the target biomarker, so that only activated AuNPs are captured. Utilizing recently demonstrated hybrid optical coupling between the plasmon resonance of the AuNP and the resonance of the PC, each captured AuNP efficiently quenches the resonant reflection of the PC, thus enabling the captured AuNPs to be digitally counted with high signal-to-noise. To achieve a 2-step assay process that is performed on a single droplet test sample without washing steps or active pump elements, controlled single-pass flow rate is obtained with an absorbing paper pad waste reservoir embedded in a microfluidic cartridge. We use the activate capture and digital counting (AC + DC) approach to demonstrate HIV-1 capsid antigen p24 detection from a 40 μL spiked-in human serum sample at a one thousand-fold dynamic range (1–103 pg mL−1) with only a 35-minute process that is compatible with point-of-care (POC) analysis. The AC + DC approach allows for ultrasensitive and ultrafast biomolecule detection, with potential applications in infectious disease diagnostics and early stage disease monitoring. This work is supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) R01 AI20683, F30AI122925, and the Carl Woese Institute for Genomic Biology postdoctoral fellowship.

This book chapter presents the basic facts about cellulose materials and comprehensive information about cellulose aerogels, silica–cellulose composite aerogels. Both the fabrication methods and properties of cellulose aerogels and silica–cellulose aerogels are discussed in detail. A combination of an aerogel structure and recycled cellulose fibres from paper waste can be used to form an advanced material, called a recycled cellulose aerogel, which is cost-effective and a promising material for oil absorption. This chapter also focuses on the thermal properties, such as thermal conductivity and thermal stability, of the recycled cellulose aerogels and their silica composites for the heat insulation applications. This is the first time that the benchmark data on the thermal properties of recycled cellulose-based aerogels have been summarized. Protein-based aerogels, novel biodegradable and biocompatible materials for lightweight food engineering and life science applications, are also briefly discussed.

Recently, the micro-Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy (micro-SORS) technique has been developed to extend the applicability of Raman spectroscopy to probing thin, highly diffuse, scattering layers such as stratified paint samples. The method is a conceptual evolution of its parent technique, (macro-scale) SORS, combining SORS with microscopy and it can be applied in situations where the high turbidity of layers prevents the deployment of conventional confocal Raman microscopy with its depth-resolving capability. The method was applied successfully to detect non-invasively the presence of thin, highly turbid layers within polymers, wheat seeds, paper and cultural heritage materials. In this work two developed variants, defocusing and full micro-SORS, are described and applied to discriminate between the chemical composition of micrometric layers below the surface of street art paintings. A micro-invasive, cross-sectional analysis confirmed and provided a deeper understanding of the micro-SORS findings. Micro-SORS represents a new Raman imaging modality, expanding the portfolio of non-invasive, chemically specific analytical tools in archaeology and art history.

The diagnosis of acute brain injury in the acute care setting is based on neurological examination and neuroimaging tools such as computed tomography scanning and magnetic resonance imaging. Clinicians have not been afforded the opportunity to use blood-based biomarkers for these conditions acutely. There are numerous blood-based biomarkers being used in medicine today, but no blood-based biomarker has been approved by the FDA for clinical use, nor has one been validated as a surrogate measure for clinical trials. Although there is an abundance of papers being published, many lack the rigorous methods and reporting required to adequately evaluate these markers for clinical use or as surrogate endpoints. Given all of this research, there is now an important need to validate these biomarkers. This chapter will review some of the most widely studied protein biomarkers for acute brain injury in the clinical setting, with an emphasis on traumatic brain injury and stroke. Also highlighted will be the gaps in the current state of knowledge and the role for blood-based biomarkers in future clinical trials.

MetGen is a Finnish SME specialising in the design, manufacturing and tailoring of industrial enzymes predominantly for pulp and paper (P&P) and biorefinery industries. In this chapter, the use of enzymes in wood related industrial applications is discussed. The chapter includes business and technical aspects of enzyme applications, industry specific challenges and solutions, and presents original experimental data from laboratory, pilot and industrial trials of some of MetGen enzymes.

X-Ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) generate nearly transversely coherent X-ray pulses over a wide wavelength range, from tens of nanometres to a fraction of one angstrom, with pulse durations from a few to hundreds of femtoseconds, and peak intensities from a few to 100 GW. Their unique and novel properties are opening a new area of scientific research in physics, chemistry, biology and materials sciences, at the length and time scale (angstrom–femtosecond) characteristics of atomic and molecular phenomena. In this paper, we review the physical principles, main characteristics and present status of XFELs. We also give a historical introduction on the subject and we briefly summarize novel developments in this exciting area of research.

Rapid urbanization combined with increases in per capita income have led to the world's motorization. Car manufacturers have been increasing their outputs in response to demands for fuel-efficient cars. New-generation vehicles (NGVs) like hybrid and electronic vehicles have emerged with significantly reduced weights and robust computerized systems. Likewise, the use of efficient batteries like nickel–hydrogen or lithium-ion batteries has been integrated into NGVs. Expectedly, a large volume of these cars will be classified as end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) in the near future. The European Union, Japan and Korea have developed ELV recycling systems based on the extended producer responsibility principle, designed to recover used car parts, scrap metal, batteries, etc. However, countries like Mongolia and the Philippines are inundated with imported used cars, including used NGVs, which damage the environment due to their poor emissions and hazardous waste components. Air pollution and lead soil contamination are some of the environmental problems associated with the proliferation of ELVs. This paper tackles the opportunities and challenges of ELV recycling as espoused by the European Union, Japan and Korea and its potential application in developing countries. It also discusses emerging trends in the effective utilization of waste batteries from NGVs.

Micron-sized powders are often used in chemical plants. If the minimum ignition energy (MIE) of a powder is less than 30 mJ, measures to control static electricity-related disasters need to be implemented. Nanometals are susceptible to explosion because their MIEs are very low, for example, the MIEs of nano-Ti, Fe, and Al are all less than 1 mJ. These kinds of metal nanomaterials are very dangerous for operation. This chapter includes examples of nanomaterial disasters, explosion characteristics of nanopowders, risks of nanometals conveyed by air, and process safety control. For example, a nano-iron fire in an oxygen cylinder when the worker opened the regulator valves. The minimum ignition energy, minimum explosive concentration, maximum explosion pressure, and maximum rate of pressure rise for nano-iron will be introduced. Explosion disasters are combined with a review of journal papers to make readers recognize the fire and explosion risks of nanomaterials.

The environmental engineering paradigm is steadily moving towards a newer generation in today’s world and is surpassing visionary frontiers. Chemical engineering and separation processes are witnessing drastic and serious challenges. Environmental sustainability is vehemently and intensely gearing towards new and fresh challenges. Environmental disasters have urged the scientific domain to take drastic measures. Man’s scientific vision at this critical juncture of history and time needs to be restructured and re-envisioned. A critical overview is drawn along with this visionary treatise to lucidly delve deep into the scientific understanding of advanced environmental separation processes, analysis and application of nanotechnology. The author with deep comprehension delves deep into the latent world of advanced environmental engineering separation processes, especially advanced oxidation processes, integrated advanced oxidation processes and membrane separation processes, particularly nanofiltration. Furthermore, this treatise opens new frontiers in relevant environmental analysis and the successful and effective application of nanotechnology in environmental separation processes. The future vision of advanced environmental separation processes is absolutely bright and groundbreaking. Scientific knowledge, scientific prowess and scientific empowerment will go a long way in opening new vistas of cognizant frontiers in the field of advanced oxidation techniques, application of nanotechnology and relevant environmental analysis in generations to come. In today’s world of fervent and cautious environmental sustainability, challenges needs to be surmounted in the field of industrial wastewater treatment, provision of clean drinking water and application of nanotechnology, especially nanofiltration, ultrafiltration and microfiltration. A deep understanding of the provision of clean drinking water and desalination is the hallmark of this paper. In a separate dimension and a separate section, the author instinctively delves deep into the hidden world of the application of membrane separation process in drinking water treatment and relevant environmental analysis. The crux of this treatise is to highlight the importance of advanced environmental separation processes and relevant applications of nanotechnology. The ultimate and purposeful vision is targeted towards greater scientific understanding and scientific truth in unfolding the hidden and latent areas of advanced environmental separation science and fostering the vision towards greater environmental sustainability.

Semiconductor photoelectrochemistry experienced a renaissance stimulated by the development of mesoporous dye-sensitized solar cells following the 1991 Nature paper of O'Regan and Gratzel. The resulting move away from well-defined single crystal bulk materials to high surface area nanostructured electrodes opened a new field of research, and many of the ideas that had been developed for bulk semiconductor electrodes required re-examination in view of the very different length scales. Nanostructured semiconductor electrodes are now also being utilized for light-driven water splitting and environmental remediation. This historical development has resulted in a convergence of the fields of semiconductor photoelectrochemistry and photocatalysis at semiconductor particles. The objective of this chapter is to review the basic ideas that were developed originally to understand the photoelectrochemical behaviour of bulk semiconductors and to see how these ideas need to be modified when considering nanostructured semiconductor electrodes and dispersed colloidal systems.

By combining the physics of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and silicon radio-frequency (RF) integrated circuits, we recently created progressively smaller NMR systems, which have been reported in references 1–4. Our strategy for NMR system miniaturization proved effective, culminating in the smallest prototype that weighs 0.1 kg and can be held in the palm of the hand. These small, low-cost NMR systems can be useful as biomolecular sensors in the personalized medicine setting, and we demonstrated their ability to detect proteins, compounds, and human cancer cells. The chapter reviews these developments. Portions of this chapter are reprinted from our recent review paper of with permission.

In the last decade, photovoltaics (PV) has experienced an important transformation. Traditional solar cells formed by compact semiconductor layers have been joined by new kinds of cells that are constituted by a complex mixture of organic, inorganic and solid or liquid electrolyte materials, and rely on charge separation at the nanoscale. Recently, metal organic halide perovskites have appeared in the photovoltaic landscape showing large conversion efficiencies, and they may share characteristics of the two former types. In this paper we provide a general description of the photovoltaic mechanisms of the single absorber solar cell types, combining all-inorganic and hybrid and organic cells into a single framework. The operation of the solar cell relies on a number of internal processes that exploit internal charge separation and overall charge collection minimizing recombination. There are two main effects to achieve the required efficiency, first to exploit kinetics at interfaces, favouring the required forward process, and second to take advantage of internal electrical fields caused by a built-in voltage and by the distribution of photogenerated charges. These principles represented by selective contacts, interfaces and the main energy diagram, form a solid base for the discussion of the operation of future types of solar cells. Additional effects based on ferroelectric polarization and ionic drift provide interesting prospects for investigating new PV effects mainly in the perovskite materials. This work was supported by MINECO of Spain under a project (MAT2013-47192-C3-1-R), and the Helmholtz-Energy-Alliance ‘‘Hybrid-Photovoltaics’’.