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The Manchester School focused on the contribution of international trade to peace while developing economic views that could improve the financial expectations of individuals in the goal of political and social progress. As trade and economy grow, people will be connected, and political methods and diplomacy will develop. The self-glorification of nations, which hinder the development of political solutions, the feelings of chauvinism and nationalism may turn into a more moderate attitude. The aim of the article is to evaluate the views and solution proposals of the Manchester School and Richard Cobden on the realizability of world peace, which discuss how states steer international politics in order to gain political and economic national power and to hide the problems in their own national / domestic policies. The Manchester School claims that mercantilism, protectionism and the power of the aristocratic class, which are the foundations of its domestic policies, were reinforced by wars. The proposed solutions are the development of free trade, the development of international co-operation, the abolition of protectionism and arbitration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The liberalization of trade and the rapid development in industrialization increase the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of countries in developing market economies and their share in global warming. In this context, it is aimed to investigate whether Turkey's exports, energy consumption, foreign direct investments, and economic growth, which is in a developing market economy, have an effect on carbon dioxide emissions. In this study, Vector error correction model (VECM) was used to determine the short-term effect with ARDL bounds test approach using annual data for the period 1990-2015. According to the results of the ARDL limit test approach, a long-term statistically significant and positive relationship was found between CO2 emissions, foreign direct investments, and energy consumption, while a statistically insignificant and negative relationship was found between exports and economic growth. In addition, a 1% increase in foreign direct investments increases CO2 emissions by 9%, and a 1% increase in energy consumption increases CO2 emissions by 76%. The limitation of this study is that the energy consumption data was calculated until 2015 and there is no continuation of the series. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attempts are being made to promote greater liberalization of international trade through the participation of numerous states in global agreements and organizations. In various economic integrations, efforts are made to integrate markets for products and services as if there were no state borders. On the other hand, the liberalization of foreign trade policies may not always align with countries' interests, leading to the implementation of protectionist measures. Despite the disapproval of international trade organizations, it can be argued that states primarily seek to enhance their own welfare by implementing protectionist policies. This study aims to ascertain the impact of protectionist measures implemented in import regulations on economic growth. For research purposes, the tax rates applied to the import of commercial goods and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) were identified as essential variables. A model encompassing 56 countries was constructed and subjected to analysis using the Panel ARDL approach. Based on the study's findings, it can be observed that the implementation of higher customs tax rates, which is commonly perceived as a protectionist strategy, negatively impacts long-term economic growth. The study presents a comprehensive analysis of the effects of tax rates imposed on various product categories on economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foreign trade and trade policies of the Ottomans, which dominated a wide geography for a long time, have always been the subject of discussion. From its foundation to the middle of 19th century, the economic understanding and foreign policies of the Ottomans are significantly similar. Since the beginning of 19th century, developments in the political, military and intellectual fields were the signs that a new era would begin. Finally, with the free trade agreements signed towards the middle of the 19th century, Ottoman foreign trade entered a new phase. In this study, by using literature research and analysis method, Ottomans' foreign trade and trade policies of both periods are analyzed, and the effects of the change in the understanding of economics accompanied with the change in intellectual and mental structure on the trade policies are investigated. In the study, it is concluded that economic understanding, mindset, spirit, meaning and civilization values of the Ottoman classical period and new period differ and there is a relationship between the diverse economic understanding of both periods and their trade policies followed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ottoman Empire was vast, spreading across Asia Minor, Europe, and Africa - including the Mediterranean and the Black seas, which were world's most important trading routes at the time. Hence, this lead the Ottomans to establish commercial ties with many a neighbouring nation over the centuries. The first of these was Russia, beginning in the 15th century with Ivan III sending an ambassador to Istanbul so that they would oversee bilateral trade relations. This was known as a period of friendship and solidarity between the two countries; alas, before long, that spoiled, and led to many on and off battles. The main reason being was that both seas laid at the centre of Russia's enlargement policy. They had expanded their trade network by adding new commercial concessions to agreements signed at the end of each war, thereby enabling them to defeat the Ottomans. That would continue until end of the 18th century - by which point their borders encircled the Ottoman Empire; plus, they had obtained the right to conduct free trade in Ottoman territorial waters as well via both seas. In this study, we shall explore this issue in and commercial (il)relations between the two parties in more depth, with the aid of Ottoman archival documents and research on this topic as primary and secondary sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capital is considered as one of the most important elements of the production function in economics. People need capital and capital accumulation to be able to produce. In order to create capital accumulation, it is essential to realize some conditions such as the freedom to own property and have wealth, free trade and free market opportunity, to save, not to waste by avoiding luxury consumption, and to reveal how the approach should be to the determination of human needs and how to be satisfied. How the accumulation of capital is evaluated in Islamic economics, In this study, which we evaluate in terms of the Prophet's (pbuh) Sunnah and Hadiths, we see that these conditions, which are necessary for the creation of capital accumulation, are generally encouraged, but in any case and condition, there is a moderate approach, which is the basic principle of Islam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) between the Republic of Türkiye and the United Kingdom, which entered into force in 2021, has many provisions for mutual trade. The Treaty introduces both rights and responsibilities to the contracting parties and denotes the methods for the resolution of disputes, including negotiation as a non– judicial method and arbitration as a judicial method in public international law. Therefore, the contracting parties agreed on a mixed method for the resolution of disputes regarding the implementation of the FTA. It is suggested that although some provisions on the resolution of disputes on the implementation of the Treaty are ambiguous in a certain respect, overall, the Treaty has explicit provisions on this topic. This study asserts that the specified method for the resolution of disputes in the FTA is substantial and functional. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of trade liberalization and financial development on the level of poverty. For this purpose, empirical applications have been made for the New Industrializing Countries with the data covering the years 1985-2020. In the study, CADF unit root test, ECM cointegration test, CCE coefficient estimator and Dumitrescu-Hurlin (2012) panel causality tests were used. In the model, the ratios of household final consumption expenditures, loans given to the private sector by banks, exports and imports to GDP, and economic growth indicators are used. According to the results obtained, it was concluded that imports reduce poverty, but financial development, exports and economic growth affect poverty negatively. According to the panel causality results, bidirectional causality was obtained between exports and imports with poverty. Unidirectional causality was obtained from poverty to economic growth and financial development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (RCEP), which is seen as the world's largest free trade agreement among ten ASEAN countries from the Asia-Pacific region and five non-regional countries, was signed on November 15, 2020. On the other hand, the European Union (EU) and China are the two most important countries in international trade. China and Europe trade on average over 1 billion Euros per day. The EU-China Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI), signed on December 30, 2020, has provided the parties with the opportunity to open their markets to each other, and the Chinese side has granted quite extensive concessions to the EU. As a result of the pandemic period, China's joint ventures with Asian countries and the EU are important for both parties in terms of reducing the economic cost of uncertainty. It is possible to say that with the agreements, China aims to provide alternative commercial partnerships to the United States of America (USA), and the EU aims to create an alternative commercial space vis a vis the USA in the growing Asian market. Also the new administration of the USA will take a stand against the possible contraction in world trade and the competition from China and / or the EU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the process of economic globalization, integration into the world network depends on the implementation of the necessary liberalization policies. The first leg of liberalization is the liberalization movements in foreign trade. With the commercial liberalization, it is aimed to achieve global integration by aiming to remove the controls on the goods and service markets. One of the indicators of how integrated a country is in the world trade network is expressed by the concept of trade openness. The trade openness ratio, which is calculated by dividing the total trade volume by GDP, is an indicator of how important international trade is in an economy. This ratio is also accepted as the degree of globalization of an economy. The main target expected in the axis of globalization and trade emerges as economic growth. Countries that stand out with their performance in terms of integration into the global economy, trade liberalization and economic growth are called emerging market economies. The study examines the effect of trade openness on economic growth in 18 emerging market economies for the period 1992-2015. Gross fixed capital investments and foreign direct investment data are also included in the analysis. In the investigation of the stationarity of the series in the analysis, II. generation panel unit root tests were used. The Emirmahmutoğlu-Köse panel causality test, which also considers the cross-sectional dependence, was preferred in the investigation of the causality relationship between the series. Panel data analysis results show that all variables positively affect economic growth in emerging market economies. The causality test results show that there is a bidirectional relationship between the variables of trade openness, gross fixed capital investments and economic growth. It has been concluded that there is unidirectional causality from economic growth to foreign direct investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International trade, which has an important role in the economic policies of almost all countries, has been one of the most interesting subject since the beginning of economics. The opinions on foreign trade have been shaped around two axes: free trade and protectionism. Along with the effects of growth and welfare, concerns about whether it will be achieved similar results for each country have led to the increasing prevalence of protectionist views. For this reason, it is important to determine which foreign trade policy has a positive effect on countries. In particular, to choose the foreign trade policy will directly affect the development path of emerging countries. In this study, the relationship between economic growth and foreign trade policies is analysed for 20 countries in the MSCI Emerging Market Index. In the analysis covering the period of 2009-2019, the Global Trade Alert data on the number of policies of trade liberalising and harmful was used as the proxies of foreign trade policies. It was concluded that the harmful trade policies affect negatively economic growth in the analysis using system GMM method. It was found no significant relationship in terms of trade liberalising policies. The findings show that protectionism, in line with mainstream views, reduces welfare in emerging countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, Turkey's total trade with the countries with which it has signed FTA are examined within the scope of Gravity Model. For this purpose, the first 6 countries with the highest share in trade among the countries with which FTA signed were included in the study and the panel gravity model was used with the annual data of the 1985-2019 period. In the study, firstly, different models were estimated with the basic gravity model and the extended versions of this model. Then, by creating extended models with country effects, the effects of FTAs on Turkey's foreign trade were tried to be determined according to countries. As a result of the study, it has been determined that FTAs and income levels of countries have a significant and positive effect on total trade, while the distance between countries has a negative effect. In addition, according to the results of the extended Gravity Model, income and price variables have more significant effects than the population variable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

MERCOSUR is an economic group that has a significant potential in world trade with its high population, large surface area and natural wealth. Therefore, it is expected to increase its share in world trade in the future. The European Union (EU) is also an important economic integration that has a large share in world trade. In this study; it is aimed to examine the foreign trade between MERCOSUR and the EU countries and to develop a conceptual perspective on the potential and returns of the trade agreement signed between these two economic groups. The signing of the trade agreement as a result of many years of negotiations between the two integrations drew attention to the existing trade relations between these two integrations and the effects of the agreement on these relations. This study is important in order to reveal the existing commercial relations and examining the possible changes that may occur after this trade agreement. In this study, the trade relations between the two economic integrations were evaluated based on statistical data between 2009-2018 years and the possible effects of the trade agreement on MERCOSUR and EU were determined. As a result of the study, it is proposed that new markets will be created for many different product groups in the trade between MERCOSUR-AB as a result of the removal of customs tariffs with the free trade agreement. This agreement is expected to create economic growth and new business opportunities for both economic groups. In addition to this, the agreement is expected to have a commercial impact with the shift of demand for agricultural products from production within the EU to cheaper production in MERCOSUR countries, and MERCOSUR importing more intensive automotive, machinery, chemical and textile products from the EU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While studying The Republic of Turkey's situation in harmonization to the European Union; Turkey should not be seen as only the candidate of the full membership of the European Union but also should be taken into account into the membership of Custom Union. European Union is not only the economic/political entity that ıs the part of the cohesion process of Turkey to the European Union but also the first partner of the Republic of Turkey’s international trade. The Republic of Turkey is in the process of harmonization and approximation to the European Union either in the trade or commercial logistics. Logistics is the essential web of which requires trade and free movement of goods and services. After the adoption of The Agreement Creating An Association Between The Republic of Turkey and the European Economic Community (commonly known as the Ankara Agreement), the process of the obligation of harmonization indirect taxes due to the Acquis Commutaire which are stated and defined in the treaties between the Republic of Turkey and the European Union, have been being stated and discussed in the national program and steadily progress reports. In this study the cohesion of applied the indirect taxes in The Republic of Turkey in transportation which is one of the branches of commercial logistics has been discussed with the European Union in the process of Industry 4.0. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smuggling is done for avoiding taxation through escaping some certain duties in the foreign trade of goods and by-passing border controls. The liberalization of foreign trade without constructing institutional efficiency creates new opportunities for illegal traders. While there are many theoretical studies based on the determinants of smuggling in the literature, studies with applied analyzes are limited. In the study, unlike other studies, smuggling is investigated around the findings obtained from the MIMIC model, which is a special type of Structural Equation Model (SEM). The purpose of the study is to analyze the causes and indicators of smuggling based on 2015 data of selected variables from 52 countries in European and Central Asian in the geographic country classification of World Bank. As a result of the study, the most important determinants of smuggling in European and Central Asian countries are the rule of law, globalization and GDP per capita. For Turkey, the most important determinants of smuggling are found to be cost of imports, trade, tariffs, rule of law, globalization and GDP per capita. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International commerce and free movements of the goods have gained speed in this era, so, storage and stockpiling operations has become more and more important. Importing goods become more essential for corporations and companies and they require easy access and safe storage for their imported goods. Custom storage zones know as bonded warehouses have been used to store imported goods, while step by step import and taxation processes have been carried out by the importers. When the importers complete all the import and taxation processes, they can easily obtain their goods from bonded warehouses. While import and export companies have been carried out their operations via bonded warehouses, they have been facing to choose correct bonded warehouse in order to optimize their cost/profit analysis. Choosing the correct bonded warehouse yields to a decision-making process. This study focuses on the performance of Istanbul's bonded warehouses' 2018 operations. In this study, first of all, bonded warehouses' performance evaluation criteria have been decided. Evaluations states that liquidation and storage costs are the main criteria, which effects the performance of the bonded warehouse for the import-export companies. These criteria's weighted values have been calculated by using Entropy methods. Furthermore, one of the most frequently used methodology Topsis has been employed to sort bonded warehouses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, economic growth and the factors of economic growth are one of the important topics of discussion topics. In this context, there is an increasing emphasis on the role of institutions in explaining the economic growth of countries. However, there is no consensus on which institutions and governance indicators are more important. The aim of this study is to examine empirically the effects of institutions on economic growth in all income group countries. In this study, the data obtained from World Bank World-wide Governance Indicators for the 23 less developed, 63 developing and 48 developed countries are examined in the 2002-2018 period and analysed two-stage system generalized moments method. Empirical results show that institutions are important for economic growth of countries. Among the institutional quality indicators, regulatory quality appears to be the most important factor for explaining the increase in GDP per capita in all countries. In addition, government effectiveness is very important for economic growth. While the indicators of voice and accountability, rule of law and the control of corruption affect economic growth positively and significantly, the effects of coefficients are low compared to other indicators. Political stability and However, it is important to note that only the quality of institutions cannot be sufficient for economic growth. The study reveals that structural factors such as government expenditures, gross capital accumulation, population growth rate, inflation and liberalization of trade have an important impact on economic growth. The findings of the study show that institutions are important in economic growth. Therefore, for a stable and permanent growth, countries should give priority to institutional strengthening policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study; This is being done by the World Bank Logistics Performance Index since 2007, the assessment reveals Turkey's situation and identify the reasons for the poor performance shown. While our country has a very important logistics fleet and infrastructure, unfortunately our performance has decreased since 2007. Turkey ranked 34.th in 2007 and declined to 47th as of 2018. Countries that we can consider as competing countries, Poland, Romania and Bulgaria have made significant progress. Poland ranked 40th in 2007 and 28th in 2018. In our study, the criteria were evaluated under the headings and the things to be done in order to increase the performance criteria were stated. Turkey, when viewed in terms of geographical area is in a position where it has the potential to be a very important and logistics base. Unfortunately, however, it cannot assess this potential. Today, a logistics sector that works efficiently and offers economic prices can provide a competitive advantage to our companies, especially by providing a cost advantage for our export products, while also contributing to the development of our country. The institutions of our state and logistics companies should do in order to ensure that the sector cannot work efficiently and produce economic prices and that service quality is not sufficient is explained in our article. In addition, it affects the performance of the sector negatively in the quotas imposed on Turkish trucks by the EU in contradiction with the principle of free movement of goods. In spite of everything, our sector has a very important infrastructure and is able to carry its logistics performance to the top when it eliminates its own deficiencies despite the unfair competition applied by the EU. In this study, the criteria collected under 6 headings were evaluated and the requirements and deficiencies to be made in order to rise in the performance criteria were stated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the beginning of 1960s, Turkey and the European Union (EU) established an association which entails the objective of free movement of goods via a Customs Union and the possibility of attaining free movement of services between each other. When the Customs Union between Turkey and the EU had been achieved on the basis of this association, road transport from Turkey to the EU has raised its importance in trade in goods day by day and problems related to this matter has started to rise in practice. Main problems can be pointed as work permits and entry visas in relation to the drivers who make road transport and transit permits and transport quotas in relation to vehicles used in road transport. Hence, to what extent can association law offer solution regarding these kinds of problems? This article examines the rulings of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), especially Abatay and Sahin judgement (C-317/01 and C- 369/01) related to work permits, Sosyal and Savatli judgement (C-228/06) related to visas, İstanbul Lojistik judgement (C-65/16) related to transit permits and CX judgement (C -629/16) related to transport quotas. The article shows that when the disputed matter relates to goods --as in transit permits--, especially the prohibition on customs duty and charges having equivalent effect (Article 4 of 1/95 Association Council Decision) or prohibition on quantitative restrictions and measures having equivalent effect (Article 5-7 of 1/95 Association Council Decision) become relevant, and, that when the disputed matter relates to services --as in work permits, visas or transport quotas--, especially the prohibition on introducing new restrictions (Article 41(1) of Additional Protocol) becomes relevant. These offer solutions, albeit to some extent, to the main problems of road transport. Nonetheless, a comprehensive solution seems only possible via a deal --for instance as a part of upgrading of Customs Union process-- between the parties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free trade policies and protectionist policies are constantly being discussed in the foreign trade practices of developed and developing countries. Both politics have their own advantages and disadvantages. But in today's global world, the effectiveness of protectionist policies is gradually weakening. In the study, the comparison of these two politics is carried out with econometric tests on economic growth and foreign trade variables. In the study, the comparison of these two politics is carried out with econometric tests on variables of economic growth and foreign trade. In the analyzes performed, the series were found to be stationary in the level values. In the Maki cointegration test it was seen that there was a cointegration relationship with structural breaks. According to the Granger causality test and Hacker and Hatemi-J causality test results, only one-way causality is determined from national income to import. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, it will be explained, because of globalization of trade, the line between trade and competition policies happened very important depending on necessarly of global competition policy and developing countries. In the era of competition policy against between cartels, mergers and abuse of market power but this rules will be ineffective in the absence of global competition policy. The developments like anti-competetive beheviours of firms increased in the process of trade globalisation. Because of free trade conditions, many global anticompetetive practices like global cartels and global mergers with international spillovers ocur. Trade related international competition issues are getting important. In this context, developing countries have much bigger problems. A developing country would have more difficulties in pushing a developed country to cooperate in a cartel investigation against a cartelist firm its own country origin. Consequently, global competition policy will be solution to those competition problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the future of Free Zones has been studied by considering the effects of globalization on Free Zones with special reference to Turkey. Evaluation of free zones has been summarized in main lines from free ports to free production zones in the 1960s. Critics about those enclaves such as encouraging import, tax losses, unsatisfying results and working conditions have been detailed. Consequently, it can be said that globalization, providing free trade of goods and services, may eliminate attractiveness of privileged area practices such as free zones in developing countries and attention to these zones will decrease because of failing to satisfy. For Turkey, in addition to those results improvements in European Union process and decrease in privileges means that these zones lose their importance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today there are many examples of free trade areas in various parts of the world established for economical, political and safety reasons. In this context on June 10th, 2010 a decision has been taken to establish a free trade area in one of the most strategically important regions of the world, namely Middle East, among Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan within the 3rd Turkish-Arabian cooperation forum. This research investigates the international trade potential between the 4 countries using the gravity model framework. The results indicate that there is currently less trade among these countries than the gravity model would predict, therefore establishing a free trade area means a trade surplus for Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Turkey has signed 27 free trade agreements (FTAs), 14 of which are currently in force. The majority of these FTAs are concluded with the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern partners under the context of Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EMP). Although Turkey has not been politically very enthusiastic about the EMP from its inception, it actively participated to the process of creation of free trade area through the network of preferential trade agreements. While the basic rationale in FTA negotiations is expectation for economic gains, Turkey's negotiation agenda particularly with the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern partners has never been independent of its general foreign policy towards the region. In this framework, the aim of this article is to analyze the context in which Turkish decision-makers initiate and conclude FTA negotiations with the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern partner countries as well as the economic implications of these agreements for Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to investigate the relations between export and growth for Turkey by using 1987-2007 monthly data. In other words, export-led growth hypothesis is being tested for the period of eighties and nineties. Industrial production index is used for the proxy of gross domestic product since we use monthly data. For the variables of export, import, terms of trade and industrial production index, first of all ADF unit root tests are carried out. All of the variables are found to be same degree integrated. Thus, long run relations among the variables are examined in the framework of Johansen co-integration analysis. Provided with the long run relation, vector error correction model (VECM) is estimated. Granger causality tests based on VECM and modified Wald tests (MWALD) defined by Toda Yamamoto (1995) are carried out to determine the directions of the relations among the variables. According to the test results, export-led growth is verified for the specified period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]