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The southern zone of the department of Córdoba Colombia, for more than two decades has been promoting the cultivation of cocoa as a productive alternative in the replacement of illicit crops. There is no evidence of a study documenting the technical and economic characterization of the cocoa production system. The objective of this work was to analyze the production system from a technical and economic point of view. The sample is made up of 158 farmers selected at random. The information included aspects related to this production system in the municipalities of Montelíbano, Puerto Libertador, Tierralta and Valencia. The economic returns were obtained by the technique of the concession with producers with experience. The producers with an average age of 57 years of which 77% are male and 23% are women, about the educational level, basic primary predominates with 54% and 20% not having access to any level of schooling. The production model is that of family farming, average yields are 570 k/ha-1. The average income per year is 5,687,500 $/ha-1 the costs are 5,041,015 COP. per hectare which allows the generation of surpluses. The internal rate of return is 36% higher than the capital opportunity cost. It is concluded that with the local technology the costs are recovered, and generate surpluses for the producer of 1658,984 COP per hectare per year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista de Ciencias Sociales (13159518) is the property of Revista de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad del Zulia Venezuela and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Org & Demo is the property of Revista ORG & DEMO and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Trace: Travaux et Recherches dans les Amériques du Centre is the property of Centro de Estudios Mexicanos & Centroamericanos and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The researcher's belonging to a scientific community implies benefits but also, simultaneously, opportunity costs. The latter include the impossibility of questioning the foundations that explain the corpus of premises and regulatory ideas by virtue of which such collective conceives itself as the creditor of a given "impartial" knowledge. This paper will provide, in this sense, an analysis of the epistemic and sociological possibilities that researchers count on so as to question the set of such premises without this necessarily implying -in Kuhn's terms- the genesis of an abrupt paradigm change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista de Derecho y Genoma Humano is the property of Dykinson SL and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Preference for delayed rewards has been promoted by making explicit that preference for one alternative implies not receiving the not chosen alternative, a result named the hidden-zero effect. Objective. The present research assessed the generality of the hidden-zero effect in delay discounting tasks in two domains (i.e., monetary and health) in participants that reported alcohol consumption. Method. The participants were exposed to two discounting tasks, one with the implicit zero and one with the explicit zero, using both health and monetary rewards and employing different amounts. Results. Results showed a tendency to reduce the value of future monetary consequences at higher rate as a function of alcohol drinking. Also, the hidden-zero effect and the magnitude effect were replicated in the monetary domain independently of alcohol drinking status. Nevertheless, none of these effects were observed using health outcomes with the actual procedure. Finally, no systematic association between discounting rate and negative consequences derived from alcohol consumption was observed. Conclusions. Making explicit the opportunity cost reduce discounting rate of monetary outcomes, but more research is needed to clarify the absence of effects when deciding about health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biomédica: Revista del Instituto Nacional de Salud is the property of Instituto Nacional de Salud of Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This research has carried out a systematized bibliographic review to analyze how the return on investment (ROI) in communication, and specifically in public relations, has been theoretically treated. The financial measurement of communication outcomes represents a topic of great interest for the academic community because organizations need to know the real results of their communication efforts. At the same time, economic measurement turns out to be a variable that can be understood by the management of the organizations and allows them to know where the money is being spent. However, despite more than forty years of theoretical work, a homogeneous nor globally accepted solution has not yet been achieved. The bibliographical study of the return on investment in communication, and especially in public relations, shows the difficulty of turning the success of the activity of public relations professionals into money. On the one hand, there is no doubt that the ROI is directly related to financial data; on the other hand, in communication it is usual to introduce non-economic values to evaluate the results achieved. The bibliographical results indicate in the first instance that, on a quantitative level, the economic aspect is predominant in the calculation of the ROI (96.3%). In this context measurement by equivalence in advertising (AVE) is an economic model as used by professionals as it is rejected by researchers. It is based on comparing the cost of a presence in the media with the equivalent cost if it were advertising. Nevertheless, this model is criticized for the differences between advertising (a completely controlled message) and publicity (a message that is altered by the media). However, taking the previous works about the subject, it can be said that the evaluation of public relations actions can be dealt with from the perspective of opportunity cost: the loss of other alternatives when one alternative is chosen. In this way, the evaluation of the cost of a traditional advertising action can be compared with the cost of other options available to public relations professionals. For example, native advertising is a resource of public relations teams whose cost can easily be compared to traditional advertising. Native advertising is a paid promotion that matches the audience's consumption and contains information of interest to the advertiser. Hence opinions that reject the advertising equivalence measurement (AVE) are not justified when the product generated by public relations has the characteristics of native advertising because in both cases (advertising vs. native advertising) the professional can exactly compare the investment made with one instead of the other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oregmopyga peruviana, pest of the vine, causes damage that reduce the yield and strong infestations provoke the death of the plant. It is present along the Peruvian coast, being a very important pest. The objective of the study is to determine the individual efficacy of nine treatments (buprofezin 25 g·hL-1, chlorpyrifos 96 g·hL-1, pure vinasse, spirotetramat 474.3 g·hL-1, imidacloprid SC 1435 g·hL-1, imidacloprid WG 17.5 g·hL-1, M. anisopliae and B. bassiana 333.3 x 1012 CFU·hL-1, thiamethoxam 900 g·hL-1 and dinotefuran 680 g·hL-1) in different phenological periods. Each treatment was compared with its control using the Student's t-test for independent variables (p ≤ 0.05). In addition, the control percentage was determined using the Henderson and Tilton formula, obtaining for buprofezin 87.4%, chlorpyrifos 84.2%, vinasse 70.1%, spirotetramat 97.2%, imidacloprid WG 95.5%, imidacloprid SC 87.6%, dinotefuran 99.6% and thiamethoxam 91.6%. M. anisopliae and B. bassiana got no control. The results show that eight of the nine treatments had a controlling percentage higher than 70% having significantly lower populations. Furthermore, vinasse is an organic and low cost alternative for the control of O. peruviana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Cuadernos de Contabilidad is the property of Pontificia Universidad Javeriana and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Introduction. The ideal time for umbilical cord clamping remains a reason for analysis and discussion. Several articles have listed the benefits of performing a clamp after the first minute of life. However, the recommendations vary among the various national and international guides, so this article seeks to assess the dissemination of this practice among Mexican neonatologists. Methods. A cross-sectional study was carried out during the XXI National Congress of Neonatology, interviewing 42 neonatologists who met the selection criteria, using a questionnaire format to assess their knowledge of Mexican guides and the existence of learning protocols on the subject in their institutions. Data collection and analysis were performed in Excel. Results. Of those interviewed, 33% (n = 14) reported attending less than 1,000 births annually, 33% (n = 14) reported attending from 1,001 to 5,000, 22% (n = 9) reported attending between 5,001 and 10,000 and 7% ( n = 5) referred to attend more than 10,000. 67% (n = 28) of respondents clamp more than 50% of newborns before the first minute, 12% (n = 5) clamp more than 50% between the first and third minute, with 2% (n = 1) pinching after the third minute. 81% (n = 43) reported knowing the Clinical Practice Guide, 66% (n = 28) knowing the Official Mexican Standard-007, 33% (n = 14) reported having an institutional policy and 26% (n = 11) with institutional training programs. Discussion. Late impingement, between the first and third minutes of life, represents a physiological alternative of low cost and high simplicity to reduce the risk of complications in the newborn. It is important to raise awareness among health professionals who have a role in the management of births and cesarean sections, as well as to stimulate the practice of late impingement in low-risk pregnancies with healthy newborns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The apparent protein digestibility (AD) of flour and solutions of chickpea flour (GD) (Cicer arietinum L.) in vivo was evaluated using albino laboratory mice (Mus musculus BALB / C) and in vitro using Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Saccharomycetaceae) as the model organism, using the YPD medium (yeast extract, peptone, dextrose) at pH 5.8 as control. The GD media were prepared with and without enzyme adjusted to 5.8, 5.5, 4.6, 3.8, 2.8, 2.3 and 2.0 pH values. The model organism was seeded in Petri dishes with YDP and GD media, incubated at 30°C for 24 h. Mice were used in 5 working groups with 2 specimens per group, fed diets based on commercial oats, corn flour and 4, 8, 12% chickpea flour. A 20 g/d ration was given for 15 days, at the end the feces were collected and the nitrogen and protein content was determined by the Kjeldahl method. The in vitro AD obtained with the model organism from GD at pH 5.8 with the addition of enzyme, showed a 66.5±11.9% value. The AD obtained in vivo with "albino mice" using chickpea flour between 4 to 12%, showed values between 80,0 and 83,5% with p <0.05. We observed the feasibility of using DA evaluation using S. cerevisiae, which should be expanded with additional research, because it is a low cost alternative that would help overcome limitations and ethical objections for the use of animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biomédica: Revista del Instituto Nacional de Salud is the property of Instituto Nacional de Salud of Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Facultad de Ciencias Economicas: Investigacion y Reflexion is the property of Revista Facultad de Ciencias Economicas and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Nicolaita de Estudios Económicos is the property of Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Española de Sociología is the property of Federacion Espanola de Sociologia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas is the property of Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agricolas y Pecuarias and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Appropriate and high quality Geographic Information is becoming increasingly important. It is essential in all country's activities, and the Spatial Data Infrastructure plays an essential role when sharing the information. We must generate and maintain it, but we also need to finance it. Usually a cost-benefit analysis in performed in order to make decisions regarding the investment in projects on Geographical Information. However, there are some "hidden" costs in the generation of geographic data that are generally not considered in these analyzes, but should be. These are called "Opportunity Cost" and "Cost of Poor Quality". The opportunity cost is the value of the unrealized best option. If it had not been decided to make the photogrammetric flight in 1966-1967, then, what would have been the impact and the opportunity cost? On the other hand, the costs of poor quality correspond to external faults, those errors incurred by the producer because the external client is being provided with unacceptable products or services. Mistakes in the information provided by the state to a construction company, eventually costed around 15 million dollars, which could have been avoided if quality mapping had been provided. Both costs can be useful to help making investment decisions. These hidden costs, can they, alone or together with a cost-benefit analysis, be actually used to make investment decisions in Geographical Information? Can these costs, both of poor quality as well as the opportunity cost, be such as to influence that decision? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to determinate the economic value or opportunity cost of the water for agricultural and domestic use in the low and medium basin of Chillon River in Canta Province. The quantitative research of the calculation for the net demand of water for growing, production and yield of the representative crowns in the Valley of Chillon River was done with the information obtained of INRENA and the Ministry of Agriculture. The results show that the opportunity cost for agricultural water is S/.0.37/m3 in the low and medium basin and the cost for domestic water is above S/.0.82/m3; this means that agricultural and domestic water users of Chillon River have a lower value than the users of Mala Valley. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In any society regardless of its development level, resources are always insufficient regarding the potential demands of its individuals; that is why the dilemma of its alternative use is presented, with which it will always be necessary to give up certain options. With the present work the necessity of the economic efficiency is demonstrated in the health sector, and some general ideas on how to contribute to a higher efficiency in health are offered. Health, as part of the general welfare, demands an increasing amount of economic resources, due to the different transitions that are taking place. Moreover, the relative scarcity of resources in relation to personal demands, imposes the need for its efficient use, in order to achieve a higher social benefit [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Reflexión Politica is the property of Universidad Autonoma de Bucaramanga, UNAB and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Bioeconomy products that employ first-generation raw material face an unstable relative price scenario between the generic and the differential product. This is the case between sugar and ethanol prices, both obtained from sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum). The aim of this study was to assess whether a multipurpose project that produces sugar and bioethanol has the probability that over time capital is worth more than if it had been deposited in the bank (capital opportunity cost) compared with a single-purpose project (sugar or bioethanol production alone). The Bellman equation, Brownian motion and Ito's lemma are used in the determination of critical values and the Black-Scholes and Merton equations for the real options estimation. The analysis of the results shows that a multipurpose project (1.95) is preferable to a project single-purpose (sugar: 2.19; bioethanol: 1.99) in unstable price scenarios because the critical value is lowest. When confronting the real option of producing sugar to bioethanol or vice versa, the real option value of the project increases by $6 million dollars. It is concluded that a bio-refinery that uses first-generation raw material such as sugarcane must be flexible to change the amounts of its production, whether sugar to bioethanol or vice versa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study sought to determine how large Brazilian organizations treat long-term investments. The theoretical construct took into account literature from the fields of strategy and finance, both of which offer hypotheses that use methods and mechanisms in order to evaluate investments. Using an online questionnaire, a survey including 82 companies was developed. Utilizing structural equation modeling, partial adherence to the theoretical model was found. It was found that the mechanisms of investment analysis are positively associated with concern about the perceived risk analysis. In addition, it was discovered that projects approved through strategic planning have relatively more structured monitoring; and also that a greater need for defining funding and opportunity costs is positively associated with a project's inclusion in strategic planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Estudios Demográficos y Urbanos is the property of El Colegio de Mexico AC and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Most of the benefits of transportation infrastructure projects accrue in the form of time savings for users. In many cases, more than the half of the social benefits of investments in highways, streets or airports is attributable to time savings. This document presents estimations of the social value of time in Mexico. Utilizing the only available data from the INEGI for hours worked and remunerations paid in the manufacturing sector, we estimate the social value of the time for 2006 to be 60.65 pesos an hour for general users of the Mexico City International Airport and of 110.54 an hour for its passengers. This estimate is consistent with other estimates using different methods proposed by two authorities. The estimates are also consistent with calculations carried out by the ILPES in Peru and by authors in North America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The creation of a hydrological environmental services market implies to have information about the hydric supply and demand in a watershed. With the purpose to contribute on the last aspect, this study estimated the hydric demand in Tapalpa watershed in Jalisco, Mexico. Additionally, the water use value that was estimated by using the willingness to pay (WTP) technique and also by the opportunity cost analysis on the forest land use for water "production" is presented. The watershed has an area of 21 000 ha and half of it is forested. The demand analysis indicated that the hydric resource (HR) used is about 23 171 885 m³/year. 93% of this total is used in the agricultural sector, mainly for vegetable production (50%) and basic crops (23%). When compared to other sectors, the calculated willingness to pay (WTP) value for the HR is higher in the service sector (76,7% of the interviewers said to be well disposed). However, the biggest contribution to the total WTP was given by the domestic sector (46,5%) with $3 064 301 Mexican pesos/year. Additionally, a direct relationship between study level and WTP for HR was determined. Age showed an inverse relationship with WTP. The estimated total WTP value resulted to be smaller than the estimated opportunity cost to conserve forest in the watershed, giving an annual deficit of $27 201 313 Mexican pesos. The total WTP represents only 10% of the opportunity cost. In addition, if the associate costs for recovering forest areas currently in other use (areas in conflict) were added, the annual deficit would increase to $45 130 988 Mexican pesos and the WTP would be reduced to 6% of the total opportunity cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Library Science professional context of modern cataloging and studying MARC21 in the international framework on one hand, and the history of formats in Argentina on the other hand, it is suggested a methodology based on the opportunity cost theory, from the economic field, as an element to be considered for decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study describes the recovery by insurance companies, from the Ministry of Social Protection's Fondo de Solidaridad y Garantía, of expenses for medications not covered by benefits packages or from interventions mandated through court rulings. Estimates of frequency, total value and per capita values of claims by insurer, diagnostic group, medication, and intervention were obtained from claims auditing data available at the Ministry for the year 2002 and part of the year 2003. The opportunity costs of these claims in terms of the number of persons that could be enrolled in current insurance schemes were also calculated. The study finds that claims have been increasing in frequency and value, are concentrated in a few insurers, are related to new technologies for diagnostic groups that are not prevalent in the general population, and that their opportunity costs are not negligible. The results could be explained by changes in the epidemiologic profile of the population, clinical practice patterns, administrative skills of insurers, or incentives to obtain rents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]