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The Caribbean is experiencing a worsening epidemic of obesity and noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) and it has the worst rates of premature mortality from cardiovascular diseases in the region of the Americas. Creating enabling environments to improve dietary diversity would help reduce obesity and diet-related NCDs. The Improving Household Nutrition Security and Public Health in the CARICOM project aimed to increase dietary diversity in the Caribbean, and to determine and implement effective, gender-sensitive interventions to improve food sovereignty, household food security, and nutrition in CARICOM states. Primary quantitative and qualitative research, scoping reviews, stakeholder engagement, implementation of interventions and dissemination activities were undertaken. This paper describes the overall project design and implementation, discusses challenges and limitations, and presents core achievements to inform further work in Small Island Developing States throughout CARICOM to advance the nutrition agenda in the Caribbean. The results of the project’s research activities are presented in other papers published in this special issue on nutrition security in CARICOM states.

HEARTS in the Americas is the regional adaptation of the World Health Organizations Global Hearts Initiative, which will be the model for risk management for cardiovascular disease (CVD) in primary health care in the Region of the Americas by 2025. It has already been implemented in 21 countries and 1045 primary health care centers throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. It takes a public health and health systems approach to systematically introduce simplified interventions at the primary health care level and focuses on hypertension as a clinical entry point. This paper introduces a new, improved application (app), the main component of which is the calculator for CVD risk and hypertension management. The paper summarizes the risk assessment approach and the methodology used by the World Health Organization to update its cardiovascular risk charts in 2019; describes the app, its use, functionality and validation process; and provides a set of practical recommendations for optimizing CVD risk and hypertension management by using the app in clinical practice. The HEARTS app is a powerful tool to improve the quality of care provided in primary health settings. The creation and dissemination of the HEARTS app is an essential step in the journey towards eliminating preventable CVD in the Americas.

Objectives. This paper describes and analyzes embedded implementation research and the empirical processes of planning for utilization, strategies to promote utilization and the sustainability of utilization of results from research led by decision-makers in Latin America and the Caribbean. Methods. This qualitative, descriptive and interpretive study is based on the findings from semistructured interviews with members of teams working under the Embedding Research for the Sustainable Development Goals initiative (2018–2019) as well as their responses to a self-assessment follow-up questionnaire 1 year after the project was completed. Results. Altogether 13 teams from 11 countries participated in the Initiative. Nine teams had a core team composed of a decision-maker as the principal investigator assisted by a researcher as co-principal investigator. Four teams included more than one co-principal investigator; and in five teams, the originally assigned principal investigator was replaced. There was an interesting relationship between the expected utilization of research results, the utilization strategies, the sustainability of research uptake and the teams’ collaboration modalities. When decision-makers and co-principal investigators were active participants, the intention to use the results and strategies for utilization were clearly oriented to improve implementation. In teams with basically a formal collaboration between the two principals, plans for utilization were unclear or focused on producing academic knowledge. The participation of implementers below the rank of principal investigator decision-maker may be relevant. Conclusions. Embedded implementation research is an innovative tool that may foster the utilization of research and strengthen health programs and services. Considering the internal dynamics of such research teams will enhance planning and strategies for research utilization as well as the sustainability of practical and actionable findings.

This paper highlights the important leadership role of the public health sector, working with other governmental sectors and nongovernmental entities, to advance environmental public health in Latin America and the Caribbean toward the achievement of 2030 Sustainable Development Goal 3: Health and Well-Being. The most pressing current and future environmental public health threats are discussed, followed by a brief review of major historical and current international and regional efforts to address these concerns. The paper concludes with a discussion of three major components of a regional environmental public health agenda that responsible parties can undertake to make significant progress toward ensuring the health and well-being of all people throughout Latin America and the Caribbean.

The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and its Member States have been leading the efforts to eradicate wild poliovirus in the Region of Americas since smallpox's successful elimination in 1971. The region became the first to be certified free of wild poliovirus in 1994. However, in July 2022, an unvaccinated patient with no recent travel history was diagnosed with poliomyelitis in the United States of America. In response to the emergence of a circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus in the United States, PAHO established the Polio Incident Management Support Team. This team has been coordinating response efforts, focusing on: coordination, planning, and monitoring; risk communication and community engagement; surveillance and case investigation; vaccination; and rapid response. In this paper, we identified and documented best practices observed following establishment of the Incident Management Support Team (September 2022–2023) through a comprehensive review and analysis of various data sources and country-specific data from the polio surveillance dashboard. The aim was to share these best practices, highlighting technical support and implementation of polio measures by Member States. Despite several challenges, the Americas region remains polio-free. Polio risk is declining, with a July 2023 assessment showing fewer countries at medium, high, and very high risk. This progress reflects improved immunization coverage, surveillance, containment, health determinants, and outbreak preparedness and response. The PAHO Polio Incident Management Support Team has played a key role in supporting these efforts.

More than 8 million older people in Latin America depend on long-term care (LTC), accounting for 12% of people aged ≥ 60 years and almost 27% of those aged ≥ 80. It is crucial to develop sustainable strategies for providing LTC in the area, including institutional care. This special report aims to characterize institutional LTC in four countries (Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica and Mexico), using available information systems, and to identify the strategies adopted to support institutional care in these countries. This narrative review used nationwide, open-access, public data sources to gather demographic estimates and information about institutional LTC coverage and the availability of open-access data for the proportion of people with LTC needs, the number of LTC facilities and the number of residents living in them. These countries have a larger share of older people than the average in Latin America but fewer LTC facilities than required by the demand. National surveys lack standardization in defining disability, LTC and dependency on care. Information about institutional care is mainly fragmented and does not regularly include LTC facilities, their residents and workers. Data are crucial to inform evidence-based decisions to favor prioritization and to support advances in promoting policies around institutional LTC in Latin America. Although information about institutional care in the region is fragmented and insufficient, this paper profiles the four selected countries. It highlights the need for a better structure for datadriven LTC information systems. The lack of information emphasizes the urgency of the need to focus on and encourage research into this topic.

Objectives. To conduct an analysis of the most recent data on diabetes and its risk factors by gender and other social determinants of health to understand why its prevalence is higher among women than men in the Caribbean; to inform policy agenda-setting for diabetes prevention and control in the Caribbean; and to identify gaps in the evidence that require further research. Methods. A previous systematic review of the literature describing studies conducted in the Caribbean that presented the distribution of diabetes, its outcomes, and risk factors, by one or more social determinants, was updated to include sources from 1 January 2007 – 31 December 2016. Surveys by the World Health Organization (WHO) were also included. Where data were sufficient, meta-analyses were undertaken. Results. A total of 8 326 manuscripts were identified. Of those, 282 were selected for full text review, and 114, for abstraction. In all, 36 papers, including WHO-related surveys, had sufficient information for meta-analysis. More women compared to men were obese (OR: 2.1; 95%CI = 1.65 – 2.69), physically inactive (OR: 2.18; 95%CI = 1.75 – 2.72), and had diabetes (OR: 1.48; 95%CI = 1.25 – 1.76). More men smoked (OR: 4.27; 95%CI = 3.18 – 5.74) and had inadequate fruit and vegetable intake (OR: 1.37; 95%CI = 1.21 – 1.57) Conclusion. Thirty-six papers were added to the previously conducted systematic review; of those, 13 were added to the meta-analysis. Diabetes and its risk factors (primarily obesity and physical inactivity) continue to disproportionately affect women in the Caribbean. Smoking interventions should be targeted at men in this geographic area.

Like many nations in the Americas, the countries of the Caribbean are facing increasing morbidity and mortality associated with noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). In 2007, based on advocacy by Sir George Alleyne and others, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) convened the first in the world Heads of Government NCDs Summit. This summit issued the Port of Spain Declaration that served not only as a rallying point to accelerate the regional NCDs response, but also as a catalyst for the first United Nations high-level meeting on NCDs in September 2011. In 2014, seven years after the CARICOM NCDs Summit, a formal evaluation of the Port of Spain Declaration (POSDEVAL) was conducted to investigate its impact and learn lessons to support and further accelerate its implementation. One mechanism was to review successes and challenges in the NCDs response and effectively communicate findings to stakeholders and the public. The results of the evaluation and the implementation of the Port of Spain Declaration are presented by other papers in this supplement. The present paper describes the communication and social information process used for sharing POSDEVAL findings across multiple layers of social influence in the Caribbean, primarily in 2016 – 2017. The main steps of the communication process are shared as a possible strategy for disseminating NCDs research information and accelerating control and policy adoption in other Small Island Developing States and middle-income countries.

Pregnant people with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have a higher risk of adverse maternal and fetal outcomes compared with pregnant people without COVID-19. In 2021, large increases in maternal mortality were reported in Jamaica, almost half of which were attributable to COVID-19. COVID-19 vaccination has been shown to reduce these risks, but low- and middle-income countries lack free, publicly available data, known as open data, on COVID-19 vaccine uptake for their pregnant populations. The objectives of this paper were to: review how high-income countries use open data to detect trends in COVID-19 vaccine uptake among pregnant people and develop vaccination distribution strategies; outline barriers to making open data available for maternal COVID-19 vaccination in the Caribbean; and propose a multipronged strategy that would increase the availability of open data on maternal COVID-19 vaccination in the Caribbean. A multipronged strategy to fill the data void would involve: (i) utilizing existing Caribbean maternal immunization data collection entities; (ii) adapting digital software tools to establish maternal electronic immunization registries; and (iii) collaborating with local partners skilled in data analytics. Making open data available for COVID-19 vaccine uptake among pregnant people in the Caribbean could offer substantial benefits, including the development of measurable maternal COVID-19 vaccination goals and the facilitation of vaccine decision-making discussions between providers and pregnant people.

Obesity is a compelling example of the challenges of championing and mobilizing a response that involves the whole of government and all of society. This paper discusses the need for economic rationales to strengthen the case for government intervention on obesity, with a view to better engaging the expertise and resources of nonhealth sectors. The paper also briefly reviews economic theory and evidence that could support an integrated multisectoral rationale for action, noting opportunities to expand the integration of economic evidence in the Americas.

In the English-speaking Caribbean, an estimated 46% of men and 61% of women are currently overweight or obese, and 8% of children younger than 5 years are also overweight. To combat this worsening epidemic, driven by unhealthy dietary patterns, the Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) issued the 2007 Port-of-Spain Declaration, which included mandates on the provision of healthy school meals, promotion of healthy dietary patterns, and reintroduction of physical education in schools. These mandates are aligned with evidence-based approaches used in childhood obesity prevention programs. School-based interventions, including curriculum revisions, are part of a multipronged approach to improve nutrition in children and are designed to complement and reinforce other interventions in schools. However, formal evaluation of the Port-of-Spain Declaration showed that most CARICOM member countries had difficulty implementing the mandates related to schools and diet. The Improving Household Nutrition Security and Public Health in the CARICOM project, in collaboration with regional institutions, the CARICOM Secretariat, and the Caribbean Examinations Council, sought to enhance nutrition education through revision of region-wide primary and secondary school curricula to increase the focus on prevention of noncommunicable diseases. This paper describes the process of revising the Caribbean Examinations Council’s Human and Social Biology syllabus for secondary schools and the CARICOM Health and Family Life Education Regional Curriculum Framework for primary schools, which was achieved through multisectoral collaboration. We used the Framework for Reporting Adaptations and Modifications-Enhanced model to describe the process through which the modifications were made.

Objectives. The aim of this initiative was to assess whether a novel training program – Understanding Stigma and Strengthening Cognitive Behavioral Interpersonal Skills – could improve primary health care providers’ confidence in the quality of mental health care they provide in the Caribbean setting by using the Plan-Do-Study-Act rapid cycle for learning improvement. Methods. We conducted a prospective observational study of the impact of this training program. The training was refined during three cycles: first, the relevance of the program for practice improvement in the Caribbean was assessed. Second, pilot training of 15 local providers was conducted to adapt the program to the culture and context. Third, the course was launched in fall 2021 with 96 primary care providers. Pre- and post-program outcomes were assessed by surveys, including providers’ confidence in the quality of the mental health care they provided, changes in stigma among the providers and their use of and comfort with the tools. This paper describes an evaluation of the results of cycle 3, the official launch. Results. A total of 81 participants completed the program. The program improved primary care providers’ confidence in the quality of mental health care that they provided to people with lived experience of mental health disorders, and it reduced providers’ stigmatization of people with mental health disorders. Conclusions. The program’s quality improvement model achieved its goals in enhancing health care providers’ confidence in the quality of the mental health care they provided in the Caribbean context; the program provides effective tools to support the work and it helped to empower and engage clients.

Objective. To map geographic clusters of rare disorders and congenital anomalies reported in South America. Methods. Qualitative systematic review conducted in Medline/PubMed, Lilacs, and Scielo electronic databases to identify studies meeting eligibility criteria. The strategy resulted in 1 672 unique articles, from which 164 were selected for full reading by a pair of reviewers. Results. Fifty-five articles reported at least one cluster of genetic disorders or congenital anomalies in South American territory. From these papers, 122 clusters were identified, of which half (61) were related to autosomal recessive disorders. Sixty-five (53.3%) of the clusters were located in Brazil. Conclusions. The results of the review reinforce that rare diseases and congenital anomalies can occur in a non-random way in space, which is discussed in the perspective of the complex history of formation, social organization, and genetic structure of the South American population. Mapping clusters in population medical genetics can be an important public health tool, given that such places concentrate cases of rare diseases that frequently require multiprofessional, specialized care. Therefore, these results can support important agendas in public health related to rare diseases and congenital anomalies, such as health promotion and surveillance.

Objective. Systematize the experience and identify challenges and lessons learned in the implementation of an initiative for integrated serosurveillance of communicable diseases using a multiplex bead assay in countries of the Americas. Methods. Documents produced in the initiative were compiled and reviewed. These included concept notes, internal working papers, regional meetings reports, and survey protocols from the three participating countries (Mexico, Paraguay, and Brazil) and two additional countries (Guyana and Guatemala) where serology for several communicable diseases was included in neglected tropical diseases surveys. Information was extracted and summarized to describe the experience and the most relevant challenges and lessons learned. Results. Implementing integrated serosurveys requires interprogrammatic and interdisciplinary work teams for the design of survey protocols to respond to key programmatic questions aligned to the needs of the countries. Valid laboratory results are critical and rely on the standardized installment and roll-out of laboratory techniques. Field teams require adequate training and supervision to properly implement survey procedures. The analysis and interpretation of serosurveys results should be antigen-specific, contextualizing the responses for each disease, and triangulated with programmatic and epidemiological data for making decisions tailored to specific population socioeconomic and ecologic contexts. Conclusions. Integrated serosurveillance as a complementary tool for functional epidemiological surveillance systems is feasible to use and key components should be considered: political engagement, technical engagement, and integrated planning. Aspects such as designing the protocol, selecting target populations and diseases, laboratory capacities, anticipating the capacities to analyze and interpret complex data, and how to use it are key.

The tobacco endgame is rapidly moving from aspirational and theoretical toward a concrete and achievable goal and, in some cases, enacted policy. Endgame policies differ from traditional tobacco control measures by explicitly aiming to permanently end, rather than simply minimize, tobacco use. The purpose of this paper is to outline recent progress made in the tobacco endgame, its relationship to existing tobacco control policies, the challenges and how endgame planning can be adapted to different tobacco control contexts. Examples of implemented policies in three cities in the United States and national policies in the Netherlands and New Zealand are outlined, as well as recent endgame planning developments in Europe. Justifications for integrating endgame targets into tobacco control policy and the need to set concrete time frames are discussed, including planning for ending the sale of tobacco products. Tobacco endgame planning must consider the jurisdiction-specific tobacco control context, including the current prevalence of tobacco use, existing policies, implementation of the World Health Organization’s Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, and public support. However, the current tobacco control context should not determine whether endgame planning should happen, but rather how and when different endgame approaches can occur. Potential challenges include legal challenges, the contested role of e-cigarettes and the tobacco industry’s attempt to co-opt the rhetoric of smoke-free policies. While acknowledging the different views regarding e-cigarettes and other products, we argue for a contractionary approach to the tobacco product market. The tobacco control community should capitalize on the growing theoretical and empirical evidence, political will and public support for the tobacco endgame, and set concrete goals for finally ending the tobacco epidemic.

HEARTS in the Americas is the Pan American Health Organization flagship program to accelerate the reduction of the cardiovascular disease (CVD) burden by improving hypertension control and CVD secondary prevention in primary health care. A monitoring and evaluation (M&E) platform is needed for program implementation, benchmarking, and informing policy-makers. This paper describes the conceptual bases of the HEARTS M&E platform including software design principles, contextualization of data collection modules, data structure, reporting, and visualization. The District Health Information Software 2 (DHIS2) web-based platform was chosen to implement aggregate data entry of CVD outcome, process, and structural risk factor indicators. In addition, PowerBI was chosen for data visualization and dashboarding for the analysis of performance and trends above the health care facility level. The development of this new information platform was focused on primary health care facility data entry, timely data reporting, visualizations, and ultimately active use of data to drive decision-making for equitable program implementation and improved quality of care. Additionally, lessons learnt and programmatic considerations were assessed through the experience of the M&E software development. Building political will and support is essential to developing and deploying a flexible platform in multiple countries which is contextually specific to the needs of various stakeholders and levels of the health care system. The HEARTS M&E platform supports program implementation and reveals structural and managerial limitations and care gaps. The HEARTS M&E platform will be central to monitoring and driving further population-level improvements in CVD and other noncommunicable disease-related health.

Objective. To summarize the results of research conducted in Costa Rica in which mathematical and statistical methods were implemented to study the transmission dynamics of mosquito-borne diseases. Methods. Three articles with mathematical and statistical analysis on vector-borne diseases in Costa Rica were selected and reviewed. These papers show the value and relevance of using different quantitative methods to understand disease dynamics and support decision-making. Results. The results of these investigations: 1) show the impact on dengue case reports when a second pathogen emerges, such as chikungunya; 2) recover key parameters in Zika dynamics using Bayesian inference; and 3) show the use of machine learning algorithms and climatic variables to forecast the dengue relative risk in five different locations. Conclusions. Mathematical and statistical modeling enables the description of mosquito-borne disease transmission dynamics, providing quantitative information to support prevention/control methods and resource allocation planning.

Objetivo. Describir la calidad de vida del personal de salud, el ambiente laboral y la interacción entre el empleado y ambiente laboral durante la pandemia. Métodos. Se realizó una revisión exploratoria. Se utilizaron las bases de datos electrónicas PubMed, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Literature Complete, Google Scholar y los repositorios de la Organización Mundial de la Salud y los Centro para el Control y Prevención de Enfermedades. Se incluyeron estudios primarios, secundarios y literatura gris publicados entre diciembre de 2019 y marzo de 2021 en idioma español, inglés y portugués. La calidad metodológica fue evaluada por la lista de verificación de Autoridad, exactitud, cobertura, objetividad, fecha e importancia (AACODS, por su sigla en inglés) A measurement tool to assess systematic reviews (AMSTAR) y Critical Appraisal Checklist for Text and Opinion Papers. Se efectuó un análisis temático basado en el modelo de calidad de vida y bienestar. Resultados. De un total de 208 artículos, se incluyeron 11. La calidad de vida del personal de salud durante pandemia por COVID-19 estuvo influenciada por las características del personal de salud, el ambiente laboral y la interacción entre el empleado y el ambiente laboral; se observaron falencias relacionadas con factores psicosociales y ocupacionales. Discusión. La calidad de vida del personal de salud estuvo caracterizada por estigmatización, estrés, ansiedad y fatiga. La gestión organizacional y la aplicación de intervenciones psicológicas evidencian un efecto en la interacción entre el empleado y el ambiente laboral, e influyen en su calidad de vida.

Objective. To describe the editorial processing time of published COVID-19 research articles and compare this with a similar topic, human influenza, and analyze the number of publications, withdrawals, and retractions. Methods. A descriptive-analytical study using PubMed on research articles with the MeSH terms human influenza and COVID-19. Time to acceptance (from submission to acceptance) and time to publication (from acceptance to publication) were compared. Retractions and withdrawals were reviewed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Results. There were 31 319 research articles on COVID-19 and 4 287 on human influenza published during 2020. The median time to acceptance for COVID-19 was lower than that for human influenza (8 vs. 92 days). The median time to publication for COVID-19 articles was shorter than those on human influenza (12 vs. 16 days); 47.0% of COVID-19 research articles were accepted within the first week of submission, and 19.5% within one day. There were 82 retractions and withdrawals for COVID-19 articles, 1 for human influenza, and 5 for articles that contain both terms; these were mainly related to ethical misconduct, and 27 (31.0%) were published by the same group of authors in one highest-quartile journal. Conclusions. The conundrum between fast publishing and adequate standards is shown in this analysis of COVID-19 research articles. The speed of acceptance for COVID-19 manuscripts was 11.5 times faster than for human influenza. The high number of acceptances within a day or week of submission and the number of retractions and withdrawals of COVID-19 papers might be a warning sign about the possible lack of a quality control process in scientific publishing and the peer review process.

This paper presents a method to estimate excess mortality where national data are missing for some or all of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic period, but subnational data exist, such as in Argentina. By making use of the stability of the regional distribution of deaths, data on deaths in Córdoba province were used to project excess deaths in Argentina from March 2020 up to the end of 2021. The number of excess deaths was estimated at 134 504, which is 14.8% higher than the reported number of COVID-19 deaths in Argentina for the same time period.

Objective. To evaluate, using semiparametric methodologies of survival analysis, the relationship between covariates and time to death of patients with breast cancer, as well as the determination discriminatory power in the conditional inference tree of patients who had cancer. Methods. A retrospective cohort study was conducted using data collected from medical records of women who had breast cancer and underwent treatment between 2005 and 2015 at the Hospital da Fundação de Assistencial da Paraíba in Campina Grande, State of Paraiba, Brazil. Survival curves were estimated using the KaplanMeier method, Cox regression, and conditional decision tree. Results. Women with triple-negative molecular subtypes had a shorter survival time compared to women with positive hormone receptors. The addition of hormone therapy reduced the risk of a patient dying by 5.5%, and the risk of a HER2-positive patient dying was 34.5% lower compared to those who were negative for this gene. Patients undergoing hormone therapy had a median survival time of 4 753 days. Conclusions. This paper shows a favorable scenario for the use of immunotherapy for patients with HER2 overexpression. Further studies could assess the effectiveness of immunotherapy in patients with other conditions, to favor the prognosis and better quality of life for the patient.

Objective. This paper assesses the availability and quality of death certificate data in Latin America and the feasibility of using these data to study place of death and associated factors. Methods. In this comparative study, we collected examples of current official death certificates and digital data files containing information about all deaths that occurred during 1 year in 19 Latin American countries. Data were collected from June 2019 to May 2020. The records for place of death and associated variables were studied. The criteria for data quality were completeness, number of ill-defined causes of death and timeliness. Results. All 19 countries provided copies of current official death certificates and 18 of these registered the place of death. Distinguishing among hospital or other health care institution, home and other was possible for all countries. Digital data files with death certificate data were available from 12 countries and 1 region. Three countries had data considered to be of high quality and seven had data considered to be of medium quality. Categories for place of death and most of the predetermined factors possibly associated with place of death were included in the data files. Conclusions. The quality of data sets was rated medium to high in 10 countries. Hence, death certificate data make it feasible to conduct an international comparative study on place of death and the associated factors in Latin America.

Objective. To identify how patterns of family economic support help alleviate the cumulative effects of inequality, with focus on the financial support that children give their elderly parents. Methods. This paper uses data from two cross-sections, 2001 and 2012, of the Mexican Health and Aging Study for the 50 years and older population. Analysis includes descriptive statistics to estimate differences in economic support based on family and individual characteristics; and a multinomial probit regression model, in each cross-section, to analyze the amount of money received for economic help and the associated characteristics. Results. Economic help received was significantly reduced, both in proportion, from 20% to 10% between 2001 and 2012, and in the amount received, with differences by income quintile. In 2001, 14.9% of those in the lowest quintile (Q1) would move to Q4–Q5 with children’s help; in 2012, this was 9.1%. The adjusted probability of receiving any amount of money from children decreased from 0.511 in 2001 to 0.340 in 2012. Conclusions. In Mexico, economic inequality in the 50 years and older population remains a constant. Economic help received from children varied by income quintile and plays an important role for those in the lowest income groups. More research is needed to understand the patterns of intergenerational exchanges as these cohorts of older adults continue to age and as future cohorts are entering old age with more pronounced changes than the current cohorts experienced over this critical decade.

An infodemic is defined as an overabundance of information some accurate and some not occurring during an epidemic. This paper describes the characteristics of an infodemic, which combines an inordinately high volume of information (leading to problems relating to locating the information, storage capacity, ensuring quality, visibility and validity) and rapid output (making it hard to assess its value, manage the gatekeeping process, apply results, track its history, and leading to a waste of effort). This is bound up with the collateral growth of misinformation, disinformation and malinformation. Solutions to the problems posed by an infodemic will be sought in improved technology and changed social and regulatory frameworks. One solution could be a new trusted top-level domain for health information. The World Health Organization has so far made two unsuccessful attempts to create such a domain, but it is suggested this could be attempted again, in the light of the COVID-19 infodemic experience. The vital role of reliable information in public health should also be explicitly recognized in the Sustainable Development Goals, with explicit targets. All countries should develop knowledge preparedness plans for future emergencies.

Objectives. To assess the productivity and visibility in research, clinical studies, treatment, use and production of antivenoms against poisonous snakes, scorpions and spiders. Methods. Bibliometric analysis of research and other activities. Articles on venoms and antivenoms published between 2000 and 2020 were retrieved from the Scopus database. The records were analyzed by bibliometric indicators including number of documents per year, journals, authors, and citation frequency. VOSviewer® v.1.6.13 was used to construct bibliometric networks for country co-authorships and co-occurrence of terms. Results. Australia, Brazil, Costa Rica and India were among the six top countries with most documents and were selected for more detailed analysis. Costa Rica was the country with the largest percentage of its publications dedicated to antivenom production and venomics. Only a few papers dealt with the issues of quality, safety, and efficacy of antivenoms or the role of the national regulatory authorities. The use of VOSviewer® allowed visualization through joint publications of networking between countries. Visualization by co-occurrence of terms showed differences in the research carried out. Conclusions. Working in a collaborative and coordinated manner these four countries could have a major impact on envenoming globally. Attention should be given not only to antivenom production but also to strengthening regulatory oversight of antivenom products.

Hospitals in the French Territories in the Americas (FTA) work according to international and French standards. This paper aims to describe different aspects of critical care in the FTA. For this, we reviewed official information about population size and intensive care unit (ICU) bed capacity in the FTA and literature on FTA ICU specificities. Persons living in or visiting the FTA are exposed to specific risks, mainly severe road traffic injuries, envenoming, stab or ballistic wounds, and emergent tropical infectious diseases. These diseases may require specific knowledge and critical care management. However, there are not enough ICU beds in the FTA. Indeed, there are 7.2 ICU beds/100 000 population in Guadeloupe, 7.2 in Martinique, and 4.5 in French Guiana. In addition, seriously ill patients in remote areas regularly have to be transferred, most often by helicopter, resulting in a delay in admission to intensive care. The COVID-19 crisis has shown that the health care system in the FTA is unready to face such an epidemic and that intensive care bed capacity must be increased. In conclusion, the critical care sector in the FTA requires upgrading of infrastructure, human resources, and equipment as well as enhancement of multidisciplinary care. Also needed are promotion of training, research, and regional and international medical and scientific cooperation.

The Republic of Panama has the second most unequally distributed wealth in Central America, has recently entered the list of countries affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, and has one of the largest testing rate per inhabitant in the region and consequently the highest incidence rate of COVID-19, making it an ideal location to discuss potential scenarios for assessing epidemic preparedness, and to outline research opportunities in the Region of the Americas. We address two timely important questions: What are the unique risks of COVID-19 in Panama that could help other countries in the Region be better prepared? And what kind of scientific knowledge can Panama contribute to the regional and global study of COVID-19? This paper provides suggestions about how the research community could support local health authorities plan for different scenarios and decrease public anxiety. It also presents basic scientific opportunities about emerging pandemic pathogens towards promoting global health from the perspective of a middle income country.

Objective. To describe perinatal and neonatal outcomes in newborns exposed to SARS-CoV-2. Methods. A systematic review was conducted by searching PubMed Central, LILACS, and Google Scholar using the keywords ‘covid’ AND ‘newborn’ OR ‘child’ OR ‘infant,’ on 18 March 2020, and again on 17 April 2020. One researcher conducted the search and extracted data on demographics, maternal outcomes, diagnostic tests, imaging, and neonatal outcomes. Results. Of 256 publications identified, 20 met inclusion criteria and comprised neonatal outcome data for 222 newborns whose mothers were suspected or confirmed to be SARS-CoV-2 positive perinatally (17 studies) or of newborns referred to hospital with infection/pneumonia (3 studies). Most (12 studies) were case-series reports; all were from China, except three (Australia, Iran, and Spain). Of the 222 newborns, 13 were reported as positive for SARS-CoV-2; most of the studies reported no or mild symptoms and no adverse perinatal outcomes. Two papers among those from newborns who tested positive reported moderate or severe clinical characteristics. Five studies using data on umbilical cord blood, placenta, and/or amniotic fluid reported no positive results. Nine studies reported radiographic imaging, including 5 with images of pneumonia, increased lung marking, thickened texture, or high-density nodular shadow. Minor, non-specific changes in biochemical variables were reported. Studies that tested breast milk reported negative SARS-CoV-2 results. Conclusions. Given the paucity of studies at this time, vertical transmission cannot be confirmed or denied. Current literature does not support abstaining from breastfeeding nor separating mothers and newborns. Further evidence and data collection networks, particularly in the Americas, are needed for establishing definitive guidelines and recommendations.

Objective. In 2014, the member countries of the Pan American Health Organization signed the Strategy for Universal Access to Health and Universal Health Coverage. In it, they committed to increasing public expenditure on health until reaching the benchmark of 6% of gross domestic product (GDP). The objective of this paper is to determine, for each country in the Region, whether they can reach this target through economic growth alone and, if so, how long it would take. Methods. Using World Bank and World Health Organization data, elasticity of public health expenditure (PHE) with respect to GDP was estimated for each country. Real economic growth and International Monetary Fund projections for 2016–2021 were used to project the expenditure series and determine the year each country would reach 6% of GDP. Results. Six countries have already reached the 6% target. The Latin American and Caribbean countries that have achieved it are those that have single health systems, based on universal access and coverage. If current prioritization of PHE is maintained, three countries could reach the target in the next decade. Four more countries would reach it before mid-century, 10 in the second half of the century, and one would have to wait until the next century. Finally, 13 countries would never reach the proposed target. Conclusions. This analysis demonstrates the limitations of economic growth as a source of fiscal space. Other sources will need to be tapped, such as increased tax collection, specific health taxes, and greater efficiency in public spending, which will require social and political dialogue in the countries regarding their commitment to universal health principles.

Objectives. Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are a threat to social and economic development, including in the Caribbean. In 2007 the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) held the world's first-ever summit of heads of government on NCD prevention and control and issued the landmark Declaration of Port-of-Spain: Uniting to Stop the Epidemic of Chronic NCDs. The objectives of this paper are to provide an overview of a formal evaluation of the Declaration and to highlight key findings that could inform further implementation of the Declaration's 15 mandates. Methods. The evaluation's six research objectives were decided through stakeholder engagement and assessed by concurrent quantitative and qualitative research methods, using the following four themes: 1) trends in risk factors, morbidity, and mortality; 2) national and Caribbean-wide policy responses, and factors associated with policy successes and difficulties; 3) the international impact of the Declaration; and 4) the potential for raising revenue from tobacco and alcohol taxation in order to support NCD prevention and control. Results. There are marked disparities in NCD mortality and trends among the 20 CARICOM member countries and territories. No CARICOM member had fully implemented all of the Declaration's 15 mandates (which were monitored by 26 indicators), with 10 CARICOM members implementing fewer than half of the indicators, and with most members lacking a well-functioning multisectoral NCD Commission. Larger CARICOM members tended to have higher levels of implementation than did smaller members. Mandates that received active support from regional institutions tended to be better implemented by the CARICOM members than did mandates that lacked that kind of support. Feasible national tobacco and alcohol tax increases could more than cover the cost of implementing the World Health Organization NCD “best buy” interventions in the CARICOM member countries and territories. Conclusions. Priorities for further implementation of the mandates from the Port-of-Spain Declaration include establishing throughout the CARICOM member countries and territories fully functioning national bodies to support multisectoral action for NCD prevention; greater regional support in policy development and implementation for smaller countries; and greater targeted use of taxes on tobacco and alcohol to support NCD control and prevention.

Objectives. To determine clusters of individuals who present similar health behaviors in terms of diet, physical activity, and sedentarism, in four countries of the Americas: Brazil (2013), Chile (2009), Mexico (2012), and the United States of America (2013). This makes it possible to determine which of these behaviors occur simultaneously, as well as the demographic and sociodemographic characteristics associated with each cluster. Methods. The individual-level data analyzed were drawn from national health interviews and health examination surveys in Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and the United States, for different time periods. Using international physical activity guidelines and national dietary guidelines, the health behaviors of each individual were assessed. A latent class analysis was conducted to classify individuals into clusters based on these behaviors, and was followed by multinomial regressions to determine the characteristics of those in each class. Results. Overall, most individuals belonged to the classes characterized by average or unhealthy diets but sufficient amounts of physical activity. However, large differences exist across countries and population groups. Men with higher socioeconomic characteristics were globally more likely to belong to the least healthy class in each country. Conclusions. Findings from this analysis support the implementation of more refined policy actions to target specific unhealthy behaviors in different population groups, defined by gender, age group, socioeconomic status, and, to some extent, place of residence. The at-risk populations identified through this paper are those that should be targeted by upcoming interventions.

This paper opens a discussion on the main features of an investment case for obesity prevention and control, by scanning available evidence on existing approaches and by highlighting contextual considerations and evidence for Latin America and the Caribbean. We call on researchers and analysts in the field to update and broaden existing methods of economic analyses to better reflect the multisectoral nature of an investment case for obesity prevention and control. We also identify research gaps and further work required to advance methods and evidence towards investment cases throughout the Americas.

Socioeconomic inequality, or the socioeconomic status (SES) gradient, is arguably one of the most-studied phenomena in health. The gradient in health is apparent in objective and subjective measures, across virtually all countries, and is evident at individual and population levels. There is no longer much debate over the relationship between SES and health. However, exact causal pathways remain elusive. Advocating for strong policy to reduce or eliminate the SES-health gradient necessitates understanding the causal pathways, from intervention to outcome. While economists are not convinced that there is a clear enough understanding of the causal pathways of the SES-health gradient, they have produced a substantial body of work from which to move forward. The article briefly discusses the theoretical underpinnings used by economists as a basis for the study of the causal pathways for the health gradient. That presentation is followed by a concise overview of some of the evidence that economists have produced. The paper concludes with a discussion of how current economic evidence may be used to help policymakers advocate for interventions to limit the SES gradient in noncommunicable diseases.

Objective: Describe the quality of life of health personnel, the work environment, and interactions between employees and their work environment during the pandemic., Methods: A scoping review was conducted. The electronic databases PubMed, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Literature Complete, and Google Scholar were used, as well as the repositories of the World Health Organization and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Primary, secondary, and grey literature studies published between December 2019 and March 2021 in Spanish, English, and Portuguese were included. Methodological quality was assessed using the Authority, Accuracy, Coverage, Objectivity, Date and Importance (AACODS) checklist; a tool for the measurement of multiple systematic reviews (AMSTAR); and the Critical Appraisal Checklist for Text and Opinion Papers. A thematic analysis was carried out based on the quality-of-life and well-being model., Results: Of a total of 208 articles, 11 were included. The quality of life of health personnel during the COVID-19 pandemic was affected by the characteristics of health personnel, the work environment, and interactions between employees and their work environment. Problems related to psychosocial and occupational factors were observed., Discussion: The quality of life of health personnel was characterized by stigmatization, stress, anxiety, and fatigue. Organizational management and the implementation of psychological interventions appear to affect interactions between employees and their work environment, and improve their quality of life.

ABSTRACT Medicines Regulatory Authorities (MRAs) are an essential part of national health systems and are charged with protecting and promoting public health through regulation of medicines. However, MRAs in resource-constrained settings often struggle to provide effective oversight of market entry and use of health commodities. This paper proposes a regulatory value chain model (RVCM) that policymakers and regulators can use as a conceptual framework to guide investments aimed at strengthening regulatory systems. The RVCM incorporates nine core functions of MRAs into five modules: (i) clear guidelines and requirements; (ii) control of clinical trials; (iii) market authorization of medical products; (iv) pre-market quality control; and (v) post-market activities. Application of the RVCM allows national stakeholders to identify and prioritize investments according to where they can add the most value to the regulatory process. Depending on the economy, capacity, and needs of a country, some functions can be elevated to a regional or supranational level, while others can be maintained at the national level. In contrast to a “one size fits all” approach to regulation in which each country manages the full regulatory process at the national level, the RVCM encourages leveraging the expertise and capabilities of other MRAs where shared processes strengthen regulation. This value chain approach provides a framework for policymakers to maximize investment impact while striving to reach the goal of safe, affordable, and rapidly accessible medicines for all.

SYNOPSIS Over the last two decades, experts have reported a rising number of deaths caused by chronic kidney disease (CKD) along the Pacific coast of Central America, from southern Mexico to Costa Rica. However, this specific disease is not associated with traditional causes of CKD, such as aging, diabetes, or hypertension. Rather, this disease is a chronic interstitial nephritis termed chronic kidney disease of nontraditional etiology (CKDnT). According to the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) mortality database, there are elevated rates of deaths related to kidney disease in many of these countries, with the highest rates being reported in El Salvador and Nicaragua. This condition has been identified in certain agricultural communities, predominantly among male farmworkers. Since CKD surveillance systems in Central America are under development or nonexistent, experts and governmental bodies have recommended creating standardized case definitions for surveillance purposes to monitor and characterize this epidemiological situation. A group of experts from Central American ministries of health, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and PAHO held a workshop in Guatemala to discuss CKDnT epidemiologic case definitions. In this paper, we propose that CKD in general be identified by the standard definition internationally accepted and that a suspect case of CKDnT be defined as a person age < 60 years with CKD, without type 1 diabetes mellitus, hypertensive diseases, and other well-known causes of CKD. A probable case of CKDnT is defined as a suspect case with the same findings confirmed three or more months later.

HEARTS in the Americas is the Pan American Health Organization flagship program to accelerate the reduction of the cardiovascular disease (CVD) burden by improving hypertension control and CVD secondary prevention in primary health care. A monitoring and evaluation (M&E) platform is needed for program implementation, benchmarking, and informing policy-makers. This paper describes the conceptual bases of the HEARTS M&E platform including software design principles, contextualization of data collection modules, data structure, reporting, and visualization. The District Health Information Software 2 (DHIS2) web-based platform was chosen to implement aggregate data entry of CVD outcome, process, and structural risk factor indicators. In addition, PowerBI was chosen for data visualization and dashboarding for the analysis of performance and trends above the health care facility level. The development of this new information platform was focused on primary health care facility data entry, timely data reporting, visualizations, and ultimately active use of data to drive decision-making for equitable program implementation and improved quality of care. Additionally, lessons learnt and programmatic considerations were assessed through the experience of the M&E software development. Building political will and support is essential to developing and deploying a flexible platform in multiple countries which is contextually specific to the needs of various stakeholders and levels of the health care system. The HEARTS M&E platform supports program implementation and reveals structural and managerial limitations and care gaps. The HEARTS M&E platform will be central to monitoring and driving further population-level improvements in CVD and other noncommunicable disease-related health.

This paper presents the position of the Latin American working group of the International Foundation for Integrated Care (IFIC). The working group brings together various Latin American actors and organizations in support of actions that facilitate the transformation of health systems in the region towards integrated systems that focus on people not as isolated individuals but as subjects of law in the complex social and environmental contexts where they live and interact. The working group proposes nine pillars of integrated care to be used as a conceptual framework for policy development and changes in practices: 1) shared vision and values; 2) population health; 3) people and communities as partners; 4) resilient communities; 5) capacities of human resources for health; 6) governance and leadership; 7) digital solutions; 8) aligned payment systems; and 9) public transparency. Based on these pillars, lines of work are proposed to strengthen alliances and networks, advocacy, research, and capacity-building, in order to help develop health and social systems that are effectively integrated and focused not only on people but also on communities in Latin America.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in the Americas and raised blood pressure accounts for over 50% of CVD. In the Americas over a quarter of adult women and four in ten adult men have hypertension and the diagnosis, treatment and control are suboptimal. In 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) released an updated guideline for the pharmacological treatment of hypertension in adults. This policy paper highlights the facilitating role of the WHO Global HEARTS initiative and the HEARTS in the Americas initiative to catalyze the implementation of this guideline, provides specific policy advice for implementation, and emphasizes that an over-arching strategic approach for hypertension control is needed. The authors urge health advocates and policymakers to prioritize the prevention and control of hypertension to improve the health and wellbeing of their populations and to reduce CVD health disparities within and between populations of the Americas.

HEARTS in the Americas is the regional adaptation of the World Health Organization's Global Hearts Initiative, which will be the model for risk management for cardiovascular disease (CVD) in primary health care in the Region of the Americas by 2025. It has already been implemented in 21 countries and 1045 primary health care centers throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. It takes a public health and health systems approach to systematically introduce simplified interventions at the primary health care level and focuses on hypertension as a clinical entry point. This paper introduces a new, improved application (app), the main component of which is the calculator for CVD risk and hypertension management. The paper summarizes the risk assessment approach and the methodology used by the World Health Organization to update its cardiovascular risk charts in 2019; describes the app, its use, functionality and validation process; and provides a set of practical recommendations for optimizing CVD risk and hypertension management by using the app in clinical practice. The HEARTS app is a powerful tool to improve the quality of care provided in primary health settings. The creation and dissemination of the HEARTS app is an essential step in the journey towards eliminating preventable CVD in the Americas.

Objective: To determine the relative risk of a lethal outcome associated with chronic degenerative conditions in patients with COVID-19., Methods: A cohort study was conducted using electronic medical records belonging to patients who tested positive for COVID-19 on RT-PCR while receiving care as outpatients or inpatients in a social security system facility between March 2020 and March 2021. Two study groups were formed. The exposed group was divided into four subgroups, each of which was diagnosed with one and only one chronic condition (diabetes, hypertension, obesity, or chronic kidney disease); the unexposed group was obtained from the medical records of patients without comorbidities. A total of 1 114 medical records were examined using simple random sampling. Once the minimum sample size was reached, the relative risk was calculated for each chronic condition. Combinations of two, three, and four conditions were created, and each of them was included in the analysis., Results: In the absence of a chronic degenerative condition, the prevalence of a lethal outcome from COVID-19 is 3.8%; in the presence of type 2 diabetes mellitus, 15.8%; in the presence of arterial hypertension, 15.6%; and in the presence of obesity, 15.0%. For diabetes and hypertension combined, the prevalence of a lethal outcome is 54.1%; for diabetes and obesity combined, 36.8%, and for obesity and hypertension combined, 28.1%., Conclusion: In patients with COVID-19, the relative risk of a lethal outcome is 4.17 for those with diabetes, 4.13 for those with hypertension, and 3.96 for those with obesity. For two chronic conditions combined, the relative risk doubles or triples. The relative risk of a lethal outcome is 14.27 for diabetes plus hypertension; 9.73 for diabetes plus obesity, and 7.43 for obesity plus hypertension. Chronic conditions do not present alone; they generally occur together, hence the significance of the relative risks for lethal outcomes presented in this paper.

This paper presents results from the mammography quality plan of the National Breast Cancer Program at Argentina's National Cancer Institute, which focused on improving mammography quality in the public health-care sector and on using mammography to implement breast cancer screening. Plan implementation started in 2011, based on the premise that poor quality mammography impedes early diagnosis of breast cancer. At the time, there was little awareness in Argentina of the importance of quality control, and constant changes in lines of authority in the health system tended to hinder organized implementation of the program. The plan consisted of quality review and control of mammography facilities, training of technical and medical human resources, and implementation of an accreditation system for mammography services by the National Cancer Institute. Perception by involved personnel of the importance of quality improved; an overview was obtained of the state of mammography at the national level regarding quality, technology, quantity of equipment, and opportunities for implementation of screening; technical and medical personnel were trained using different methods; and standardization of mammography reading was promoted in the participating provinces., Competing Interests: Conflicto de intereses. Ninguno declarado por los autores.

Vaccinating children has been an unquestioned tradition for many years. However, there is now great concern over the growing rejection of childhood vaccination, as well as other less evident obstacles that affect vaccination coverage.Multiple factors are involved in the rejection of a specific vaccine or vaccination in general, including actions by anti-vaccination groups, as well as disinformation or the dissemination of erroneous information. In some countries, delays in completing the immunization schedule may be due to poor program management. These factors compromise effective vaccination coverage, constituting a serious threat to public health.Susceptible populations constantly change, due to epidemiological shifts determined by phenomena such as globalization and various conflicts that interfere in the operation of health services. In recent years there have been outbreaks of previously controlled diseases such as diphtheria, whooping cough, and measles, resulting both from imported cases and from deficiencies in national immunization programs.This paper explores different aspects of the increasing frequency of vaccine rejection. There is a need for a review of its causes and for the design of innovative strategies and approaches to regain acceptance of vaccination and its place as the most cost-effective tool in public health., Competing Interests: Conflicto de intereses. Ninguno declarado por los autores.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the opportunities and challenges of training processes in the coordination of regional and national communication initiatives for arboviral disease prevention, using the lessons learned in the Cuban context as an example. In February 2016 and December 2017, professional staff from the Pedro Kourí Institute of Tropical Medicine attended workshops for strengthening communication capacities for arboviral disease prevention in primary health care settings through gradual introduction of the most recent approaches promoted by the Pan American Health Organization in this regard. National, provincial, municipal, and health area specialists with diverse professional profiles were trained; multidisciplinary teams were strengthened at the different levels; specific tasks were assigned and coordinated at each level; and demonstration sites were established for the communication approaches promoted in the workshops. Learning needs in the field of mass communication were also identified, and activities for training technical staff and for monitoring and evaluation were introduced in the national strategy 2018-2021 to guarantee the implementation and sustainability of communication activities. Notwithstanding, participating institutions will have to address the challenges characteristic of communication for arboviral disease prevention, which include the rotation of trained personnel, the mobilization of resources for communication, and the identification of appropriate evaluation indicators., Competing Interests: Conflictos de interés. Linda S. Lloyd declara que fue consultora de la OPS en la preparación de los materiales “Comunicación centrada en el paciente”. Las demás autoras declaran no tener conflictos de interés.

The objective of this paper is to describe the current situation of mental health in Ecuador. In Ecuador, although the model of community mental health has been integrated into primary health care services for a decade, its implementation does not seem to have the expected results. It is pertinent to explore the causes of this situation and to propose alternatives, taking into account the contributions of social medicine, collective health and participatory action research as emblematic models in Latin America in the field of mental health. For an effective implementation of community mental health in primary care in Ecuador, the role of universities is central, specifically in projects linked to the community and in pre-professional practices in health sciences careers. These projects allow the promotion of community mental health in the first level of health care from a critical perspective, open to complexity and based on the principle that the community is the main active subject of social transformation., Competing Interests: Conflicto de intereses. Ninguno declarado por los autores.

Objective: In 2014, the Pan American Health Organization member countries signed the Strategy for Universal Access to Health and Universal Health Coverage. In it, they committed to increasing public health expenditure until reaching the benchmark of 6% of gross domestic product (GDP). The objective of this paper is to determine, for each country in the Region, if they can reach this goal by economic growth alone and, if so, how long it would take., Methods: Using World Bank and World Health Organization data, elasticity of public health expenditure with regard to GDP was estimated for each country. Real economic growth and International Monetary Fund projections for 2016-2021 were used to project the expenditure series and determine the year each country would reach 6% of GDP., Results: Six countries have already reached the 6% goal. The Latin American and Caribbean countries that have achieved it are those that have single health systems, based on universal access and coverage. If current prioritization of public health expenditure is maintained, three countries could reach the goal in the next decade. Four more countries would reach it before mid-century, ten in the second half of the century, and one would have to wait until the next century. Finally, 13 countries would never reach the proposed goal., Conclusions: This analysis demonstrates the limitations of economic growth as a source of fiscal space. Other sources will need to be tapped, such as increased tax collection, specific health taxes, and greater efficiency in public spending, which will require social and political dialogue in the countries regarding their commitment to universal health principles., Competing Interests: Conflicto de intereses. Ninguno declarado por los autores.

The achievements and challenges arising from the application of eHealth in the Cuban context to support universal health are presented. The Ministry of Public Health defined the Computerization Strategy, whose lines of work are based on the components declared in the Strategy and Plan of Action on eHealth of the Pan American Health Organization, and in the Policy for the Computerization of the Society, approved by the Cuban Government. The paper describes the actions of the Cuban strategy elaborated to solve the limitations in the technological infrastructure, to develop the platforms, the tools and the applications required by the health services, and to stimulate the professionals' abilities to use them. The results of eHealth in Cuba are based on the application and evaluation of the strategy implemented in the framework of the improvement of the health sector through projects such as the electronic medical record called Galen Clínicas, the training of human resources and the resources for information and education from the Infomed Health Telematics Network. These models of solidarity and collaborative networking have contributed to universal health and positively impacted on the health system beyond the borders. The challenges of eHealth are the development of initiatives in mobile health -in which there is little experience-; telemedicine -a project that is stopped-; integration and interoperability among applications; the sustainability of the implemented solutions; insufficient technological infrastructure; and strengthening of the legal framework., Competing Interests: Conflicto de intereses. Ninguno.

This paper presents, in the context of the universal health strategy, some general considerations and economic actions on financing, efficiency and other economic challenges of public health in Cuba. Official bibliographic sources of the Cuban state were revised up to 2015. The analyses of time series were adjusted to constant prices of 1997 and the official exchange rate of 1 Cuban peso = 1 US dollar. The Cuban National Health System has a solid infrastructure, consisting of a wide network of health facilities that guarantee full coverage, access and equity in the services provided to the population through qualified human resources. An economic analysis was carried out under the conceptual framework of the universal health strategy, with an emphasis in financing, efficiency and challenges of the Cuban public health system to maintain the right to health of its citizens, equity, coverage and access to the services provided, including the elimination of economic, sociocultural and gender barriers, as well as solidarity with the Cuban population and the world. It was concluded that in Cuba, universal health is considered one of its most valuable achievements, although it is needed a most efficient analysis of reliable and available sources, research and application of results to practice on the strengths and weaknesses of the system regarding health economics, updating and a better use of resources and technologies, as well as deepening the lessons learned and facing remaining challenges., Competing Interests: Conflicto de intereses. Ninguno declarado por los autores.