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Objective: To analyze decision-making concerning stewardship and procurement mechanisms in the context of the Program for Prevention and Control of Human Rabies and the National Canine and Feline Vaccination Week in Mexico., Materials and Methods: The information was obtained through requests to the National Institute of Transparency, Access to Information and Protection of Personal Data., Results: From 2009 to 2017, 158.9 million doses of canine rabies vaccine (VAR-CF) were applied with an estimated budget of 1 915 million pesos. Our findings suggest weak stewardship and ineffective governance that allows monopolistic practices and fragmented and direct purchases. Prices for the same product vary discretionally between states and are significantly higher than those offered at international level., Conclusions: After 30 years of operation of the SNVA-C in Mexico, high prices of the VAR-CF persist, which are indicative of a significant market failure, characterized by zero competition, asymmetric information and misaligned incentive structures that precluded favorable price negotiation., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflict of interests. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

Objective: To identify the risk of brucellosis in the state of Tlaxcala, Mexico., Materials and Methods: A diagnosis of social type was conducted in the municipalities of Huamantla, Ixtenco and Teacalco, located in the eastern region of the state. The seroprevalence of brucellosis in goats and humans was determined., Results: 46.9% of producers know the programs of vaccination against brucellosis; 19.7% apply the vaccine and 80.3% do not apply the vaccine. Huamantla had the highest seroprevalence of animal brucellosis in 66.8%; San Jose Teacalco distributes unpasteurized cheeses to a distance of 270 km, increasing the risk of infection with brucellosis. Ixtenco recorded the highest prevalence of brucellosis in humans, with 1.51%., Conclusion: The municipalities studied present risks of infection and spread of brucellosis.

A specific real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCRrt) for the detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus was validated using the LightCycler thermocycler 2.0 and its reagents as recommended by the World Organization for Animal Health and was assessed for the detection of the virus in acute infection of cattle experimentally vaccinated and challenged with virus A Argentina/2001 or A24 Cruzeiro. The technique proved to be robust, showing coefficients of variation lower than 4% for different ARN extractions, days or repetitions and was able to detect up to 0,4 TCID 50%, and/or up to 100 RNA molecules. In probang samples, diagnostic sensitivity was 93.1 (95% CI 86.5-96.6) and diagnostic specificity 100 (95% CI 96.3-100). The results of the challenge in vaccinated or multivaccinated bovines showed that although there were high levels of clinical protection in the vaccinated group, FMDV could be detected in all challenged groups. However, detection was 100 times lower in immunized animals., (Copyright © 2014 Asociación Argentina de Microbiología. Publicado por Elsevier España. All rights reserved.)

Leptospirosis is an infectious disease resulting in significant economic losses in livestock production. This disease causes abortion, embryo death, death of calves within the first few days of life and mastitis. We report a leptospirosis outbreak in calf growing and fattening. Histopathological and hemoparasite studies, immunofluorescence, and bacterial cultures were performed. A strain of Leptospira interrogans serovar Pomona was isolated from samples collected from dead calves.

The aim of this study was to evaluate an indirect specific ELISA developed for the detection of humoral immune response in vaccinated sheep and/or challenged with a Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis strain. Healthy 4 month-old lambs were distributed into 4 groups: Group 1 immunized (G1, n = 5), Group 2 vaccinated/inoculated (G2, n = 8), Group 3 inoculated (G3, n = 2) and Group 4 control (G4, n = 2). Groups G1 and G2 received two doses of an experimental bacterin. Four weeks postvaccination, G2 and G3 groups were challenged with a C. pseudotuberculosis strain. Serological titers were studied by ELISA for 7 months and pathological studies were performed in groups G2, G3 and G4 by taking lung and lymph node samples for bacteriology and histopathology. The inoculated strain in G2 and G3 animals reproduced the macroscopic and microscopic lesions typical of caseous lymphadenitis (CL) and was isolated from the inoculation site, lymph nodes and/or lung in 7/8 animals from G2, and 2/2 animals of G3. The developed ELISA test had sensitivity and specificity of 98% and 100% respectively, detected significant differences between serological reactors of different experimental groups and allowed to establish a relationship with the type of treatment. We conclude that the developed ELISA may be a useful tool to identify infected animals with positive clinical CL.

Objective: An epidemiological-ecological study was carried out on canine rabies in Colombia to describe its tendency and explore the factors associated with its incidence., Methods: Socio-economic variable data was collected by questionnaire applied to the rabies control programme's regional epidemiology coordinators in each Colombian department. Statistical association analysis was carried out on the 2001-2006 historical epidemiologic data on canine rabies incidence and sources of official national survey figures. Incidence rate ratios and Spearman correlation tests were calculated., Results: Canine rabies incidence rate was 0.4 cases x 100,000 dogs/year (without adjustment for 2001-2006). Average immunisation coverage from 1994 to 2005 was 45 % to 63 %; only 25 % of Colombian departments had higher than 60 % immunisation coverage. The following variables were associated with the presence of canine rabies: an urban population, immunisation coverage, a lack of a cold chain for vaccines, a lack of participation in surveillance committees, the lack of an epidemiological map, the unavailability of a rabies' diagnosis laboratory, the absence of trained human resources, the absence of a zoonosis centre for observing dogs, comparative analysis between monthly and semester basis data and the percentage of people displaced by internal violence., Conclusions: The analysis suggested the need for active surveillance and rapid response. Canine rabies is associated with the weaknesses of regional control programmes. Internal human migration could influence human-dog-selvatic reservoir ratios and rabies frequency.

Research by a number of international organisations indicates that world demand for red meat protein is set to increase significantly in the coming years. However, faced with the risk of infectious animal diseases and zoonoses--factors that could limit the growth of this production sector--the fight against livestock diseases must continue, especially against those that affect food safety or pose a threat to human life. The use of vaccination to prevent infectious animal diseases is of key importance, not only because it helps to control and effectively eradicate infectious livestock diseases, but also because it makes it possible to introduce new technologies for intensive or semi-intensive production, to protect the environment, to care for animal welfare and to guarantee the safety of animal-derived foodstuffs. As part of their professional culture, livestock producers have come to fully appreciate the advantages of using vaccination to prevent disease rather than curative measures, which are more costly to implement and in some cases not very effective. The control of anthrax and rabies by means of effective vaccines was a factor in the widespread development of livestock in Argentina and other parts of Latin America. Recent results in the control and eradication of foot and mouth disease have made producers even more convinced of the merits of this technology. Animal disease prevention has proven to be highly conducive to the production of healthy foodstuffs. It is the responsibility of international organisations to draw up appropriate regulations to protect trade, supply safe and healthy products and prevent the application of unjustified non-tariff measures.

Neospora caninum causes abortions in cattle worldwide. The Neospora-cycle of life is heteroxenous. Dogs (Canis familiaris) and coyotes (Canis latrans) are the definitive hosts known at present. Although, transplacental infection is an efficiently mode of transmission in cattle; there are also experimental and field data that prove horizontal transmission. Several techniques are available for diagnosis since neosporosis is recognized as a disease that causes economic losses in cattle. The mechanisms that produce the abortion are not completely understood. The immunomodulation observed during the pregnancy, is associated with a susceptible period where Neospora-abortion can occur. Resistance to the parasite is dependent on T helper cell 1 cytokine responses. This has important repercussions for pregnant female bovine because strong T helper cell 1 cytokine responses are incompatible with successful pregnancy. However, it was demonstrated that chronically infected cows develop immune mechanisms against the abortion caused by a second Neospora-exposure. The comprehension of those mechanisms is needed for the formulation of Neospora-vaccines that prevent bovine neosporosis. General concepts about neosporosis with emphasis in the immune response and perspectives for vaccination are mentioned in the present review.

This article presents some of the problems that arose when preparing the Spanish translation of the Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). It contains a list of the language and translation problems encountered and the solutions that were found, some of which are only provisional. The problems are in part due to the lack of a multi-lingual terminological database approved by the OIE. The need for such a database, as well as for the harmonisation of veterinary terminology by the OIE Steering Committee and the Ad hoc Group on language policy, is discussed.

The diagnosis of bovine brucellosis using PCR in blood and milk samples from two dairy herds were compared to in vitro isolation, complement fixation test (CF), competitive ELISA (C-ELISA) in serum, and indirect ELISA (I-ELISA) in milk. Samples were obtained from 99 cows vaccinated with Brucella abortus strain 19, from a naturally infected herd (A), whose cows were also vaccinated with B. abortus strain RB51 as adults, and 100 from brucellosis free herd (B). In herd A, PCR identified 14 B. abortus infected cows: nine infected with wild type, and five with wild type and RB51, B. abortus S 19 was not identified. B. abortus biotype 1 was isolated from one cow. All cows infected with a wild strain of B. abortus were positive in serologic tests. Brucella was not found in herd B using PCR. Serological test showed 100% sensitivity related to PCR. The specificity for CF, C-ELISA and I-ELISA was 100%, 99% and 95% respectively. PCR could be useful to identify Brucella biotypes and to complement serologic tests.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) was first recognised in South America in 1870, almost simultaneously in the province of Buenos Aires (Argentina), in the central region of Chile, in Uruguay, in southern Brazil and coincidentally, on the northeastern coast of the United States of America. The epidemiology of the disease was unknown and no government action was taken following the initial outbreaks. This resulted in the disease spreading to other areas of Chile, as well as to Peru, Bolivia and Paraguay, reaching Venezuela and Colombia in the 1950s, and Ecuador in 1961. The entire continent was affected in the 1960s when national FMD control programmes were initiated, with the exception of Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana and Patagonia. In the 1970s, steps were taken to implement a regional control and eradication strategy in view of the impact of production and trade on the persistence of the virus. The Plan Hemisférico de Erradicación de la Fiebre Aftosa (PHEFA: Hemispheric FMD Eradication Plan), public- and private-sector policies, new diagnostic tools, the oil-adjuvanted FMD vaccine and regional strategies played a part in improving the epidemiological situation during the 1990s. A setback was encountered in 2000 and 2001, with outbreaks due to virus types A and 0 recorded in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil.

The damage caused in the economy and animal sanity by the porcine colibacilosis are significant and they deserve the investigation of preventive measures that give answers to the producers. Existing at the present time approximately 21,000 pigs in Corrientes and 110,000 in Chaco provinces of Argentine, the losses for diarrhea that exterminate whole litters, acquire relevance, specially if they can be prevented or cured. For that reason, having 21 strains of enteropathogenic and verocitotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC/VTEC) isolated from pigs of the North East of Argentine, that were recognized by PCR, two were selected, containing the genes for STIa, STIb, LTI, VT2e (SLT-IIv) and F4 (K88). They were spread on nutrient agar and Minca medium, to obtain the suspension in PBS, which was inactivated with formol. After the sterility and innocuity controls, it was diluted to a 12 x 10(8) concentration to make the mouse protection test in 20 mice, of 18-20 g, inoculating the vaccine the days 1, 4, 7 and 10, by the intraperitoneal route, doses of 0.25 ml each one. The day 21 after beginning the test the animals were challenged with 50 LD50, and a protection of 85% was obtained. To determine the LD50, we prepared a suspension in physiologic solution, corresponding to Mac Farland's tube No 10, making dilutions from 10(-1) to 10(-5) and applying the statistical method of Reed and Muench. These first results encourage us to continue working after a prophylactic measure that were effective, potent and elaborated with strains of this area.

Two groups of 6 laying hens were used to produce IgY. In the vaccinated group (V), hens were injected by intramuscular route with two doses of a Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis bacterin at 20-day interval. In the control group (T) hens remained unvaccinated. Four IgY extractions were performed on the egg production of both groups. The first two extractions were carried out using the yolks obtained from the eggs produced during the 4th and 5th post-vaccination week (extracts 1V and 1T) and the other two using the ones from the 6th, 7th and 8th week (2V and 2T). Starting from the extracts 1V and 1T other products were obtained by freezing-thawing (1V-A and 1T-A) and simple (1V-B and 1T-B) or double (1V-C and 1T-C) flow capillary dialysis concentration. All these products were compared using an ELISA test specific for the detection of chicken antibodies against flagellar antigens of S. Enteritidis. In this test, V extracts were positive whereas T extracts were negative. The extract 1V was more positive than the extract 2V. The extract 1V-C was the most positive and was therefore selected to be used as an antiserum in the agglutination tests. This extract contained 1.9 g/dl of total proteins, 0.028 g/dl of triglycerides and 0.012 g/dl of cholesterol and showed an electrophoretic pattern characteristic of IgY. The 1T-C extract was used as a negative control in the agglutination tests. Slide somatic and tube flagellar agglutination tests were simultaneously carried out using both IgY extracts and a standard rabbit anti-Salmonella (IgG) sera. Overall 367 strains from the Enterobacteriaceae family were tested together with two other strains belonging to the Vibrionaceae family. The 1V-C extract specifically agglutinated S. Enteritidis strains in the same way as the rabbit sera. This extract also agglutinated other Salmonella strains antigenically related to S. Enteritidis. Salmonella which did not share somatic or flagellar antigens with S. Enteritidis, other different species of the Enterobacteriaceae family and the two strains of the Vibrionaceae family were all negative. None of the strains tested was agglutinated by the 1T-C extract. This paper show that it is possible to use specific IgY to identify S. enterica serovars. The more extended use of IgY for diagnostic purposes may be a convenient way to complement the current use of mammal polyclonal antibodies.

The initial draft of this document was prepared in June 1993 by the Ad hoc Group on Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia Surveillance Systems of the Office International des Epizooties. That draft was then amended in February 1997 by the Group of experts convened at the request of the International Committee to examine issues relating to the surveillance of the disease, with particular reference to the effects of vaccination programmes on surveillance systems. This updated report includes the following: epidemiological and other factors which influence the choice of surveillance systems. Sampling and surveillance strategies. Diagnostic methods applicable to surveillance systems. The repercussions of vaccination on surveillance systems.

The various activities undertaken by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) since 1924 to protect the helth of free-ranging mammals are outlined and discussed. Two types of activity have been conducted over the years: --The first type promotes measures to protect the health of free-ranging mammals in order to safeguard the health of domestic animals and human beings. These measures have prevented the propagation of the highly contagious diseases of animals and the more serious zoonoses. --The second type aims at protecting the health of free-ranging mammals in order to maintain the fauna and the natural equilibrium. Ecological and epidemiological studies are promoted with a view to effective management of wildlife populations and overcoming the associated health risks. By virtue of its close contacts with officials in charge of animal health in 126 Member Countries, the OIE has made a noteworthy contribution to the protection of populations of free-ranging mammals.

The possible influence of vaccination with oil adjuvanted foot and mouth disease vaccines on the tuberculin response was investigated in 32 normal guinea pigs and 190 non-tuberculous bovines. Circulating anti-Mycobacterium bovis IgG antibodies were analysed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), in order to determine the effect of the vaccination on the humoral response against mycobacteria in cattle. Control animals were either nonvaccinated or injected with aluminium hydroxide adjuvanted vaccine. Administration of foot and mouth disease vaccine had no apparent influence on the tuberculin responses of either guinea pigs or cattle, nor did it influence the level of anti-M. bovis antibodies in cattle.

Results are presented for the large-scale use of a tissue vaccine, inactivated with beta-propiolactone and containing aluminium hydroxide adjuvant, against viral haemorrhagic disease of rabbits. The kinetics of haemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies over eighteen months, the response of vaccinated animals to challenge infection with field virus between six and fifteen months after vaccination, the serological response to revaccination, and the immunological mechanisms involved in primary vaccination and revaccination were investigated.

Foot and Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) is one of the most feared animal virus and vaccination still has to be used in many countries. In previous reports, using a murine model, we studied the cellular basis of immune responses against FMDV and were able to show that they are atypical. In cattle, although complete protection may be attained after only one dose of killed virus vaccine, very little is known about protection against FMDV, except for antibody responses, but practically nothing concerning the cellular basis of their immune response. Moreover, since neutralizing titers do not always correlate with protection, the potency of vaccines in controlled by viral challenge. Our aim is to study cellular immune responses against FMDV, and to search for a correlate to protection. As a first step, 55 virgin cattle from a non endemic area (Patagonia) were divided into three groups: C: non immunized controls; HS: immunized with saponine containing vaccine; and EO: with oil emulsified vaccine. After vaccination, they were carried to an endemic area (Buenos Aires), where they were challenged with live FMDV. Animals were bled immediately before and 7 days after challenge, and their white blood cells and lymphocyte subpopulations were counted. All animals showed a marked neutropenia and eosinophilia, significantly higher in HS than in EO and C groups; both parameters were significantly better in the 2nd assay. Total lymphocyte counts were normal. Lymphocyte subpopulations were assessed by immunofluorescence using monoclonal antibodies: their proportions were normal and did not change during illness in group C. Several factors could have induced the observed eosinophilia and neutropenia: parasites, stress, saponine, others.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)