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Informal work, labor that is otherwise legal but is not protected by the standard labor laws and social insurance programs that cover other work, is widespread in the United States, and informalization, which means shifting of employment toward informality, even more so. Recent estimates of participation in "off the books" work run as high as 36% of the adult population, and two-thirds of a sample of low-wage workers had experienced employment law violations in the previous week. Informal employment over-represents transnational migrants. Actions by multiple actors contribute to informal employment. U. S. employers engage in informalization via the "fissuring" of jobs, splitting them into less protected statuses. The country's national, regional, and local states help shape the degree of informalization by their implementation (or not) of employment law, policies on migration, and other actions. Vulnerable groups of workers pursue informal employment or self-employment as a survival strategy, whereas better-off workers self-employ to gain autonomy, flexibility, or fulfillment. Collective, organizing responses by groups of workers, primarily through civil society organizations known as "worker centers", have been growing. This article offers a comprehensive review and a conceptual discussion of what we know about informal work in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quality nominalisations (utilidad 'usefulness'), related to adjectives of individual level (X es útil 'X is useful'), and state nominalisations (agitación 'agitation'), associated with adjectives of episodic level (X está agitado 'X is agitated'), can be paraphrased by a noun accompanied by the corresponding adjective (de carácter útil 'of a useful character', situación agitada 'agitated situation'). Ambiguous nominalisations (dificultad 'difficulty') between a sense of quality (la dificultad de X 'X's difficulty' 'cualidad de difícil' 'quality of difficult') and one of state (X está en dificultades 'X is in difficulties' 'en un period difícil' 'in a difficult period') also allow such a paraphrase (naturaleza difícil 'difficult nature', circunstancias difíciles 'difficult circumstances'). In this study I will argue that the nouns co-occurring with adjectives in these contexts are light predicates, insofar as they function as the syntactic head of the phrase, but not as its semantic head. Furthermore, I will show that these nouns can be classified into two types, individual-level and episodic-level light nouns, and that they combine with adjectives of the same aspectual type, sometimes serving as disambiguators of those adjectives. In particular, I will focus on individual-level light nouns, which I will describe, contrasting them first with light verbs, and then with episodic-level light nouns. In order to carry out this task, carácter 'character', naturaleza 'nature' and índole 'disposition' have been selected as representative of the class of individual-level light nouns, and their behaviour will be analysed on the basis of examples taken from CORPES XXI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Human Review is the property of Eagora Science and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The study of states has traditionally suffered from a problem: until recently we lacked tests adequate enough to identify states, since most of these tests were tests that states failed, so this aspectual class could only be defined negatively. With the purpose of offering a useful tool to interested researchers, this article compiles more than twenty diagnoses on states. Along with the more classic (negative) diagnoses (developed in the traditions of Vendler-Dowty and Davidson), a good number of more recent diagnoses are included that already allow to positively characterize states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad is the property of Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Politicas y Sociales is the property of Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Politicas y Sociales and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Uno de los objetivos del gobierno abierto es la lucha contra la corrupción mediante la divulgación de información pública que facilita la supervisión de los gobernantes. Sin embargo, en este proceso de transparencia activa, son demasiadas las ocasiones en que se descuida la dimensión tecnológica y se abusa del empleo de ficheros y documentos no editables pdf que dificultan su reutilización. Por ello, este estudio pretende, en clave estatal mexicana, valorar los datos que sean doblemente abiertos, tanto por estar relacionados con la transparencia activa, como por el empleo de licencias abiertas, formatos interoperables y metadatos asociados, que permitirán elevar al cuadrado la rendición de cuentas. Con esta finalidad, se analiza el portal federal y, tras observar que más de la mitad de los estados mexicanos tienen una reducida presencia, decidimos visitar también los repositorios regionales propios, constatando que tan solo Ciudad de México, Jalisco, Estado de México, Puebla, Quintana Roo y Tamaulipas disponen de esta iniciativa. Los resultados muestran, tras la re visión de más de 2 000 datasets, que, si bien existe alguna información presupuestaria, de contratación, y de los servidores públicos, el movimiento es incipiente, y que los líderes estatales son Hidalgo, Jalisco y Puebla. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, water, as an essential component that allows the sustainability of life, acquired a relevant treatment in the political affairs of different human groups. The importance of water resources for societies is based on the multiplicity of fundamental aspects for life that motivate their approach in the public sphere. However, it should be noted that the way in which issues related to water resources have been approached from the public perspective has varied over time. In fact, the history of water is closely linked with the political, economic, social and cultural trajectory of the different societies and these processes obtained a direct correlation with the theoretical production in the International Relations discipline for the treatment of this issue. For this reason, through the article, the main conceptual contributions and theoretical debates that have arisen around water resources from the discipline of International Relations are systematized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The covid 19 pandemic has been a critical episode in the secular transformation of the world order built three decades ago. The pandemic has produced a global emergency condition that has required the energetic intervention of the States in the world, accelerating strategic decisions that affect the role of the State in the world and national economy. This role of the States reinforces the demand for a new world order. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to answer the question in which territories were the opposition political parties able to contain the force of Morena in the 2021 election? It is based on the assumption that although it is undeniable that the party founded by President Andrés Manuel López Obrador is emerging as one of the most successful organizations in terms of electoral performance, the current conditions of plurality and political fragmentation prevent the implementation of a hegemonic party system and therefore it is necessary to identify those territories in which, in the midst of the broad support for Morena, the opposition has been able to resist and lay the foundations from which it will have to compete in the 2024 process for the Presidency of the Republic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Pensamiento Jurídico is the property of Universidad Nacional de Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Carta Económica Regional is the property of Universidad de Guadalajara and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this article, the formulation for the estimation of state variables in closed loop and open loop in a control system was initially presented; Next, the advantages and disadvantages that could arise when implementing either of the two models were shown and explained. Finally, as an application, the case of a hydraulic system was studied with which it is concluded on the importance of estimating the state variables of a system that it is desired to control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Revista de Ciencias Sociales (13159518) is the property of Revista de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad del Zulia Venezuela and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The United States of America (USA) and the United Mexican States (Mexico), for a long period maintain a close relationship in trade, so that since 1994 they have been reducing and eliminating tariffs with their Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) that includes to the countries of Canada, USA and Mexico. NAFTA since the coming to power of Donald Trump was put under review and was ratified by Mexico in 2019, in the US and Canada in 2020, now with its acronym T-MEC (Mexico, United States, Canada Treaty). Mexico is an important and strategic trading partner for the USA and vice versa, the USA being the number one economy in the world and Mexico located among the fifteen largest on the planet. The dynamics of the economy of both countries maintains them with a growth rate in exports and imports. Likewise, the increase in trade contributes so that the US Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Mexico has a high participation in the states that make up the country. The objective of this research is to analyze USA trade and the distribution of FDI in Mexico during the years 2000 to 2018. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of CIRCULO de Linguistica Aplicada a la Comunicacion is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Geopolitica(s): Revista de Estudios Sobre Espacio y Poder is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

During the last years, migration has come into the political scene as a challenge in integration, displacement, safe migration and borders management issues. A safer and better regulated migration is a real priority at global scale. This was observed, for example, at the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants in 2016, showing the aim of States of elaborating a new global pact on migration. A year after the polemic conference of Marrakesh, which is the state of play?. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this paper is to address a theoretical reflection, empirically based, on the state of the strategic infrastructural capabilities of the Latin-American States in the XXI century. The specific problem to which this reflection is directed is the relative lag of those capacities for the mobilization or development of social and economic resources. Three basic aspects stand out: the capacity for governance, the capacity for innovation and the capacity to generate social capital. In these three categories, decisive in the modern world, the Latin American States share common characteristics that differentiate them from other regions of the world. Without delving into a definitive typology, the text suggests that the answers to the question of strategic lag require renewing the theoretical and methodological approaches, and advocates an interdisciplinary analytical strategy of political development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The second generation of fiscal federalism (sgff) models caution that fiscal dependence can make local governments lazy in the collection of their own revenue, in addition to the promotion of corruption and lower levels of accountability (Oates, 2005). This work tests the hypothesis of the tradeoff between greater fiscal interdependence and the accountability/transparency of subnational governments in Mexico (Gamkhar y Shah, 2007). Methodology: We estimate a panel vector autorregression (varp), which allows us to examine the dynamic interrelation of fiscal variables and accountability/transparency during the period 2003-2013. Results: There is evidence of causality between federal transfers and fiscal effort and accountability/transparency depending on the level of local development. Conclusions: The results provide evidence that suggests that greater federal transfers are associated with lower fiscal effort and lower transparency, but they are somehow related to greater financial accountability. Similarly, greater levels of economic development reveal positive dynamic effects of fiscal effort towards accountability and transparency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In this article, I ask how to interpret the border regime of South America. I reflect on the possible relation between international migration, states and borders in the field of migration studies in order to build analytically situated categories. In order to do so, I use a qualitative methodology based on a set of documents such as final declarations and technical reports of the South American Conference on Migration (sacm), and resolutions of the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) and the Andean Community (can). In order to interpret the border regime, I construct three categories: (i) the border externalization, associated with the regionalization process of migration control policies in South America, (ii) the crossing from one national territory to another, linked to the control at the border points, and (iii) the borders of permanence, associated with the state mechanisms that stipulate the ways of residence. South America, through its regional organizations, constitutes a sub-region of the global border regime, which favors and stimulates organized, planned and integrated migration control policies. At "the borders", such controls identify migrants belonging to a member state of the can, the Mercosur, or an out-of-region migrant. Thereby, the subjects are subordinated under the political stratum of the state to which they belong. The states set a differential mode to enter and stay in a territory according to the national origin of the subjects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Law, like society, has suffered an evolutionary phenomenon trying to cover in each of its manifestations, the diverse and new forms of behaviors or actions that arise from human, political, social, environmental and state relationships, among others; commerce and economy are not indifferent to these new regulations, because, in addition to being one of the oldest activities of humanity that displays its exercise beyond the territorial borders of a State, it generates undoubted direct economic benefits to each State. That said, it is necessary to accept that a large part of a country's healthy economy requires the exchange of goods and services to meet primary needs, and, secondly, states and their citizens require that these commercial exchanges expand beyond its territory to obtain goods that are not within the reach of national productions, or to acquire raw materials that result in finished products. It is then that this article will attempt to outline the most forceful changes that the phenomenon of Globalization has generated with special emphasis on the international commercial law. In order to do so, a study of the main doctrinal positions will be expressed so as to outline two fundamental elements in this area: harmonization and unification; these methods have contributed to a global commerce law for providing a process that has recently begun or, at least, whose accent and speed have become magnificent in recent times, thanks to fundamental factors, such as new technologies and computer components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background: This exercise examines the expectations related to NAFTA in regard to trade and foreign investment for Mexico. The literature of the 90's also considered its effects on high tech. Method: We take 46 activities grouping industries in 15 subsectors (3 digits) and 31 branches (4 digits) accounting for total industrial GNP in 2014. We estimate the importance of value added and exports in association to the taxonomy of Pavitt (1984) to distinguish four types of technology industries. Using cluster analysis, two groups of states are identified in terms of importance of technology intensive industries. Results: There are two types of Mexican states in the role of technology intensive activities, which in term is related to the capacity to export. The 11 states of better performance are more diversified in their industrial structure. On the whole, the impact of NAFTA on innovation has been very limited. Conclusions: There is a limited effect of NAFTA on the development of technological capabilities for Mexico. There is a lag on R&D investment and GNP is more inclined to mature manufactures along the period. Nevertheless, the group of states in the northern border, central Mexico and a few in Bajio show a better performance in both the economic and exports numbers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Foro Internacional is the property of El Colegio de Mexico AC and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This piece of work analyses to what extent the Individual/Stage-Level distinction relates to the Spanish copular alternation (ser/estar), which is one of the greatest unknowns in the field. It is observed that the modern trend of rejecting the relation between the two phenomena (ser-Individual/estar-Stage) is due to the lack of a definitive understanding of the Individual/Stage distinction, which has commonly been assumed as a blurred contrast between «permanent» and «temporary» qualities. The study shows that no alternative criterion can account for the ser/estar alternation, while a new understanding of the Individual/Stage-Level dichotomy as an aspectual distinction between «property» and «eventive» predicates perfectly fits with the distribution of the two copulas. According to this view, the alternation between ser and estar can be assumed as a manifestation of the Individual/Stage distinction in the domain of non-verbal predication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After a brief review of contemporary Mexican policy on science and technology we locate innovation experiences of firms in the context of innovation systems and market failures. Given the purpose of competitiveness as related to local innovation policy, the focus must be to solve the market failures inhibiting the firms' willingness to assume innovation risks and uncertainty. Most of all the failure of higher rates of profitability for non-tradeables, which are discriminating against tradeables in higher competition and more uncertain outcomes. For the most part there is also a lack of continuity in the participation of firms in the programs of subsidies for innovation projects. In conclusion we argue for a highly differentiated policy according to sectors and states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Anuario de la Sociedad Argentina de Historia de la Educación is the property of Argentinean Society of History of Education and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Background: This exercise has estimated economic competitiveness for the 32 federal states of Mexico for 2013. The exercise was made in previous article with 2003 and 2008 data. Method: We take 81 activities that represent more than 96% of total GNP in 2013 and we calculated competitiveness based on two dimensions: labor productivity and wages. With a cluster analysis it is possible to group two types of Mexican states: the competitive states and non competitive states. Results: There are two types of Mexican states. The 13 competitive states are more diversified and show higher levels of both productivity and wages. They are also better integrated to the international economy, and comprise mostly industrial mature states such as Nuevo León, Central Mexico (Ciudad de México, Querétaro, Estado de México), Jalisco and other Border states. More recently also Guanajuato and San Luis Potosí in central Mexico. For the other 19 states, the lack of productivity is compensated through lower salaries. These include Southern and Southeastern states, and most in the lower Pacific coast. Conclusions: These conditions have remained the same over the recent years. In short, we can not expect convergence merely by the effect of time, in despite that two states of the Bajio region reached now the competitive group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The latin american scene has been transformed in the last few years since the new regional integration process. UNASUR was formed as a block whose most outstanding characteristic was given by the leadership that made it up and the institution level it reached. The movilization that developed into the rejection of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (ALCA) in 2005 made a decisive impact in the new union proposals for the states that were going to be presented later on. This new period of regionalism opens up the possibility of thinking about new horizons which go beyond that of a stricly commercial exchange. Over the years, the Nation States had important leadership in this process. In their studies, regional and international stages have played a specific rol since they build and frame them, as well as conditioning and enabling them, in a conflict tension. In this paper the UNASUR experience is recovered to analyze some constitutive elements that gave this block dynamics. We look forward to opening the question about the roles that the multiple actors have had in this process, loaded, at first sight, by certain institutionality typical in 21st century Latin American democracies, that encloses a complexity that invites interrogation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the lack of an explicit transparency obligation in terms of disclosing the amount of subnational public debt and limiting it in relevant legislation, which effectively allow subnational debt to balloon. To analyze this matter, we estimate two econometric models that combine panel data and time series to determine the impact of transparency requirements and regulatory constraints on the behavior of state debt. It was found that on average, debt tended to be 28% higher in states where it was not mandatory to disclose debt levels; likewise, it was observed that on average, debt was 43% lower in states with explicit debt limits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Since the International Criminal Court (ICC) has no proper tools to implement its resolutions, the cooperation of States is required. This article examines how states are meeting their duties of cooperation with the ICC. Method: I review the Rome Statute in order to select the most relevant duties of cooperation, then examine the performance of States to comply. Results: Overall, I found that there is a low level of cooperation with the ICC in America, as many obligations have not been met. Conclusions: The results show that: 1) States where international crimes has been committed in the past tend to cooperate as a prevention policy; and 2) the refusal of the United States toward the ICC leads to a breach of duty of cooperation from other States. However, it can be expected that the level of cooperation with the ICC increases in the coming years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The text proposes a minimum theoretical approach to address the phenomenon of globalization from the perspective of a world-system analysis. First it is necessary to clearly distinguished between the concepts of "globalization" and "globalization process". The former refers to a specific chronological period in global history, while the latter points out an evolutionary process in the development of the economy, politics and contemporary international society. Based on this hypothesis, players and sub-systems can be researched more properly in regard to the analysis of global system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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We estimate the degree of comovement and cyclical synchronization of formal employment across Mexican states. As a measure of formal employment we use the number of workers with permanent contracts registered at the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) in each state between July 1997 and December 2011. We find that Mexican states are highly heterogeneous with respect to the degree of association between the fluctuations of state and national employment levels. Fluctuations in state employment are highly cross-correlated only among 12 of the 32 states, and the sources of these fluctuations seem to be the shocks to na-tional employment. Cyclical synchronization across states' employment levels and between state and national employment levels is high among these states, although only in four of them the number of contractions estimated equaled that of national employment; these 12 states are located in the northern border with the United States, in the western-central and the central regions of the country. On the contrary, in states where the degree of co-movement between state and national employment is low --as it is the case in northwest-central, southern, and east-southern states, the source of state employment fluctuations seems to be mainly associated with regional or state factors--. Among this latter group of states employment does not exhibit cycles of the classical type, or if they do exhibit such cycles the degree of cyclical synchronization with national employment is very low. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]