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Patients with bipolar disorder type I (BP-I) often present with impairments in cognitive function. Offspring unaffected by the disorder can also present with cognitive dysfunction. The objective of this study was to compare the cognitive function of BP-I patients, their unaffected offspring (UO) and healthy control subjects (HC)., Methods: Verbal memory, working memory index, processing speed, attention, verbal and phonological fluency and executive function were evaluated through the application of a neuropsychological battery to three groups made up of BP-I patients that attended the Bipolar Disorder Outpatient Clinic of Clínica San Juan de Dios de Manizales [San Juan de Dios de Manizales Clinic] (n=30), UO (n=32) and control group (n=31). The UO group and the control group were matched by gender, age and level of education., Results: Major differences between the three groups were found in the measures of cognitive functions (except in semantic fluency). The HC group showed better cognitive performance in all the functions. Post-hoc analysis showed similar results in the cognitive performance between BP-I and UO except in verbal learning and executive function tasks where the results were better in UO. A better performance in the control group was found, compared to the UO group, in executive function, attention, working memory, and semantic fluency and phonological areas., Conclusions: These results indicate that the offspring of patients with BP-I present with cognitive impairments without suffering from the disorder. This suggests that cognitive dysfunction presents without diagnosis and supports the hypothesis that it can correspond to a BP-I endophenotype., (Copyright © 2022 Asociación Colombiana de Psiquiatría. Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that negatively affects the inattention, disorganization, and/or hyperactivity–impulsivity in children and adolescents who suffer from it, included cases being reported that continue into adulthood. This disorder impairs social, academic, emotional, psychological, and health system functioning due to its high cost of treatment. The present systematic review aims to analyze the effects of physical activity, exercise, and sports on the executive function in children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD through the scientific literature. The results show that the practice of physical activity, exercise, or sport produces improvements in executive function in children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD, mainly through aerobic exercise. A 20 min session of physical activity, sport, or exercise leads to improvements in executive functions in children and adolescents with ADHD. It can be concluded that the practice of physical activity, exercise, and sport generate improvements on executive functions in children and adolescents with ADHD, mainly through aerobic exercise.

Introduction: Currently, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) has new criteria that include a diagnostic reference to neurodevelopmental disorders. Neurodevelopmental disorders are diverse, and even though they are independent diagnostic entities they share common manifestations in people with brain damage or dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex; that is, neurodevelopmental disorders present different alterations in executive functions., Development: The aim of the present study was to offer an overview of the recent findings on executive functioning in children, adolescents and young adults with different neurodevelopmental disorders: autistic spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and specific learning disorder. Hence, with this objective, 27 studies from the literature were reviewed. The results indicate a statistically significant association between the dimension of flexibility and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (W of Wilcoxon = 123.0; p = 0.011), and flexibility with autistic spectrum disorder (W of Wilcoxon = 101.5; p = 0.003); and absence of a statistically significant association between the different assessed dimensions and specific learning disorder., Conclusions: The dimensions of executive functioning are affected to a variable degree in different neurodevelopmental disorders. We can hypothesis that the dimensions that are affected in the different neurodevelopmental disorders can be characterized in terms of the existence of a continuum, and occasionally those dimensions are too complex to establish categorical limits when comparing different neurodevelopmental disorders.

Introduction: According to the prefrontal model, individuals with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) manifest behaviours mimicking dysexecutive syndrome as a result of blood gas abnormalities and sleep fragmentation., Objective: To compare executive functions in OSA patients with normative values and explore their relationship with blood gas abnormalities and sleep fragmentation., Patients and Methods: Patients were recruited from the wider community and from a tertiary care hospital. The score obtained in the neuropsychological assessment was compared with Student's t-test for a sample. A multiple linear regression analysis was subsequently estimated, using polysomnographic parameters of hypercapnia, hypoxemia and sleep fragmentation as the predictor variables, and the executive function score as the variable to be predicted., Results: Although the neuropsychological assessment performance of 26% of this sample was classified as executive impairment, indicators of sleep fragmentation and gas abnormalities failed to predict the performance of executive functions., Conclusion: A proportion of the patients with OSA presented performance similar to a dysexecutive syndrome; however, the factors underlying and fostering this type of cognitive manifestation remain unclear. Early treatment for this public health problem could be the best tool available for improving quality of life and preventing health risks.

Introduction: Studies of executive function in autism spectrum disorder without intellectual disability (ASD-WID) patients are contradictory. We assessed a wide range of executive functioning cognitive domains in a sample of children and adolescents with ASD-WID and compared them with age-, sex-, and intelligence quotient (IQ)-matched healthy controls., Methods: Twenty-four ASD-WID patients (mean age 12.8±2.5 years; 23 males; mean IQ 99.20±18.81) and 32 healthy controls (mean age 12.9±2.7 years; 30 males; mean IQ 106.81±11.02) were recruited., Results: Statistically significant differences were found in all cognitive domains assessed, with better performance by the healthy control group: attention (U=185.0; P=.0005; D=0.90), working memory (T51.48=2.597; P=.006; D=0.72), mental flexibility (U=236.0; P=.007; D=0.67), inhibitory control (U=210.0; P=.002; D=0.71), and problem solving (U=261.0; P=0.021; D=0.62). These statistically significant differences were also found after controlling for IQ., Conclusion: Children and adolescents with ASD-WID have difficulties transforming and mentally manipulating verbal information, longer response latency, attention problems (difficulty set shifting), trouble with automatic response inhibition and problem solving, despite having normal IQ. Considering the low executive functioning profile found in those patients, we recommend a comprehensive intervention including work on non-social problems related to executive cognitive difficulties., (Copyright © 2015 SEP y SEPB. Published by Elsevier España. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Self-limited epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes (SeLECTS) is the most frequent self-limited focal epilepsy. This study aimed to assess the cognitive, behavioral, and other neuropsychological aspects of children with SeLECTS, and compare them with a control group., Subjects and Methods: A case-control study was carried out between January and May 2022. Patients with SeLECTS, aged between 6 and 18 years, and followed-up at our hospital were selected for inclusion in the study. For each case, two age-matched controls were opportunistically recruited. All the participants performed the EpiTrack Junior® test, and their parents filled out the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)., Results: Eighteen patients were included (mean age: 8.7 ± 1.7 years). At SeLECTS' diagnosis, 83% of cases had adequate psychomotor development, and 17% had a neurodevelopmental disorder. The EpiTrack-Junior® and the Total Problems CBCL scores were not influenced by the laterality of the epileptic focus nor by the number of seizures. 61% of cases showed mild or significant impairment in the EpiTrack-Junior® test versus 44% of controls (p = 0.712), and 39% of cases vs. 14% of controls had 'clinically significant' scores on the Total Problems CBCL scale (p = 0.087)., Conclusions: Although this study did not find statistically significant differences between cases and controls, it should be noted that most patients with SeLECTS had a mild or significant disability in executive functions. A considerable percentage of cases were in the pathological range regarding emotional/behavioral problems. This study highlights the importance of screening the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional problems in all patients with SeLECTS.

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a very debilitating disorder and has shown different cognitive deficit patterns. Some of them are controversial because they relate some deficit with autistic traits. Both, social cognition and executive function are top-down processes that regulate social interaction and adaptive behavior in a complex world. Neurocognitive profiles focused on this process are especially useful as endophenotypes in clinic research and intervention.The aims of this study are (1) assessing the contribution of social cognition and executive function to socio-emotional and neurocognitive patterns in anorexia nervosa and (2) investigating the possible relationships between social cognition tasks and executive function measures and clinic features in this eating disorder. Fifteen adolescents with anorexia nervosa and 15 healthy controls took part in this study. Patients were diagnosed with DSM-IV-R criteria. They had suffered the disease for 3 years (SD ± 1.47). They were compared in social cognition (Reading the Mind in the Eyes and the IOWA Gambling Task) and executive function (verbal fluency tasks, trail making test, and digit span test [DST] from the WAIS-III). The results show that there was a significant difference in social cognition, at the theory of mind and the IOWA gambling task. Finally, for the executive function task, adolescents with AN displayed significant differences in both direct DST and inverse DST, as well as in semantic fluency and phonological fluency compared with controls. These domains show different highly-significant relationships that could explain neurocognitive profiles. In conclusion, many differences were found between adolescents with AN and healthy controls. AN patients displayed important deficits in theory of mind recognition, executive function, and decision making. These deficits could play a role in maintaining pathological patterns and also important endophenotypes in research and intervention might be considered.

Introduction: The prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the population is currently 4%. It is usually associated with problems related to executive functions, attention and emotional regulation. Non-invasive brain stimulation, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), may compensate for cognitive impairment, thereby benefiting neuroplasticity and long-term outcomes., Aim: The aim is to find evidence concerning the dual application of tDCS with cognitive stimulation activities in the treatment of ADHD in adults, in relation to attention, executive functions and emotional regulation., Materials and Methods: Two reviewers conducted a literature search of Web of Science and PubMed on 22.02.2023, and selected articles that included ADHD patients aged 17-65 years old. The results were analysed using synthesis without meta-analysis (SWiM)., Results: Seven of 956 articles were selected for the present review, and were all related to executive functions and attention. No article related to neuromodulation of emotional regulation in adults with ADHD was found. Significant results related to attention and executive functions, and specifically inhibitory control, were found. All studies followed the international 10-20 system developed for the electroencephalogram., Conclusions: Further research is required in view of the limited number of studies found on the symptomatological treatment of ADHD with tDCS in adult populations and the lack of awareness of emotional regulation. This research should use a treatment involving more than two sessions. These tasks do not involve learning and involve a stimulation of more than 1.5 mA.

Introduction: Smoking is one of the causes leading to the development of disease and mortality worldwide. One of the focuses of interest in this area is the impact of smoking on neuropsychological health. However, few studies provide instruments to assess executive functioning in smokers. The purpose of this study was to examine the viability of the internal structure of a neuropsychological battery for the assessment of executive function in smokers., Subjects and Methods: A total of 171 smokers (Mage= 47.44, SDage= 8.48) were assessed. Executive functions were assessed at baseline with measures of inhibition (go/no go task and five digit test), updating (visual search and attention test and letter-number sequencing) and shifting (delay discounting task and Iowa gambling task)., Results: The exploratory factor analysis obtained a three-component solution of 59.6%. Establishing a first factor composed of visual search and attention test and letter-number sequencing, a second factor composed of delay discounting task and go/no go task and a third factor with Iowa gambling task and five digit test., Conclusions: The analysis of the internal structure reflected three factors which are consistent with the structure proposed by Miyake (2000).

Objectives: Establish the profile of executive function and behavior in fifty consumers of alcohol are located in a high-risk level according to the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and which belong to different universities in the city of Bogota., Material and Methods: Was used analytical transverse design, and were taken as study variables executive function (inhibition, monitoring, sequencing, planning, cognitive flexibility, working memory, attentional control, categorization and concept formation) and executive behavior (decision making, impulse control, emotional feedback, empathy and theory of mind)., Results and Conclutions: Results showed that there is a greater number of cognitive domains of executive function involved in contrast to those of executive behavior. Such is for inhibition, sequencing, attention control (processing speed), categorization, cognitive flexibility, self monitoring and planning., (Copyright © 2014 Asociación Colombiana de Psiquiatría. Publicado por Elsevier España. All rights reserved.)

Background: Modafinil is a drug developed and used for the treatment of excessive lethargy. Even though very effective for sleep disorders, it is still controversial whether modafinil can improve performance in high-order cognitive processes such as memory and executive function., Methods: This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial was designed to evaluate the effect of modafinil (compared to placebo) on the cognitive functions of healthy students. 160 volunteers were recruited and allocated randomly to modafinil or placebo group, and were assessed using the Stroop Test, BCET test and Digit span test., Results: We found a significant difference in favor of modafinil compared to placebo in the proportion of correct answers of Stroop Test in congruent situation. A significant shorter latency of modafinil group in the incongruent situation of Stroop test was also found. No differences were found in Digit Span, or BCET tests., Conclusions: The study demonstrated that modafinil does not enhance the global cognitive performance of healthy non-sleep deprived students, except regarding non-demanding tasks. In particular, this drug does not seem to have positive effects on mental processes that sustain studying tasks in the college population under normal conditions. We expect these findings to demystify the use of this drug and help decision making concerning pharmacological public policies.

Resumen: Introducción: Las tareas de atención compleja y fluencia no verbal se utilizan en las valoraciones neuropsicológicas con el objetivo de explorar subdominios de las funciones ejecutivas. El objetivo de este estudio es proporcionar datos normativos ajustados por edad, escolaridad y género de las pruebas Delis Kaplan-Design Fluency Test (DK-DFT), Color Trails Tests (CTT) y Dual Task (DT) como parte del Proyecto NEURONORMA-Plus. Método: Se incluyeron 308 individuos sin deterioro cognitivo de entre 18 y 92 años de edad. Se convirtieron las puntuaciones brutas en puntuaciones escalares ajustadas por edad y se realizaron ajustes por escolaridad y género aplicando regresiones lineales estratificando en dos grupos de edad (< 50 y ≥ 50 años). Resultados: Globalmente la edad tuvo un impacto negativo en el DK-DFT y el CTT. La escolaridad mostró un efecto positivo en las puntuaciones del DK-DFT sólo en el grupo de mayor edad (≥ 50 años) y se halló un rendimiento discretamente superior en los hombres más jóvenes en la condición básica de esta prueba. La escolaridad se asoció positivamente con todas las puntuaciones de CTT en ambos grupos de edad, excepto en la subprueba CTT-1 en el grupo de adultos jóvenes. La edad y la escolaridad no mostraron influencia sobre el rendimiento en el DT, a diferencia del género, ya que las mujeres jóvenes tuvieron un rendimiento ligeramente superior. Conclusión: Estos datos normativos pueden resultar útiles para la interpretación de las evaluaciones neuropsicológicas en población española. Abstract: Introduction: Complex attention and non-verbal fluency tasks are used in neuropsychological assessments with the aim of exploring subdomains of executive function. The purpose of this study is to provide norms and age-, education-, and sex-adjusted data for the Delis Kaplan-Design Fluency Test (DK-DFT), Color Trails Test (CTT), and Dual Task (DT) as part of the NEURONORMA-Plus project. Methods: The sample included 308 cognitively healthy individuals aged between 18 and 92 years. Raw scores were converted to age-adjusted scaled scores. These were further converted into education- and sex-adjusted scaled scores by applying linear regression, with 2 age groups (

ANTECEDENTES El modafinilo es un fármaco desarrollado para el tratamiento del letargo extremo. A pesar de estar probada su efectividad en la intervención de los trastornos del sueño, todavía existe la controversia sobre si puede mejorar el desempeño del sujeto en procesos cognitivos superiores, como la memoria y las funciones ejecutivas. MÉTODOS Este ensayo clínico aleatorizado, de diseño crossover, doble ciego, controlado por placebo; fue diseñado para evaluar el efecto del modafinilo comparado con un placebo, en las funciones cognitivas de estudiantes universitarios sanos. Se reclutaron 162 voluntarios, asignados aleatoriamente a un grupo de consumo de modafinilo o a un grupo de consumo de placebo. Ambos grupos fueron evaluados usando el Test Stroop, el Test Biber de Estimación Cognitiva y el Digit Span Test (test de amplitud de memoria de dígitos). Luego de 15 días, fueron asignados a la otra intervención RESULTADOS Se encontró una diferencia significativa en favor del modafinilo comparado con el placebo en la proporción de respuestas correctas del Test de Stroop en la situación congruente. También se encontró una menor latencia de respuesta entre los sujetos que consumieron modafinilo en la situación incongruente de ese mismo test. No se encontraron diferencias en el Digit Span o el Test Biber de Estimación Cognitiva. CONCLUSIONES Este estudio demuestra que el modafinilo no mejora el desempeño cognitivo global de estudiantes sanos sin deprivación de sueño, excepto en lo que respecta a tareas que no son demandantes. En particular, este fármaco no parece tener efectos positivos en los procesos mentales que sustentan actividades de estudio en la población universitaria bajo condiciones normales. Se espera que estos hallazgos desmitifiquen el uso de este neuroestimulante y contribuya a la toma de decisiones sobre políticas farmacológicas públicas.

Introduction: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common cause of death and disability in the paediatric population, although the literature on the Spanish population is scarce. From the perspective of early vulnerability, recent research findings suggest that early brain injury has worse sequelae and a higher risk of impact., Aims: To analyse the intelligence profile, executive functions and behaviour, and examine the association between age at the time of the injury, severity of the TBI and environmental factors for cognitive and behavioural outcomes., Patients and Methods: Seventy-one participants with moderate to severe TBI, from 6 to 16 years of age, were assessed with measures of intelligence (intelligence quotient), executive functions and behaviour., Results: Children with TBI are at increased risk of disability in all aspects of intelligence, executive functions and behaviour. Children who suffered a traumatic brain injury in infancy and the preschool period had more overall effects on intelligence quotient and some aspects of the executive functions., Conclusions: Socioeconomic and cultural factors are the best predictors for intelligence quotient and behaviour. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the sequelae of TBI in children, which will help in rehabilitation planning and re-adaptation to functional life.

Introduction: Executive functions and Metacognition are integrated for the management of intellectual resources in close relation to intelligence its functioning and results; they are specially interesting for understanding the expression and development of high intellectual abilility (HIA). The aim of the study is to find out the relationship between executive functions (and components) and metacognition (and components) in schoolchildren with HIA., Materials and Method: Measures of executive and metacognitive functioning and perfectionism were extracted from a sample of n= 147 schoolchildren with HIA., Results: statistical analyses using Path analysis, offered an adjusted model in which the different executive components are related to the metacognitive components., Discussion: We conclude and discuss the integrative model between executive function and metacognition and its mediating role as an endophenotype between genetic endowment and the expression of resource performance, suggesting the transfer of results to the education of high intellectual ability for the optimal and ethical expression of high potential.

Introduction: Dual-tasking is a non-pharmacological intervention in people with neurodegenerative conditions, and is used in Parkinson's disease (PD), primarily to enhance motor performance. The aim of this review is to compile the current evidence on how dual-task training affects cognitive processes in people with PD., Material and Methods: A systematic review was undertaken, applying PRISMA guidelines, which included articles obtained from the PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct and Springer Link databases. Methodological quality was assessed using PEDro and ROBINS-I., Results: Twelve articles met the inclusion and exclusion criteria: nine of them were randomized controlled trials, and the remaining three were non-randomized studies. Improvements in attention and executive functions were identified, although the diversity of approaches and duration means that reaching definitive conclusions is difficult., Conclusions: Increased research and standardized intervention programmes are essential. Longitudinal and randomized controlled studies in representative samples which provide conclusions that are applicable to other contexts are also important.

Introduction: Social distancing measures due to the COVID-19 pandemic prevented many children with neurodevelopmental disorders from accessing face-to-face treatments. Telerehabilitation grew at this time as an alternative therapeutic tool. In this study we analysed remote cognitive rehabilitation in neurodevelopmental disorders., Methods: This was a prospective, quasi-experimental (before-after) study that included 22 patients (mean age 9.41 years) with neurodevelopmental disorders who had telerehabilitation for over six months., Results: After six months of telerehabilitation, a statistically significant improvement was found with a large effect size in these areas: attention (sustained, selective and divided), executive functions (verbal and visual working memory, categorisation, processing speed), visuospatial skills (spatial orientation, perceptual integration, perception, simultanagnosia) and language (comprehensive and expressive). On the Weiss Functional Impairment Scale, all areas (family, learning and school, self-concept, activities of daily living, risk activities) improved with statistical significance. We found a positive correlation between the number of sessions and the improvement observed in executive functions (visual working memory, processing speed), attention (sustained attention, divided attention) and visuospatial skills (spatial orientation, perceptual integration, perception, simultanagnosia). We did not find statistical significance between the family structure and the number of sessions carried out. A high degree of perception of improvement and satisfaction was observed in the parents., Conclusions: Telerehabilitation is a safe alternative tool which, although it does not replace face-to-face therapy, can achieve significant cognitive and functional improvements in children with neurodevelopmental disorders., (Copyright © 2022 Asociación Colombiana de Psiquiatría. Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Abstract Objective Executive dysfunction after traumatic brain injury may lead to reduced daily functionality due to direct damage to the frontal lobe or to disruption of its connections to other brain regions. This study aimed to compare the performance of adults with and without traumatic brain injury on executive functions tasks. Method The present study had a descriptive transversal design and included 43 participants divided into a clinical group (N = 23, age M = 34.3 [10.86]) and a control group (N = 20, age M = 38.3 [10.7]). The battery consisted of traditional instruments and the Ecological Hotel Task. Results A significant difference was found in the performance of the groups in the planning measures (number of tasks [t = -3.06; p < 0.01] and planning score [t = -3.06; p < 0.01]), highlighting the advantages of using both the traditional performance paradigms and the ecological tasks in neuropsychological assessment of executive functions. Conclusion Results suggested that the ecological task might discriminate better executive dysfunction, emphasizing the importance of using activities that simulate real-life situations of the participants.

The Attentional Control Theory (ACT) posits that, while trait anxiety may not directly impact performance, it can influence processing efficiency by prompting the use of compensatory mechanisms. The specific nature of these mechanisms, which might be reflective, is not detailed by the ACT. In a study involving 110 students (M = 20.12; SD = 2.10), surveys were administered to assess the students’ metacognitive beliefs, trait anxiety, and emotion regulation strategies (ERSs). The participants engaged in two working memory exercises: the digit span task from the WAIS-IV and an emotional n-back task. The findings indicated that anxiety, metacognitive beliefs, and maladaptive ERSs did not affect task performance but were correlated with increased response times. Several regression analyses demonstrated that a lack of confidence in one’s cognitive abilities and maladaptive ERSs predict higher reaction times (RT) in the n-back task. Additionally, maladaptive ERSs also predict an increased use of strategies in the digit span task. Finally, two mediation analyses revealed that anxiety increases processing efficiency, and this relation is mediated by the use of maladaptive ERSs. These results underscore the importance of the reflective level in mediating the effects of trait anxiety on efficiency. They highlight the necessity of incorporating metacognitive beliefs and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies for a thorough comprehension of the Attentional Control Theory. Recognizing these factors offers valuable perspectives for enhancing cognitive capabilities and fostering academic achievement.

Introduction: The short Prefrontal Symptoms Inventory (PSI-20) is a questionnaire that investigates symptoms of prefrontal malfunctioning in daily life. It has been shown to have good psychometric properties and has been applied in the general population and clinical samples from Spain and other Spanish-speaking countries., Aims: To normalise and standardise the PSI-20 in a broad sample of subjects of all ages in a Spanish population., Subjects and Methods: The PSI-20 was administered to 4704 subjects: in one sample made up of 2474 subjects from the Spanish general population, over 18 years of age, and in another consisting of 2230 school-age subjects (15-17 years old), representative of the population of Madrid., Results: The effect of the interaction of sex, age and level of education on the scores was observed, although the effect of level of education was low. As expected, the adolescents, still undergoing their process of maturation, obtained higher scores on all the subscales and the questionnaire as a whole. Females scored significantly higher on symptoms of poor emotional control, and males achieved higher scores on symptoms of poor control over social behaviour. Tables were developed differentiated by sex and for those above and below 18 years of age., Conclusion: The data presented allow us to interpret the scores obtained in the PSI-20 in the Spanish population, including subjects under 18 and adults.

Introduction: It has been hypothesized that cognitive and memory-related brain function in transgender during cross-sex hormonal treatment might be activated towards that of the subjective gender. However, research on this topic has produced inconsistent results, and to the best of our knowledge no studies have investigated neurocognitive changes in androgen-treated female-to-male (FM) transgender adolescents., Subjects and Methods: A total of 15 FM transgender adolescents (14-17 years) underwent neuropsychological testing in order to examine the effects of androgen on visuo-spacial abilities, verbal memory language, processing speed and executive functions. We used a longitudinal design in which 10 participants were tested twice, before and after receiving 12 months of testosterone treatment. This group was also compared with 5 FM transgender adolescents off-androgen treatment., Results: Participants tested before and after 12 months of androgen treatment improved significantly on processing speed in a visuo-spatial (Rey-Osterrieth complex figure test) and in a visuo-oral task (Stroop), their performance on a verbal memory task (TAVEC) and on interference (Stroop) and they exhibited lower impulsivity control (CARAS-R). On-androgen treatment adolescents exhibited worse cognitive impulsivity control than off-androgen treatment adolescents., Conclusions: The results indicate that androgen has an influence on immediate verbal memory, cognitive interference, impulsivity control and processing speed.

Background: Health professionals show a high prevalence of burnout syndrome. This syndrome could be involved in the alteration of higher cognitive functions in the clinical setting. The aim of this study is to evaluate whether burnout is related to the executive functions of inhibition, working memory, decision-making, and cognitive flexibility in palliative care health professionals., Method: Degree of burnout was evaluated in seventy-seven health professionals from palliative care units by the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI-HSS), while executive functions were evaluated by Stroop test (inhibition), Letter-Number Sequencing (working memory), Iowa Gambling Task (decision-making) and Trail Making Test (cognitive flexibility). The total sample was classified in relation to both degree of burnout (low, medium, high) in each subscale of MBI-HSS (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment), and the number of dimensions altered (high levels in none, one or more than one)., Results: Burnout syndrome was present in 54.5% of palliative care health professionals, 15.6% of them with more than one dimension altered; these professionals showed significantly lower scores than professionals without burnout in the Stroop test, the Letter-Number Sequencing and the Iowa Gambling Task. Higher levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization were associated with significantly lower scores in the Iowa Gambling Task for assessing decision-making., Conclusions: The results showed that palliative care health professionals with a higher level of burnout have an alteration of inhibition, working memory and decision-making. These executive functions can be relevant in the clinical setting since they could be related to the cognitive thinking required for correct clinical reasoning by health professionals.

Introduction: Executive functions are defined as a set of skills that are involved in various activities which are novel to the individual and which require a creative solution. It is not easy or straight forward to conceptualise or identify the factors that make up a population of young children., Aim: To analyse the components of executive function due to the clinical implications in different neurodevelopmental disorders in a population-based sample of young children., Development: From the body of literature, 35 published papers that used different factor analysis approaches for factor extraction were reviewed. The probability of a study with three factors being undertaken in the stage between 0 to 12 years is 1.44 times higher than studies being undertaken with some focus on another structure. The probability of a study being undertaken that focuses on the Flexibility dimension in the stage between 0 to 12 years is 1.45 times higher than a study being undertaken that focuses on any other dimension. The association between the different structures and dimensions that are analysed with respect to age using the Kendall tau-b indicates a statistically significant association between: studies with three factors and age (tau = 0.29; p = 0.044) and flexibility with age (tau = 0.37; p = 0.012)., Conclusions: The diversity of the obtained results can be attributed to, and is in line with, the plurality of theoretical conceptualisations, tests used and statistical analyzes carried out. It can be concluded that working memory, inhibition and flexibility are the executive processes most commonly found in the factorial models of executive control in young children and adolescents.

Introduction: Clinical evidence gathered in recent years indicates that elderly individuals more frequently display cognitive changes. These age-related changes refer, above all, to memory functions and to the speed of thinking and reasoning. A number of studies have shown that physical activity can be used as an important mechanism for protecting the cognitive functions., Aim: To test the hypothesis that physical exercise is able to bring about changes in the cognitive functions of healthy elderly adults without cognitive impairment, thereby improving their quality of life., Subjects and Methods: The study population included participants in the University of Salamanca geriatric revitalisation programme. The sample initially consisted of a total of 44 subjects of both sexes, with a mean age of 74.93 years. The neuropsychological evaluation of the subjects included a series of validated neuropsychological tests: Mini-Mental State Examination, Benton Visual Retention Test, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Stroop Test and Trail Making Test., Results: The results show that more physical activity is related to better performance in the cognitive functions of the subjects included in this study, after applying the geriatric revitalisation programme., Conclusions: The geriatric revitalisation programme can be a valuable tool for improving cognition in adults over 60 years of age, resulting in enhanced well-being in their quality of life.

Introduction: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) present difficulties in adaptive functioning and learning, possibly associated with failures in executive functioning characteristic of both disorders., Aim: To analyze the impact of executive functioning in the adaptive behaviors of socialization and daily life and in learning behaviors in children with ASD and children with ADHD., Subjects and Methods: The participants were 124 children matched in age and intellectual quotient: 37 children with typical development, 52 children with ASD and 35 children with ADHD. Parents reported on their children's adaptive behaviors, while teachers provided information on learning behaviors and executive functioning in daily life., Results: There are significant differences between the groups with ASD and ADHD with the typical development group in all domains evaluated. In addition, the group with ASD had worse socialization skills while persistence in learning was more affected in children with ADHD. Finally, the metacognitive index of executive functioning predicted the socialization and persistence of children with ASD. On the other hand, the index of behavioral regulation and the educational level of the parents predicted the socialization skills in children with ADHD., Conclusions: The results highlight the need to include differentiated executive strategies in the intervention of children with ASD and children with ADHD.

Introduction: The marked heterogeneity among children diagnosed with specific language impairment (SLI) highlights the importance of studying and describing cases based on the distinction between the expressive and receptive-expressive SLI subtypes. The main objective of this study was to examine neuropsychological, linguistic, and narrative behaviours in children with different SLI subtypes., Method: A comprehensive battery of language and neuropsychological tests was administered to a total of 58 children (29 with SLI and 29 normal controls) between 5.60 and 11.20 years old., Results: Both SLI subtypes performed more poorly than the control group in language skills, narrative, and executive function. Furthermore, the expressive SLI group demonstrated substantial ungrammaticality, as well as problems with verbal fluency and both verbal and spatial working memory, while the receptive-expressive SLI subtype displayed poorer neuropsychological performance in general., Conclusions: Our findings showed that children with either SLI subtype displayed executive dysfunctions that were not limited to verbal tasks but rather extended to nonverbal measures. This could reflect a global cognitive difficulty which, along with declining linguistic and narrative skills, illustrates the complex profile of this impairment., (Copyright © 2016 Sociedad Española de Neurología. Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Identifying retained activity participation to old age can improve age-related changes in balance and cognition function. Subjects ≥ 60 years were enrolled in this study. Balance and Cognitive function include working memory, executive function, and sustained and divided attention was evaluated with “Fullerton advanced balance”, “n-back”, “Wisconsin card sort”, “sustain and divided attention test”, respectively. In addition, retained activity participation was measured using the Activity Card Sort questionnaire. The univariate and multivariate regression analyses of different domains of retained activity participation were used as independent variables, including instrumental activity, low-effort leisure, high-effort leisure, and social activity on balance and specific domains of cognition. Seventy-seven subjects (65.3 ± 4.4 years, 61% female) were included. About 47% of older adults had a college education, 32.3% had a diploma, and 20.7% had elementary–middle education. These results show that retained instrumental activity had a relationship with working memory (β = 0.079, p < 0.05). In addition, we found that retained high-effort leisure activity can increase balance, divided attention, and executive function score (β = 0.1, β = 0.05, β = 0.02, p < 0.05). Moreover, there was a positive relationship between retained low-effort activity and sustained attention (β = 0.08, p < 0.05). In addition, the coefficient of determination (R2) for balance, working memory, executive function, sustained, and divided attention were 0.45, 0.25, 0.13, 0.11 and 0.18, respectively. The study suggests that retained activity participation types may have various effects on balance and some selective cognitive components in older people.

Study of the neurodevelopment of children is vital to promote good quality of life during childhood. Few batteries showing adequate reliability and validity indices are available to evaluate the different neuropsychological domains. The objective of this study was to obtain initial evidence on the validity of the Computerized Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children (BENCI) in a Spanish population. To assess the validity of the BENCI battery and other measures of task switching, abstract reasoning, linguistic abilities, processing speed, and attention were used. The sample was composed of a total of 73 children aged 9, 10, and 11 years. Significant differences among age groups were observed in the domains of sustained attention, memory, and executive function. In addition, the BENCI subtests showed statistically significant correlations with the other neuropsychological tools. Further research is warranted on the relationship of the BENCI with other tests in wider age groups and to assess the factorial structure of the scale and the reliability values of the subtests. In conclusion, this study seems to indicate that the Spanish version of the BENCI has promising validity to be used for evaluating the main neuropsychological domains in children.

Introduction: Theory of mind (TM) is involved in social cognition, as it evaluates our ability to impute our mental states to the others in order to predict and explain behaviour. In the literature, it has been noticed that children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) show some impairments of TM when compared with children not neurodevelopmental impaired. Our goal in this study was to compare the TM in two groups: schooler children with normal development and schooler children with ADHD., Subjects and Methods: A total of 35 children, aged between 6 and 12 years, were recruited: 17 with ADHD and 18 not neurodevelopmental impaired. TM was evaluated using an assessment method validated for the Portuguese population: Turtle on the Island-Battery of Assessment of Executive Functions in Children., Results: We obtained two comparable groups concerning sociodemographic data. There were no significant differences between the two groups regarding TM., Conclusion: The TM assessment in Portuguese children did not reveal significant impairment regarding this cognitive skill in children with ADHD.

Introduction: Cerebral palsy is defined as a group of developmental disorders of movement and posture that causes social and cognitive deficits, emotional, and behavior disturbances., Aim: To study the relationship between executive functioning and behavior in children with cerebral palsy from the answers given by parents and teachers on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and on the System Assessment Adaptive Behavior (ABAS-II)., Patients and Methods: The sample consisted on 46 children with CP with a mean age of 10.26 ± 2.95 years. Forty-four of the 46 children were distributed in Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) into level I (n = 16), level II (n = 3), level III (n = 11), level IV (n = 10) and level V (n = 4)., Results: The results showed a relationship between BRIEF and ABAS-II. Furthermore, discrepancies between the responses from parents and teachers, both in the ABAS-II and in the BRIEF, were obtained., Conclusions: We found a significant relationship between executive functioning in children with cerebral palsy and adaptive behavior. We found discrepancies in the answers given by parents and teachers. Finally, the data showed that the higher motor impairment increases difficulties at home.

Introduction: Patients with schizophrenia have been found impaired in important aspects of their basic and social cognition. Our aim in this study is to explore the relationship between executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM) deficiencies in patients that suffer the illness., Materials and Methods: Twenty-two Spanish-speaking inpatients and 22 healthy controls matched in age, sex, education, language dominance, and premorbid IQ were assessed in EF and ToM abilities. The former were assessed using 10 tasks that covered 5 cognitive dimensions and the latter using 3 different tasks. Correlation analyses were used to explore the level of association between executive and mentalizing abilities. A series of discriminant function analyses were carried out to examine the relative contribution of each executive and mentalizing task to discriminate between patients and controls., Results: Patients showed impairments in both, executive and ToM abilities. The correlation analyses showed a virtual absence of association between EF and ToM abilities within the group of patients, and an almost opposite pattern within the healthy group. ToM performance was more accurate than executive performance to discriminate patients from controls., Conclusions: Although EFs and ToM deficits come into view together in schizophrenia, they appear to belong to different and relatively independent cognitive domains., (Copyright © 2013 SEP y SEPB. Published by Elsevier España. All rights reserved.)