ÖZET İstanbul'daki 19. yüzyıl ve sonrası Osmanlı ticaret han ve pasajlarının stil ve fonksiyon bakımından incelenmesine adanmış olan bu çalışmayla, batılılaşmanın Osmanlı ticaret yapılan üzerinde nasıl bir etki ve değişim yarattığını ortaya çıkarmayı amaçladık. Tez konusu kapsamındaki ticaret yapılarının Türkler' de ve Avrupa'da tarih içinde görülen farklı ticaret yapılarından ve 19. yüzyılda kendini iyice hissettiren `Batılılaşma` olgusundan ne şekilde etkilendiklerini saptamak amacıyla bu tezin ikinci, üçüncü ve dördüncü bölümlerinde sırasıyla, `Han Geleneği Kökeni`, Avrupa Şehirlerindeki 19. yüzyıl Ticaret Yapılarının Tarihsel Gelişimi ve Özellikleri` ve `Batılılaşma` başlıklı kısa araştırmalara yer verildi. Çalışmanın beşinci bölümünü oluşturan `Katalog` için Eminönü ve Galata bölgesindeki ilgilendiğimiz döneme ait han ve pasajların hemen hemen tümü incelendi ve içlerinden elli tanesi daha ayrıntılı bir incelemeye tabi tutularak bu tezin katalogu kapsamına alındı. Ele alman her yapının yeri, konumu, adresi, tarihçesi, mimari özellikleri, geçmişteki ve günümüzdeki fonksiyonunun, plan krokileri ve fotoğrafların da yardımıyla, anlatıldığı katalog çalışmasının ardından altıncı bölümde bu yapıların karakteristik özelliklerinin ortaya çıkarıldığı bir değerlendirmeye yer verildi.. Sonuç olarak, ilgilendiğimiz döneme ait hanlarla ilgili üç grup belirledik: Bunlardan birincisi İstanbul- ve Osmanlı İmparatorluğu 'nun başka şehirlerinde yüzyıllardan beri yapılagelmiş olan, klasik Osmanlı ticaret hanlarıdır. İkinci gruptaki hanlar geçiş hanlarıdır ki, bundan kastedilen mekan düzeniyle daha çok Osmanlı klasik ticaret hanlarını çağrıştıran, cephe dekorasyonunun klasik Osmanlı ticaret hanları benzeri yalınlıkta olabildiği gibi, cephelerde batı mimarisinden ödünç alınmış dekoratif unsurlann da görülebildiği hanlardır. En yaygın olan üçüncü gruptakiler ise `büro hanları` tabir ettiğimiz, katlarında çeşitli şirketlere veya tek bir şirkete ait büroların faaliyet gösterdiği, zemin katın genellikle dükkanlara ayrıldığı ve klasik Osmanlı ticaret hanlarından farklı olarak imalat ve depolama fonksiyonunun ortadan kalkmış olduğu hanlardır. Kat sayısındaki artış, cephe düzeni, malzeme, döşeme, çatı sistemi bakımından Avrupa mimarisi veya batıdaki büro binaları mimarisinden etkilendikleri görülen büro hanları, avlulu veya avlusuz olabilir. Avlulu olanlar mekan düzeniyle klasik Osmanlı ticaret hanlanyla benzerlik içindedir. Çalışmamızın kapsamına aldığımız bir diğer yapı türü olan pasajlar, en genel tanımıyla büyük bina bloklarını birbirine bağlayan özel yollar olup birden fazla sokağa açılırlar. Pasajların han veya apartman işlevi gören bina bloklarının zemin katı dükkanlara ayrılmıştır. Avrupa, özellikle Paris'in pasajları örnek alınarak İstanbul'un her iki ticaret bölgesinde 19. yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren yapılan pasajlar, İstanbul için ilk kez 19. yüzyılda karşılaştığı yepyeni bir olgudur. xvı SUMMARY With the aim of studying the effects of and the transformation caused by westernization on Ottoman commerce buildings, this thesis studies Ottoman khans and arcades of the nineteenth century and onwards in terms of style and function. The study started with examining the khans and arcades of the relevant period in Eminönü and Galata regions. Then 50 of these khans were examined more throughly and included in the catalogue section of the thesis. Determining the khans of the nineteenth century and onwards was done either on the Goad maps dated 1904- 1905, or on site. When khans that were found on site, were also found on maps, information regarding plot, floor, courtyard and crafts performed was used to great extent. Beside the catalogue section, study of the origin of khans starting with Karahanh and Gazneliler, which are allegedly the first Turkish states and continuing with the Great Seljuklues, Anatolian Seljuklues and Ottoman Empire, was attempted, and the khans for overnight stopping and the city khans were examined separately by giving examples. In short, the trace of the classical Ottoman commerce khans, surviving till the first half of the nineteenth century and then replaced by bureau khans, was pursued. This study of the origin revealed the following: Ottoman commerce khans that embraced manufacturing, sales, storing and office spaces all but with no accomadation function, were designed by the architectural inspiration of caravanserais just like the other city khans; caravanserais, the eastern style buildings, which geographically extended to China, were called ribat; ribats date back to even earlier times than that of the mediveal Turkish and Islamic examples and buildings resembling ribats in Byzantine and Roman times and in the sixth century B.C., during the time of Herodot, were used with the aim of accomodation and changing of horses for the messengers and were evenly spaced on the trade and pilgrimage routes that connected eastern cities. During the Middle Ages, due to the emergence of important trade routes like Silk Road, caravanserais were built in great numbers and especially between the seventh and the thirteenth centuries in Persia, Syria and Anatolia, exquisite examples were erected. The earliest examples of these in Turkish architecture date back to Karahanhs, like Ribat-ı Melik on Bukhara-Semerkant route, with a square or a rectangle courtyard, surrounded by usually two storied and vaulted rooms. Earlier buildings that resemble to Ottoman commerce khans in cities not only architecturally but also functionally, are again of eastern origin and eleventh and twelfth century-examples of these are found in Bağdat, Damascus, Morocco and Tunusia, bearing the name dar used only for storage or funduk used for both storage and trade. Commerce khans, like other city khans, were of square or rectangle plan, xvnwith a colonnaded courtyard surrounded by rooms and usually two-storied. Ground store was used for storage and the upper floors were used for trade. As we hold the view that trade buildings of the relevant period in Istanbul were transformed substantially due to westernization, we felt the necessity of looking for any mutual influences between the commerce buildings of our concern and the ones in the west belonging to the same period. Thus, the general historical development of European commerce buildings of the nineteenth century were examined along with the socio-economic conditions under which they emerged. Commerce buildings that were widespread in eminent European cities in the nineteenth century, were mainly office buildings, arcades and department stores. Office buildings that replaced the burgher ' house that functioned as a place for accomodation, manufacturing, storage and sales and was the most important commerce building during the Middle Ages, were built as the head office of a single company or were rented to more than one companies. Ground floors mostly served as spaces of retail trade and the upper floors were reserved for offices. The earliest office building is County Fire Office in London: this building was designed by Robert Abraham in Neo-Classical style in 1829. Passages (arcades) date back to the eighteenth century. The word is of French origin and it was used to denote the alleys that provided passage from the interior of large building blocks even in the eighteenth century. In time, these alleys evolved in accordance with the retail trade; that is they became arcades, with glass roofs, that connected busy streets and along which the shops were lined. Though arcades are defined as buildings with a roof, roofed and unroofed arcades emerged in Europe simultenaously; unroofed ones were mostly in industrial areas and of spaces of handicraft and the roofed ones hosted shops of luxurious goods. After 1840, arcades in Paris, the cradle of arcades, became passe and overshadowed by buildings that provided more effective shopping (Bon Marche). Neverthless, they continued to be built in other cities with examples in Paris and London in mind until the First World War as the symbols of modernism that signified civilization. Department stores or Bon Marches where diversified goods were supplied, emerged as alternatives for small shops in which only a single item was sold and earned their owners great profits in a short while. The first of its kind was built in Paris in 1 852. The nineteenth century, at when westernisation gains momentum and accordingly along with the Ottoman society and economy, Istanbul undergoes a drastic change, is of special interest. That is the reason why we examined the khans, the most important commerce buildings of the period, looking for the changes or the other commerce buildings that might take place of khans and mutual influences in this particular period. In order to do this, we first tried to grasp the meaning of westernisation and its effects on Ottoman architecture and economy. Information gathered and conclusions reached are discussed in the fourth section, under the subtitles of `Westernisation`; `General Overview of Westernisation Process`; `Effects of Westernisation on Ottoman Architecture`; `Westernisation and the Ottoman Economy`, `Changes in the Demographic Structure of Istanbul during the Westernisation Process`. Idea of westernisation started with the regression of the empire: in an attempt to find a solution to the phenomena, it was claimed that the deterioation of the state administration and the military superiority of the west were the causes. Thus, early xviiiin the eighteenth century how to transfer the military institutions of the west and power became an important issue of the state. It was only after the 1870s that the western way was not something to be adopted in bits and pieces but as a united whole was expressed by the intelligensia and during the reign of Sultan II.Abdülhamit (1876-1909) the idea of westernisation was grasped. Western influence on architecture started during the reign of II. Ahmet (1703-1730) and it was noticeable mostly in residential buildings; but only in decorative elements not covering mass, space and plan dimensions. Starting with the reign of II. Selim (1789- 1807), western influence ceased to be confined to only decorative elements and became an integral part of design. Western influence on the economy started with the trade agreement signed with the English in 1838. Following the agreement Ottoman foreign trade volume increased substantially. However, Ottoman export during the period consisted mainly of primary goods such as grain, unprocessed silk and cotton and the import consisted of manufactured goods. After 1 840, hundreds of foreign merchants came to the empire in order to benefit from the commercial concessions granted. Starting with the second half of the nineteenth century, many companies with foreign capital were established and went into operation in new lines of work such as insurance and banking. Foreigners mostly resided in Galata, Pera and Dolmabahçe, center of non-moslems since the time of the conquest of the city. Population of the foreign people comprised 47% of the total population residing in the mentioned region of the city, muslim population being 21%, the rest consisted of non-muslim Ottomans. On the other hand, on the historical peninsula, foreign population was only 1.5% with a 55% of moslem population. In the fifth section of the thesis that is the catalogue, total of 50 khans and arcades in Eminönü and Galata regions is included. While deciding which ones to be included among about 250 buildings in both districts, we chose the ones that can be considered as prototypes and authentic ones that do not repeat the same facade decoration and/or plan and space organisation. In addition to these, that buildings were conserved comparatively well was one of our criteria to determine the catalogue. These buildings were classified according to the district they were located and then alphabetically ordered. The catalogue includes 32 buildings in Galata, 18 buildings in Eminönü that were built in the nineteenth century and onwards. Every building included is explained with regard to its location, position, address, history, courtyards and floors, space organisation, interior and exterior decoration, characteristics of the rooms and interior in general and the function of the building in the past and present by the help of photographs and plans. The catalogue study is evaluated then in the sixth section titled as `Chracteristics of the Ottoman Commerce Khans in Istanbul of the Nineteenth Century and Onwards`, and the conclusions reached of the buildings examined with regard to the location in the city topography, position in street or alley, architectural characteristics and function, are expressed. The results of the catalogue study evaluation are as follows: In Eminönü region, Mahmut Paşa Yokuşu, Sirkeci Aşir Efendi Kütüphanesi Sokak (now, Aşir Efendi Caddesi), Sirkeci Demirkapı Caddesi (now, Mimar Kemalettin Caddesi) are the streets where khans of our interest are mostly gathered. In Galata Region, Voyvoda Caddesi (now, Bankalar Caddesi) and the streets opening to that street, between Karaköy and Tophane Kemankeş Street, Gümrük- and Eski Şarap İskelesi Sokak are the ones on which Ottoman khans of the nineteenth century and onwards gather mostly. Shopping arcades and alleys are mostly situated in Beyoğlu. xixFollowing the catalogue study, we classified the khans of our interest into three groups: classical Ottoman khans, transitional khans and bureau khans. The first of these are the commerce khans built in Istanbul and in other cities of the empire for centuries: these with their open courtyards surrounded by colonnaded rooms system, vault or dome covering, traditional building materials, opening to a street or a courtyard by their ground floor shops, were buildings that functioned as places of manufacturing, sales, storage and as bureaus. The transitional khans are the ones that resembled classical Ottoman commerce khans by their space organisation; employing traditional covering system such as vault, cross-ribbed vault and mirror vault and jack arches as a new covering system together; simple facade decoration like classical Ottoman khans together with decorative elements that much owed to western architecture; and usage of iron beams or carcass as building material and thus differing from classical Ottoman khans. The most widespread of the three groups, are bureau khans. `Bureau khans` term belongs to us, not being used in the literature previously. What we call `bureau khans` are called `bureau buildings` in the literature of our concern. The first reason why we call these buildings as `khans` is that these had suffix `khan` following their names, that is their generic name was `khan`, and the second reason is that the buildings we examined in this study all belong to a specific period whereas `bureau buildings` were the ones that had bureaus belonging to either a single company or more than one company and were started to be built in the nineteenth century and continues to be built till present time, thus even modern buildings are considered among the group. We are of the opinion that these buildings can be called as `khan` as they chorologically are closer to classical Ottoman khans and thus bear resemblance to them in terms of space organisation. The term `bureau` indicates the function of the buildings: ground floors are generally reserved for shops and the upper floors for the burreau rooms. Bureau khans can be with or without a courtyard; courtyards are covered with a glass roof. On the ground floor, shops open to a street or a courtyard; rooms in the upper floors generally on closed corridors or on galleries that surround the four sides of the courtyard. There are examples of bureau khans without a courtyard that have spaces organized around closed corridors or that open to stair landings or halls like in the apartments. Main differences between them and the classical Ottoman commerce khans are the following: the western way of ornamentation on facade; use of iron and steel in structure; use of iron beams or iron carcase instead of vaults; use of iron or steel glass roof over the courtyard; instead of porticos use of cast or wrought iron balustrated galleries, increase in number of floors, opening of the ground floor to outside, usage of wooden structured, tiled, slented even mansart roofs instead of lead covered classical Ottoman khan roofs. Bureau khans, in terms of increase in the number of floors, facade organisation, material, flooring and roofing systems are under the influence of western architecture; in these respects, they were inspired by contemporaneous European architecture or the architecture of bureau buildings. Decomposition of manufacturing and trade and thus stop sharing the same space and in bureau khans existence of only firm bureaus and shops point to a change in function. In the era when integration of Ottoman Empire to the world's capitalistic system started in 1938 and continued, İstanbul enjoyed foreign trade and investment as a result of commerce agreements done with European countries and thus we see the emergence of bureau khans. These entrepreneurs had activity in many areas including stokebrokerage, ship agency, railway, insurance agency. Accordingly started joint ownership and this required modern, western workplaces that can be xxused as bureaus. Technological advancement along with the forementioned changes led to opening of workplaces termed as `khan` although different from the classical Ottoman khans. These workplaces increased in number especially in the trade centers that were situated along the both banks of the Golden Horn. Another building type that is included in this thesis is the arcades. Arcades are the special ways that connect big building blocks; they are generally entered through more than one street; ground floor of these building blocks that function as khans or apartments are reserved for shops. Arcades that were built for the first time in the second half of the nineteenth century in the two trade centers of Istanbul according to the European and especially French examples were a completely new phenomena. Of the block buildings of Istanbul arcades, oldest of which is the French Arcade, dated as 1 860 and Şark Aynalı Pasaj dating back before 1 864, the ones in Beyoğlu were built as flats, and the shops functioned as places of retail trade especially of luxurious goods like their European counterparts in the west. Of the covered or uncovered alleys of Istanbul, the ones in Eminönü were built as khans. We hold that Hamdi Bey Alley and Hazzopulo Khan, though classified as shopping arcades or alleys, they are nothing but khans with at least two entrances, two facades because of the plot and structured as an elongation of the courtyard. Although some connections can be drawn between the shopping arcades and Ottoman commerce khans that have more than one door, we defend the view that these shopping arcades are the building types that were designed according to specific needs in Europa and they were imported from Europa in an era when westernisation was in full force, and Istanbul was under the influence of Europeans and European way of living and the eminent architects were the ones that were either European or educated in Europa. Besides, that these shopping arcades and alleys are mainly located in the Beyoğlu district that was highly influenced by European trends rather than the historical peninsula and have western stylistic characteristics support our point of view. As can be deduced, westernisation brought about important transformations in the architecture and the function of khans: during this transformation process, described as `transition to bureau khans from classical Ottoman commerce khans`, we determined that in the first half of the nineteenth century, classical Ottoman khans like Büyük Yıldız Han were still continued to be built; although the buildings grouped as `transitional khans` were mostly built in the middle of the nineteenth century, there are still examples that were built towards the end of the nineteenth century; and commerce buildings termed as `bureau khans` were built for the first time in the second half of the century with the aim of meeting the changing economic needs in the two trade centers of the city. We assert definitely that, although bureau khans were generally modelled on western bureau buildings, especially the ones with courtyards were designed under the influence of classical Ottoman khans in terms of space organisation. Transformation in terms of function materialized as a transition from classical Ottoman khans that embraced manufacturing, sales, storage and bureau spaces all to the bureau khans that only had spaces for sales and bureaus. In addition to this, the city met a completely new commerce building in the nineteenth century; this was the arcade modeled according to European examples. But what is interesting is that, along with bureau khans, transitional khans and arcades, classical Ottoman khans of the nineteenth century and before survived till present time either pursuing their old function or undertaking the functions of the bureau khans. In the study of the historical development of commerce buildings in Europe, we have not xximet any commerce buildings that had new functions along with the centuries-old ones like the buildings in Istanbul. We are of the opinion that, this phenomena in Istanbul can be explained by the timeless characteristics of classical Ottoman khans. Besides, that bureau khans became prevalent so quickly is not only because of changing needs but also the city has been acquinted with commerce centers and khans for many centuries. xxn 475