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OBJETIVO: Evaluar los niveles de plomo en sangre de niños morelenses y sus factores de exposición. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estudio transversal para analizar, por voltametría anódica, los niveles de plomo en sangre de 232 niños de 1 a 12 años de edad, que acudieron de junio a octubre de 1996 al Hospital del Niño Morelense de Cuernavaca, Morelos, México. Los factores de exposición se indagaron por cuestionario. El valor de concentración de plomo se transformó al logaritmo natural; se estimó la razón de momios para algunos factores de exposición que se incorporaron a un modelo de ANOVA. RESULTADOS: Se reclutaron 232 niños (50% mujeres); 73% residentes en Cuernavaca. La media geométrica de plomo en sangre fue 6.7 µg/dl; 29.7% rebasaron los 10 µg/dl; 66% tenían antecedente de cocinar alimentos en barro vidriado; 36% de almacenar alimentos, y 19%, consumo de líquidos en ese material. CONCLUSIONES: Los niveles encontrados son similares a los reportados en otras poblaciones pediátricas mexicanas en los últimos años. Entre los principales factores de exposición destacan el uso de barro vidriado para consumo de alimentos o líquidos y la intensidad del tráfico donde viven. Este es el primer estudio que documenta los niveles de plomo en sangre en población infantil de Morelos, México, y sus resultados son punto de partida para acciones futuras de control y prevención.

Objetivo. Evaluar las diferencias en los niveles de ozono (O3) y bióxido de nitrógeno (NO2) en el interior y el exterior de una escuela en el suroeste de la Ciudad de México. Material y métodos. Se midieron diariamente estos contaminantes dentro y fuera del salón, de enero a abril de 1990, mediante monitoreo manual. Resultados. El NO2 adentro y afuera no sobrepasó la norma mexicana (0.21 ppm). El coeficiente de correlación entre las concentraciones máximas de NO2 de la estación de monitoreo local de la ciudad y el exterior del salón fue de 0.82 (p< 0.001). En relación con el O3, la concentración máxima fuera del salón fue de 0.29 ppm, y adentro, de 0.17 ppm (se colocaron en promedio por debajo de 0.06 ppm); entre el interior y el exterior del salón hubo una correlación de 0.72 y se observó que, por cada 1.7 ppm en el exterior, hay 1.0 ppm en el interior (p< 0.05). Conclusiones. Las mayores concentraciones de O3 en el exterior se presentaron entre las 11:00 y las 14:00 horas, por lo que se recomienda tener el descanso previamente a este horario.

Objetivo. Modelar la variabilidad en el número de consultas infantiles diarias por motivos respiratorios como consecuencia de los cambios diarios en los niveles de contaminación ambiental, observada en los servicios de urgencias y medicina familiar de un hospital de especialidades del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social ubicado en la zona suroeste de la Ciudad de México durante 1993. Material y métodos. Se estudió la correlación entre la presencia de infecciones respiratorias altas y bajas con la exposición a ozono y bióxido de nitrógeno. Para modelar esta asociación se utilizó la técnica de regresión Poisson aplicada sobre modelos de riesgo lineal y no lineal con periodos de latencia entre las mediciones ambientales y la consulta de uno, dos y tres días, así como el promedio de las mediciones de los tres, cinco y siete días previos a la consulta. Resultados. El modelo utilizado estima que un incremento de 50 ppb en el promedio horario de ozono de un día ocasionaría, al día siguiente, un incremento del 9.9% en las consultas de urgencias por infecciones respiratorias altas en el periodo invernal, pudiendo incrementarse hasta en un 30% si el incremento se diera en cinco días consecutivos como promedio. Conclusiones. Los resultados sugieren que la exposición de los menores de 15 años al ozono y bióxido de nitrógeno inciden significativamente sobre el número de consultas ocasionadas por motivos respiratorios en esta zona de la Ciudad de México.

Objetivo. Determinar el costo beneficio de la reorganización del Programa de Detección Oportuna del Cáncer Cervicouterino (PDOC) mediante intervenciones de garantía de calidad. Material y métodos. Se siguieron tres etapas: a) identificación y cuantificación de costos; b) identificación y cuantificación de beneficios, y c) evaluación económica del costo beneficio. Resultados. El costo unitario de operación por citología -obtención, fijación, el traslado al centro de lectura, su tinción e interpretación y la notificación de resultados- se estimó en USD$ 11.6. En conjunto, las intervenciones en calidad al PDOC elevarían el costo de cada citología en 32.7%. Sin embargo, la nueva organización generaría una razón beneficio/costo de 2 y un beneficio neto de 88 millones de dólares para los próximos cinco años. Conclusiones. La operación del programa propuesto resulta socialmente deseable, siempre y cuando las modificaciones se lleven a cabo, particularmente la capacitación, la notificación personalizada de los casos positivos, el incremento de cobertura, la introducción de mecanismos de control de calidad, el monitoreo contínuo y el tratamiento en mujeres con anormalidades detectadas.

El tabaquismo es uno de los problemas de salud pública más importantes del siglo pasado y del presente. Lo paradójico de la práctica de la salud pública es que el tabaquismo es un evento totalmente prevenible que ha estado presente en el desarrollo de la sociedad, contribuyendo de manera importante en la morbilidad y mortalidad, aun a costa de la evolución que ha tenido la salud pública mundial. En el caso de México, al contrario que en otras partes del mundo, la ola epidémica del tabaquismo se encuentra en su primera fase, expresada en la morbilidad y mortalidad asociadas, como el cáncer pulmonar, así como por las mínimas actividades preventivas instrumentadas; pero un buen avance ha sido el reconocimiento que como problema prioritario de salud se ha dado por los trabajadores de la salud pública y la sociedad. Se han iniciado las acciones de intervención tendientes a disminuir el consumo de tabaco entre la población y, con ello, dejar sembrado el camino de la prevención para futuras generaciones libres de tabaco. Frente a estas acciones de intervención se encuentran la industria tabacalera y los mecanismos de reproducción del mercado que opera para mantener el consumo de tabaco como un hábito de vida poblacional. El presente trabajo revisa los mecanismos de producción del tabaco, en especial de los cigarrillos, así como la comercialización, estructura del mercado y penetración del producto en la población mexicana, para contribuir con elementos de comprensión de la epidemia mexicana de tabaquismo para la implantación de medidas preventivas exitosas, presentes y futuras, para el control de la epidemia.

In recent years, the use of stem cells for therapeutic purposes has received attention from research groups. In Mexico, the Mexican Official Standard 260-SSAI-2015 regarding the use of stem and progenitor cells for therapeutic and research purposes is in the process of authorization. Even when this has not been approved, an increasing number of establishments are offering medical services involving the use of stem cells for therapeutic purposes without official regulatory authorization. The Mexican Academy of Medicine of Mexico makes its position public in favor of regulating the use of stem cells and embryos for therapeutic and research purposes., (Copyright: © 2018 SecretarÍa de Salud.)

In Mexico there is a proliferation of "centers for aesthetic medicine" that offer different treatments with laser beam, mesotherapy and hyaluronic acid and botulinum toxin injections. In numerous centers of this type, offered and performed by medical personnel that are neither trained or certified to ensure the quality of services. The National Academy of Medicine of Mexico and the National Normative Council for Medical Specialties (CONACEM) communicate their posture on this matter., (Copyright: © 2018 SecretarÍa de Salud.)

As a consequence of the Presidential Decree that reforms and additions the General Statute of Health with regard to medicinal and scientific use of tetrahydrocannabinol, its isomers and stereochemical variants, the National Academy of Medicine of Mexico declares its position in favor of regulating investigation and national production thereof., (Copyright: © 2018 SecretarÍa de Salud.)

There are decisions at the end of life that currently are relevant as humanistic values. Respect for human life and dignity are part of human rights. The National Academy of Medicine of Mexico declares its posture about end-of-life decisions that include treatment refusal, limitation of the therapeutic effort, advance directives and palliative sedation, among others, with the purpose to favor a peaceful death., (Copyright: © 2018 SecretarÍa de Salud.)

Objective: To describe the relationship between blood lead levels (BLL) and poor school performance., Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out in 1996 among 792 schoolchildren aged 7-14 years, who attended the outpatient units of five pediatric hospitals of Mexico City. BLL was measured together with lead exposure and academic performance., Results: Reported BLL and geometric means (GM) were 8.6 microg/dL and 7.7 microg/dL, respectively. The main source of exposure was the use of glazed pottery (difference of use =-1.182; p = 0.000). Among schoolchildren who failed any school year, GM of the BLL was 8.1 microg/dL, compared with children who did not fail (GM = 7.6 microg/dL; p = 0.240). The risk of failing a school year between the 1st and 3rd grade with a BLL greater than 10 microg/dL was 1.73 (p = 0.012, IC 95% 1.13-2.66) and from 1st to 4th grade was 1.62 (p = 0.021, IC 95% 1.07-2.46)., Conclusions: Blood lead levels, among other conditions, may contribute to the failure in school performance observed in the children participating in this study.

Objective: To characterize tobacco use according to level of poverty in a random, nationally representative sample of adolescents (10 to 21 years old), living in urban areas with less than 50,000 inhabitants. The study was done in 2001 as part of the baseline assessment of the evaluation of the governmental program, Oportunidades., Material and Methods: A questionnaire was applied to 29,548 adolescents living in 30 000 selected households and it included specific questions on individual tobacco use among other questions., Results: The prevalence of smokers was 3.5% (95% CI: 3.3%-3.7%) and experimenters 9.9% (95% CI: 9.6%-10.2%). A logistic regression model for clustered data was constructed in order to evaluate the associated factors that distinguish a smoker from an experimenter. After adjusting for level of poverty of the household and use of alcohol and drugs, a significant association (OR = 1.5, p <0.01) was found with having a paid job and a differential association was found between gender and age group., Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that the additional availability of money that an adolescent has, could increase the prevalence of tobacco smoking and that the program Oportunidades should include prevention campaigns directed specifically at this population group.

Objective: This study presents findings from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) regarding current cigarette smoking and other tobacco epidemic indicators., Material and Methods: The GYTS used a two-stage cluster sample survey to generate representative samples of students aged 12 to 15 years old enrolled in public, private and technical schools. The survey was undertaken at 492 schools in 21 cities. The GYTS surveyed 42,024 students between the years 2003 and 2005. A logistic regression model was applied and crude and adjusted odds ratios were estimated., Results: The overall current smoking rate during the 30 days preceding the survey was 19.96% (95% CI 18.1-21.8). Among those who never smoked, 25% were likely to begin smoking in the following year. Sixty percent of current smokers who bought their cigarettes in stores were not refused purchase because of their age. Exposure to advertising in outside areas was 86 and 54% of students reported to have been exposed to smoke in public places., Conclusion: Comprehensive tobacco control programs should prevent access by minors to cigarettes, make it more difficult to smoke, and prohibit all forms of tobacco advertising. In addition, options should be provided for those who wish to quit smoking and adolescents and their families should be educated with respect to the dangers of smoking.

Objective: To assess blood lead levels and lead exposure factors in children living in Morelos State, Mexico., Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between June and October 1996, in 232 children aged 1-12 years, at Hospital del Niño Morelense de Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico. Blood lead levels were measured by anodic voltameter, and exposure factors were collected by questionnaire. The lead concentration value was log transformed for statistical analysis. Odds ratios were obtained for some risk factors. The statistical significative risk factors were later analyzed with ANOVA., Results: A total of 232 children were recruited (50% female); 73% resided in Cuernavaca City. The geometric mean blood lead level was 6.7 micrograms/dl; 29.7% of the children had levels over 10 micrograms/dl; 66% reported use of lead glazed pottery for cooking, 36% for storing food, and 19% for drinking., Conclusions: Blood lead levels were similar to those reported in other Mexican children studies, after the reduction of lead in gasoline. The main risk factors were use of lead glazed pottery and vehicle traffic intensity near the household. These results will be useful for future prevention and control interventions. This paper is available too at: http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html.

Smoking is presently one of the most important public health problems worldwide. Even though smoking is a preventable cause of morbidity and mortality, it still contributes importantly to the burden of disease. In Mexico, contrary to what is happening in other parts of the world, the smoking epidemic is in an early phase, as evidenced by the low number of lung cancer cases or deaths, and by the minimal public health efforts to control tobacco consumption. One of the most important advances is its recognition as a priority public health problem by public health workers and society in general. Effective interventions to reduce tobacco consumption have been launched to render the country free of tobacco. These public health interventions are being countered by the tobacco industry and the market forces that strive to preserve smoking as a life style of the population. The present work reviews the production means of the Mexican tobacco industry, particularly those of cigarettes, the market structure, and the product expansion in the Mexican population. This information should be useful to frame effective preventive measures, in the short and long term, to control this epidemic.

Objective: To evaluate the differences between indoor and outdoor ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels at a school located in southwest Mexico City., Material and Methods: Indoor and outdoor O3 and NO2 levels were measured daily between January and April 1990 by manual monitoring., Results: Indoor and outdoor concentrations of nitrogen dioxide did not surpass the Mexican standard (0.21 ppm). The correlation coefficient between maximum NO2 concentrations measured by the city's local monitoring station and those measured outside the classroom was 0.82 (p < 0.001). Regarding ozone, its maximum outdoor concentration was 0.29 ppm and indoor concentrations were on average below 0.06 ppm (maximum = 0.17 ppm). The indoor/outdoor correlation coefficient was 0.72, and for every 1.7 ppm outside, there was 1.0 ppm inside (p < 0.05)., Conclusions: Since the highest outdoors O3 concentrations were observed between 11:00 and 14:00 hrs, it is recommendable to have recess before this time.

Objective: To model the variability of medical visits by children for respiratory reasons as a consequence of the daily changes in environmental pollution observed in the emergency and family medicine departments of a hospital of the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social located in the southwest of Mexico City during 1993., Materials and Methods: The correlation between the presence of upper and lower respiratory tract infections and exposure to ozone and nitrogen dioxide was studied. To model this association, the authors used multivariate Poisson regression models with linear and non-linear risk, with lag periods between the environmental measurements and the medical visits of one, two and three days, as well as the average of the measurements of three, five and seven days previous to the visit., Results: The model estimates that an increment of 50 ppb in the daily average of ozone would cause an increase of 9.9% in emergency visits due to high respiratory tract infections during the winter, which could rise to 30% if the increment would last five consecutive days in average., Conclusions: Results suggest that exposure of children younger than 15 years of age to ozone and nitrogen dioxide significantly affect the number of medical visits for respiratory causes in this part of Mexico City.

Objective: Previous researches pointed out the critical changes needed to increase the efficiency of the National Screening Programme of Cervical Cancer in Mexico. These changes were assessed through a cost-benefit analysis. This paper presents the results of that appraisal. Figures are presented as US Dollars of 1996 valued as 7.5 pesos for each dollar., Results: The operational unitary cost of the integral process of the cytology-the obtention of the Pap smear, its transportation to the interpretation centre, its analysis, and the notification of results to users-was estimated in US$ 11.6. If the proposed changes are operated, the cost of each citology would increase by 32.7%. The benefit/cost ratio would be 2 and the net benefit of 88 millions of US dollars for the next five years., Conclusions: The operation of the proposed changes is socially desirable, but should be supported the training activities of the personnel, the increase of the coverage of women at risk, the quality control activities, the monitoring of the program and the communication with women detected as positive cases.

We developed a panel study to evaluate the association between intermittent exposure to ozone and acute attack of asthma. The population study consists in 136 asthmatic children residents in the southwest and northeast of Mexico City. They were attended in the allergic services of the two main Pediatric Hospital of Mexico City. In this paper we present the methodological issues following in the study and the results of the descriptive analysis of the relation between ozone exposure and acute attack of asthma.

We report the injuries for "E" code in 10191 subjects attending four general hospitals of Mexico City. Seventy-nine per cent of them were males and 29.1 per cent were females. THe highest utilization rate of the care unit was during weekends. Only 14 per cent of the study population were admitted to the hospital. People classified as drunk were more likely to have more severe injuries and to be admitted to the hospital and female drinkers had the highest risk of hospitalization (RR = 3.03; IC = 1.85-5.04). Only in 49 per cent of the cases was the external cause of injury coded The main causes were gunshots and stabbing with knife or cutting weapon. In this study we found a greater proportion of fractures in women than in men, pointing toward the possible presence of osteoporosis in the female population.

The epidemiological study of measles needs a critical perspective in addition to a descriptive study of variables in time, place and person. The goal of this critical and methodological study of measles is to evaluate the coverage and efficacy of the vaccine in the affected population. These indicators will provide an indirect evaluation of the preventable services. This document presents a general view of the epidemiological design of cohorts and case-control studies and their immediately application to the study of measles. It describe the mathematical procedures for calculating the coverage and efficacy of the measles vaccine in community and hospital outbreaks.