Search

This paper summarises terrorist attacks on the means and institutions of Yugoslav air transport. These attacks include a total of six aircraft hijackings occurring between 1948 and 1981, the explosion of a bomb onboard a Yugoslav Airlines aircraft above Czechoslovakia in 1972, and several attacks on Yugoslav Airlines offices abroad. In three more cases, aircraft that had been hijacked abroad landed on Yugoslav airports. Besides these, it discusses international and Yugoslav regulations regarding criminal activities against the safety of air navigation. It is based on unpublished archival records, press, and literature.

The purpose of this article is to clarify the role of Russophobia in the structure of Ukrainian political identity. The genesis and transformations of Russophobic normative-value attitudes within the geographical boundaries of modern Ukraine are considered. The main ways of manifestation of Russophobia in socio-political practices are analyzed. The pivotal role of Russophobia has been revealed, without which the entire structure of the national and state identity of the Ukrainian state is not viable. The conclusion is made about the need for systematic efforts of Russian political science to develop a holistic project for the political reintegration of Ukraine into Russia and the “Russian World”.

Scientific research on schoolshooting has been actualized in the early 21st century, but incidents have been recorded much earlier, since the late 16th century. The article focuses on the causes and explanation of the mechanism of imitation, a significant driving force in schoolshooting. Examples of cases are given to illustrate the effect of the copycat mechanism and measures to prevent the spread of the 'copycat effect' are argued. The paper identifies the key features that unite terrorism and schoolshooting, which provide a strong case for considering schoolshooting incidents as a new type of terrorism. The similarity of schoolshooting incidents to terrorist acts is argued through the description of common characteristics, such as ritual and demonstrative nature of violence, planned and symbolic nature of violence, cultural determination, and group identification. This paper focuses not on the scientific problem of studying schoolshooting as a special phenomenon, but on the problems of creating, organizing, and managing a proactive system of schoolshooting prevention. The results of the analysis of American practice of development and application of threat assessment system to prevent schoolshooting are presented. The description of necessary elements of the complex system for prevention of schoolshooting incidents is presented, the definition of the proactive system is given.

This paper aims to examine the functional utility of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) for regional stability after the withdrawal of the United States from Afghanistan. The instability in Afghanistan may become a serious regional challenge for the SCO to seek an acceptable solution. The study addresses the question that how the SCO members are dealing with the emerging crisis in Afghanistan. Hence, the prospective role of the SCO in building consensus among member states is unravelled with a conceptual framework, based on two theories of international relations namely regional security complex and functional cooperation theory. These theories provide a conceptual understanding that the interests of states, belonging to a general geographical region, are integrated and their mutual cooperation is more durable than the states outside the region. Subsequently, the study explored the role of the SCO in maintaining regional security and traced its efforts for stability. To explore the complexities within the SCO while managing the nascent government of the Taliban (forbidden in Russia) in Afghanistan, qualitative data has been collected. The data includes government websites, official statements and documents, books, research articles and newspapers, published in different countries. It is found that the worsening security situation in Afghanistan is a common threat to all the members of the SCO, so consensus is required to promote practical measures including the development of Afghanistan. Therefore, the SCO is focusing on addressing the immediate and tangible consequences of the Taliban’s takeover after the withdrawal of the US forces from Afghanistan and supporting regional states to adopt functional cooperation to reconstruct Afghanistan.

The review is devoted to the analysis of the monograph by A.S. Zhanbosinova “Please remove the undeserved stigma of Article 58 from me”: ego-documents in the history of political terror in Kazakhstan.” Interest in this kind of publications using a large number of new documents extracted from Kazakh archives is in great demand both in the scientific community and in society as a whole. The unique materials selected in the work will allow to get acquainted directly with the tragic pages of our history and form one’s own opinion on a number of complex episodes. The main advantage of this monograph is that it allows you to look at the course of history through the eyes of an ordinary person. The review contains recommendations for the author to continue this work and explore new topics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Bulletin of Ablai Khan KazUIRandWL: Series 'International Relations & Regional Studies' is the property of Kazakh Ablai Khan University of International Relations & World Languages and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

İnsansız hava araçlarının dünya genelinde birçok kullanım alanı mevcuttur. Multidisipliner alanda kullanılan bu araçlar Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin terörle mücadele sürecinde taktiksel değişimi beraberinde getirmiş ve Millî Teknoloji Hamlesi kapsamında Türkiye’nin uluslararası güvenliğe katkısı açısından büyük öneme sahip olmuştur. IHA/SIHA üretimi sürecinde bu konuda çığır açan çalışmalar resmî kurumlar ve BAYKAR gibi şahsi girişimler tarafından geliştirilmiş ve Türkiye’nin liderlik ettiği sınır ötesi operasyonlarda önemli başarılar kat edilmiş ve bölgesel güvenliğin sağlanmasında Türkiye önemli bir rol oynamıştır. 1990’lardan bu yana yurtdışı bağımlılık neticesinde satın alınan cihaz ve silahların veri güvenliği sağlanamadığından ülke kendi savunma sanayi stratejisini oluşturmuş ve başarılı bir istihbarı temel ile havadan havaya füze atma kapasiteli son teknoloji savaş uçakları ve insansız hava araçları ile yapılan operasyonlar başta DAEŞ olmak üzere terör örgütlerinin hareket kabiliyetlerini önemli ölçüde kısıtlamış ve Türkiye’yi bölgesel ve uluslararası güvenlik alanında önemli bir oyuncu hâline getirmiştir. Ülkelerin bağımsızlığının sadece özgürlük ve demokrasi yönetimi ile sınırlandırılamayacağı günümüzde bir ülkenin kendi güvenliği için özellikle savunma sanayisinde yenilikler yapıp ilerleme kaydedebilmesi gerekmektedir. Türkiye’nin son yıllarda önemli bir ivme kazandığı insansız hava aracı sistemleri hem devlet güvenliği hem de bölgesel ve uluslararası güvenlik hususlarında ülkenin yeni bir rol elde etmesini sağlamıştır. Bir başka deyişle bu araçlar geleneksel askeri hava araçlarına kıyasla maliyet etkinliği ve riskin az olması gibi avantajlara sahip olup ayrıca Türkiye’nin IHA/SIHA’larını kendi iç güvenlik operasyonlarında ve sınır güvenliği gibi alanlarda kullanması bu teknolojinin stratejik önemini artırmıştır. Türkiye’nin bu alandaki ilerlemesi, uluslararası güvenlik politikaları ve savunma sanayisi trendleri açısından da önemli bir gelişme olarak değerlendirilebilir. Bu teknolojik gelişmelerin, Türkiye’nin dış politika ve savunma stratejilerini nasıl etkilediği konusunda detaylı bir analiz yapmak, bu konunun karmaşıklığını daha iyi anlamamıza yardımcı olabilir.

The article examines the changes taking place in the Taliban movement, in comparison with various episodes from Afghan history including their dependence on Pakistan, issues of fragmentation and consolidation in the movement itself. A comparative analysis of the Taliban’s commitment to various interpretations of Islam and Sharia in the 1990s and after their second rise to power in 2021 is carried out. The author analyzes the dynamics of changes in the Taliban’s policy in the field of interethnic relations, as well as the problems of their inclusion in the life of Afghan society. The relationship between the Taliban movement and international terrorist groups is also examined. The author draws attention to the stereotypical views regarding the Taliban, which are widespread in the world and prevent an objective assessment of this phenomenon.

The Arab Spring that began in Tunisia in 2010 quickly spread throughout the Middle East, fueling protests in many countries of the region, including Libya and Syria. While in Libya the UN Security Council supported NATO’s military intervention against the Gaddafi regime, the Syrian case caused disparity in views, with Russia and China vetoing the Western countries’ attempt to intervene in the conflict and topple Syria’s President Bashar al-Assad. The US intention to intervene directly in the Syrian civil war, triggered by the 2013 chemical weapons crisis, was successfully halted by Russian diplomatic efforts. Yet, the rising threat of terrorism in Syria and Iraq prompted the establishment of the US-led Global coalition against Daesh/ISIS, which conducted airstrikes in 2014, forcing Assad, who at that time had lost control over a significant part of Syria’s territory, to appeal to Russian President Vladimir Putin for assistance. As a result, Russia began its counterintervention in Syria to support Assad’s struggle to remain in power, fight terrorism and regain control of the country. This article discusses US and Russian objectives in the Syrian crisis, the limited results of the US-led military intervention and the success of the Russian counterintervention.

The studies of extremist discourse in cyberspace use set scientific methods to protect traditional spiritual values, such as state sovereignty, human rights and freedoms, historical and cultural heritage. The experience of the member States of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) on the implementation of regional international agreements aimed at combating extremism should be applied in the organization of countering extremist crimes committed using digital technologies.Aim . To characterize approaches to combating extremism in cyberspace within the SCO and to determine the methodology for assessing the degree of public danger of manifestations of extremism.Methods. The study on extremism in SCO apply a comparative legal method when posing the problem of criminalization of extremist practices and use discourse analysis of the extremism in cyberspace problem for assessing the public danger of radical ideology.Results. Three groups of methods are used in the fight against extremism: methods of legal regulation, methods of studying and assessing the public danger of extremist materials and methods of scientific research of extremism. Prohibitive legal regulation in cyberspace is applied to media content that, according to the conclusion of linguistic expertise, contains signs of extremist materials. The doctrinal basis for the legal assessment of the linguistic expertise of extremist materials is the socio-legal research conducted in the SCO member states.Conclusions. The propaganda of extremism in cyberspace qualifies as an abuse of freedom of speech, since extremist ideology leads to terrorism. The SCO consensus on the need to combat extremism is based on a scientific methods system for radical ideology research, among which discourse analysis and narrative dialogue research will play an increasing role with the digital transformation.

The theory of secularization has long been at the forefront of the philosophical discourse of the 20th century. The secular perception of social processes could not help but influence their dynamics, the decisions made by people at different levels of social life. What is allowed for a person in the world where religions no longer form the basis of social behavior and the centuries-old foundations of social life are considered canceled? The author seeks to analyze previous attempts to comprehend the problem of violence in modern culture through philosophical theories, which regard radical secularization as one of the key characteristics of modernity. At the same time, the author refers, among other things, to the study of various approaches to the problem of moral relativism, including the perspectives of theistic and atheistic philosophy: on the one hand, represented by Radical Orthodoxy of John Milbank and Alasdair McIntyre; on the other hand, postmodernism (Gilles Deleuze and Jean Baudrillard), post-structuralism (Judith Butler), and Freudo-Marxism (Slavoj Zizek). All the above-mentioned philosophers associate radical secularism with the escalation of violence in society. The study identifies the meeting point of perspectives on the problem of violence in secular society: the absence of collectively shared values rooted in the discursive tradition inevitably generates and maintains moral relativism, the prevalence of which is generally proportional to the growth in the level of violence, including latent violence. The article suggests ways to mitigate the risks of secularization and moral relativism and puts forwards an argument for the importance of tradition and community in shaping moral values. The author also emphasizes the importance of considering the role of religion, particularly Christianity, in addressing this issue.

Copyright of Bylye Gody is the property of Cherkas Global University Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Propaganda in the World & Local Conflicts is the property of Cherkas Global University Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background. Countering extremism is a permanently urgent task of any society. On the territory of Russia the number of extremist crimes has increased, both carried out by organizations and spontaneously arising from hooligan motives of persons who are not aware of the consequences of their actions. The spread of extremism in general has a nega-tive impact on society, increases the level of anxiety, the general level of crime and tangible threats to public order. The danger of extremism in recent years lies in the rapid involve-ment of children and adolescents. The purpose of the work is to analyze ways to counter extremism in modern conditions, based on the causes of its occurrence, factors that increase the spread in general and among young people in particular. Materials and methods. The realization of the research goal was achieved by analyzing the data obtained by the authors as part of their daily professional activities on the problems of countering extremism in Russia. As data for the analysis, information was used on the methods of work and recruit-ment of supporters by extremist and terrorist organizations in the Near and Middle East. Results. The article substantiates the influence of both individual psychological factors and socio-economic factors on the spread of extremism. The phenomena affecting the dignity of citizens are recognized as the most influential on the spread of extremist activity: corrup-tion, lack of opportunities for decent work and existence. Based on the data obtained in the framework of professional activity, the authors refute the popular myth that people with a low level of education and intelligence get into extremist organizations. On the contrary, the involvement of graduates of leading universities makes organized extremist activity more complex in nature, makes it difficult for law enforcement agencies to counteract it. Conclusions. Countering extremism is not only a search for persons committing crimes, but also a comprehensive work of the state and law enforcement agencies. This work should be based on improving socio-economic conditions, eliminating phenomena that increase the level of anxiety of the population and exclude them from a decent existence.

The last decade has seen an increasing focus on the involvement of the private sector in international sustainable development, particularly in high-risk jurisdictions. This involvement encompasses a broad spectrum, incorporating innovative private sector instruments—now acknowledged as ODA-eligible by the OECD—as well as traditional tools of external official support to developing countries, which remain the primary contributors to ODA flows. This literature review aims to consolidate the academic exploration of the enduring classic foreign aid tools' impact on the political risks associated with foreign direct investment (FDI), and identifies prevalent limitations while suggesting approaches to overcome these challenges.The first section delineates the central theme and rationale behind the literature selection process, utilizing the Google Scholar database to contextualize the research within a comprehensive framework. The subsequent section categorizes and compares the most relevant studies based on formal criteria and methodological parameters. Sections three and four critically assess the scholarly contributions in conceptualizing the mitigating influence of foreign aid in general, focusing on its impact on specific political risks such as expropriation, terrorism, and corruption. The concluding section delves into studies that explore foreign aid and foreign direct investment flows from China, the largest non-Western donor.A bibliometric analysis reveals a noteworthy disparity between research attention and policymaking focus on the subject matter. Notably, the selected papers fail to comprehensively cover the full spectrum of primary extra-legal and legal-governmental political risks for transnational businesses. Scholars' assessments of foreign aid's mitigating effect often lack differentiation between grants and loans or between flows directed to different sectors, as well as the distinction between aid routed through public institutions and bypassing them. Notably absent is a comprehensive analysis encompassing the complete range of 'established' Western and emerging non-Western aid providers, or an exploration of aid flows from non-OECD countries other than China. Most research focuses on Africa and fails to differentiate between recipients based on fragility, income levels, or other relevant categorizations. Moreover, the researchers have yet to delve into data post the COVID-19 outbreak, a critical period that significantly altered perceptions of political risk, foreign aid, and FDI flows. The literature review illuminates a research gap awaiting substantial exploration.

The article examines the features of the Middle East policy of the European Union regarding the confrontation between Israel and the extremist organization Hamas in the Palestinian Gaza Strip. It is emphasized that such a large-scale and bloody confrontation between the mentioned antagonists is happening for the first time: until now, the clashes have been limited and shortlived. Due to the traditionally high sensitivity of the Palestinian problem for European societies (primarily as a stigmatization of the thesis about the «historical injustice of Europeans towards the Palestinian Arabs»), Brussels’ position in situations of aggravation of relations between Israel and Hamas was almost always formulated as equidistant from the conflicting parties, limited to calls for reconciliation. This time, much is different: after the brutal Hamas terrorist attack on Israeli territory on October 7, 2023, the EU leadership condemned the Islamist atrocities and reaffirmed Israel’s right to defense. Later, however, this position began to undergo a transformation towards traditional balance. The article examines the reasons and parameters of disagreements between the political elites of a number of EU countries on this issue, as well as conflict situations within the leading institutions of the European Union.

Introduction: the need for effective psychocorrective work with persons convicted of terrorism-related crimes, focused on the correction of these persons, does not raise any doubt. Even greater relevance to the problematic issues considered in the publication is given by the fact that we are talking about females. A not so significant number of convicts in this category, as well as gender psychological characteristics, determine the relevance and significance of aspects of psychological work with women convicted of terrorism-related crimes. Purpose: to determine roles and psychological motives of women in the commission of terrorism-related crimes and disclose methods of their recruitment. The study (83 women convicted of terrorism-related crimes) was conducted in the period from 2014 to 2022 with the help of the following methods: survey and analytical, providing a theoretical analysis of literary sources; empirical, involving the use of psychodiagnostic techniques, author’s questionnaires and questionnaires designed to determine general and socio-psychological characteristics of persons convicted of terrorism. The study covered 83 women convicted of terrorism-related crimes. The analysis of empirical material and scientific sources helps identify key trends of female terrorism, the role, psychological motives of behavior and methods of recruiting potential terrorists. Recommendations for conducting psychocorrective work with the appropriate category of persons are developed. Conclusion: the experience of psychocorrective work of correctional psychologists with women convicted of terrorism-related crimes has not been sufficiently studied due to the small number of this category in correctional institutions; the analysis of scientific data makes it possible to determine key reasons for women’s involvement in terrorism-related crimes, as well as the roles and motives for which they were involved. Understanding mechanisms and motives of women’s involvement in terrorism-related crimes, psychologists of correctional institutions can conduct psychocorrection with this category of convicts.

Objective: to analyze the legal nature, structure, and features of violent extremism and to develop measures to prevent this illegal behavior.Methods: dialectical approach to cognition of social phenomena, allowing to analyze them in historical development and functioning in the context of the totality of objective and subjective factors, which predetermined the following research methods: formal-logical and sociological.Results: in recent years, the world has witnessed the emergence of violent extremists (VEs), and they have become an ongoing concern for countries around the globe. A great deal of effort has been expended examining their nature and structure in order to aid in the development of interventions to prevent further violence. Analysts and scholars have been particularly interested in identifying structural features that enhance (or diminish) VE resilience to exogenous and endogenous shocks. As many have noted, VEs typically seek to balance operational security and capacity/efficiency. Some argue that their desire for secrecy outweighs their desire for efficiency, which leads them to be less centralized with few internal connections. Others argue that centralization is necessary because security is more easily compromised and that internal density promotes solidarity and limits countervailing influences. Unsurprisingly, scholars have found evidence for both positions. In this paper, we analyze the Noordin Top terrorist network over time to examine the security-efficiency tradeoff from a new perspective. We find that the process by which they adopt various network structures is far more complex than much of the current literature suggests.Scientific novelty: the research showed that a dark network’s adoption of a network structure is far more complex than what current literature suggests, namely that a network structure at either side of the cohesion and centralization continuums offers potential advantages and disadvantages in terms of network resilience. In the case of Noordin Top, it appears that his network’s focus on establishing external ties after its operations provided it possible access to resources but likely became a factor contributing to its exposure and eventual disruption. The network, much like its Bali I predecessors who also focused on establishing external ties after their operation, faced significant losses and needed to reconstitute itself immediately following each operation. This tendency, along with the general adoption of a centralized structure, suggests that Noordin’s network adopted a suboptimal structure that ultimately contributed to his demise.Practical significance: the main provisions and conclusions of the article can be used in scientific, pedagogical and law enforcement activities when considering the issues related to fighting extremism and terrorism. The article was first published in English language by Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society and The Western Society ofCriminology Hosting by Scholastica. For more information please contact: CCJLS@WesternCriminology.org The submitted material is published in full, as interpreted by the author.For original publication: Everton, S. F., & Cunningham, D. (2015). Dark network resilience in a hostile environment: optimizing centralization and density. Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society, 16(1), 1–20.Publication URL: https://ccjls.scholasticahq.com/article/341-dark-network-resilience-in-a-hostile-environment-optimizingcentralization-and-density

Modern terrorism is a complex system that consists of a complex of complementary processes – ideological, criminal, military, political, religious and nationalistic. Chemical terrorism is one of the elements of hybrid warfare – a new technology in the fight for the reorganization of the world at the present stage. The purpose of this article is to consider one of the elements of hybrid wars – chemical terrorism. Sources and informational basis of the research, methodology. In this work, the sources published by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) were used. The publications available through the databases PubMed, Google Scholar, eLibrary, etc. were also studied. Research method – system analysis. The probability of the use of chemical warfare agents and toxic chemicals by terrorists of various ideological orientations as part of a hybrid war strategy has been studied. The discussion of the results. Hybrid military conflicts of a non-classical nature involve the participation of international terrorist organizations in hostilities. The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction (CWC) does not explicitly prohibit non-state actors from obtaining and using chemical weapons. This situation is very convenient for the states that have signed the CWC and use terrorist organizations as part of the strategy of indirect action. In such cases the information and psychological operations are aimed at the collapse and fragmentation of countries, undermining their ability to resist, discrediting their leaders, and causing a split in the ranks of the allies. This was most clearly shown in the incidents with the use of toxic chemicals in Syria. Conclusion. Working groups under the auspices of the UN and the OPCW, sent to Syria to investigate incidents with the use of sarin, proved unable to conduct objective investigations. They usually ended up on the side of the sponsors of chemical terrorist attacks, despite the evidence of falsification. This, in turn, can lead to serious military conflicts, for which the role of casus belli will be played by false news from the global media. The only mechanism that made it possible to stop such provocations in Syria was a public warning from the Russian side about the place and time of the planned false flag attack. At the same time, such a selective position of the UN and the OPCW can at any moment lead to the loss of the control over chemical weapons in certain regions of the world.

The Yugoslav hostile emigration after World War II created serious issues for the newly created country. The entire security sector was in great temptations, especially in the first five years after the war. The biggest danger lay in the defeated and runaway forces of different movements: Ustasha, Chetnik, Ljotić, Nedić, Balli and other movements. After finding shelter in the countries of Western Europe, North and South America, and Australia, the defeated hostile forces have begun their activities targeted against the constitutional order in the former country. Depending on the movement they belonged to, their political and ideological stances differed. Hostile individuals and groups abuse the legally organized exile groups in Australia to recruit new members from them and gather funds for their activities. The anti-communist atmosphere that was present within the majority of Australia’s population also benefited the gathering, organization, and activities of the Yugoslav hostile emigration. Because of these reasons, every action against the Social Federative Republic of Yugoslavia and its representatives in this country was considered as an act of fighting against communism. Moreover, the poor level of diplomatic relations had an additional effect on the situation and favored the hostile emigration. Regardless of the differences in political beliefs, the common goal of the extreme emigration in Australia was to take down the constitutional order in Yugoslavia. The targets of the attacks were diplomatic and consular offices and the persons working in them. In illegally organized camps, training for guerilla warfare took place, as well as terrorist activities against Yugoslavia. The terrorist group from the orders of the Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood was placed in the country in the second half of June 1972. Thanks to the intervention of the Yugoslav security services, their plan was foiled.

The article is devoted to the main challenges faced by modern tourism. The importance of tourism in the context of economic growth in modern conditions has been explained. Economic and sociological approaches, which reflect the main spectrum of modern challenges for the tourism industry, have been highlighted. The usefulness of the economic approach for studying the role of tourism and its contribution to the country’s economy and economic development has been proven. The possibility of using a sociological approach to study the structure, functioning and development of tourism as a social phenomenon in its connection with social, political, economic and cultural dimensions of society has been demonstrated. The author’s classification of factors (as well as challenges) that affect the tourism business has been presented. Two groups of factors have been distinguished: 1) natural and man-made; 2) socioeconomic and political. Natural factors, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, typhoons, floods, pandemics make tourism dangerous. Man-made factors include incidents, disasters, accidents in industry, crowded places, transport accidents, etc. A list of examples of transport accidents in which a large number of tourists were injured and died has been given. Socio-economic and political factors include the actions or inaction of people, individual groups, enterprises, states, international organizations, etc. Thus, the bankruptcy of a tourist or other company prevents the fulfillment of obligations to tourists. A workers’ strike often affects people who are not directly related to it and are indirectly involved in the conflict. Thus, air transport workers strike lead to flight delays and cancellations, that influences tourism business. Political processes can also cause problems to tourism business. It has been emphasized that poverty, social instability, unpopular decisions of the government or local authorities often lead to riots. At the same time, we have noted that tourists may suffer during these disturbances due to a number of certain reasons. Political crises, revolutions and coups d’état change the political landscape of a country, its legal norms, conditions for crossing the border, etc. Examples of Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other countries that experienced coups or mass protests have been given. Particular attention has been paid to terrorism as a hazard factor. Examples of terrorist acts directed against tourists have been given. The destructive influence of hostilities on tourism has been proven, but it has been shown that tourists can be attracted to places associated with war. Special attention has been paid to the problem of recognition of states.

The idea of the global extremism index reflects the need for international cooperation in combating dangerous manifestations of the ideology of political violence and hate speech. In conditions when the norms of national and international law guarantee the mass media access to a global audience, the ability to exercise freedom of speech in the interests of cultural exchange and sustainable development becomes of fundamental importance. The monograph, prepared by a team of specialists in the field of law and mass communications, examines the political and legal aspects of assessing the public danger of various manifestations of violent extremism.

Background. The current state of Kazakhstan's airports shows that they are equipped with sophisticated technical equipment that allows them to track, identify, recognize faces, and identify items prohibited for transportation. All these procedures allow for high-quality control of passengers. Materials and methods. However, evolving threats to aviation security require innovative approaches and immediate solutions. Therefore, the use of profiling as a psychological method of express diagnostics that identifies a potentially dangerous person is encouraged. The application of this technique in practice in order. Ho to ensure safety requires the preparedness of Aviation Security Services employees, for which the training course «Aviation Profiling» was developed, presented by the authors in the article. Results and conclusions. The practical significance of the results lies in the fact that well-trained specialists can effectively use profiling technology as a way to prevent acts of unlawful interference in civil aviation activities.

Various reasons — political or non-political — lead people to participation in terrorism and similar forms of violent extremism. Those involved in terrorism come from different social backgrounds and have often been subjected to processes of violent radicalization. Terrorist profiles do not work as a tool to identify real or potential terrorists because such profiles do not reflect diversity and how people change when they become involved in violent extremism. Which suggests a more dynamic typology of militant group members based on dimensions that represent dynamic continuums rather than static positions. Disillusionment with what originally attracted them to the movement — whether it was political goals, the search for friendship or a sense of belonging — is one of the main factors leading to the process of leaving a militant movement or group. However, disengagement is far from simply reversing or mirroring the original process of engaging in violent extremism. In the course of their extremist career, individual activists tend to change values and motives, as well as positions and roles in the militant group. Hence, a better understanding of the factors that cause frustration for different types of violent activists allows us to suggest opportunities for strengthening these processes, contributing to a higher level of individual exit from an extremist group.

The article examines the socio-cultural preconditions of terrorism in the world history of the 20th century. The current situation in the Russian Federation indicates the need to create an effective organizational and legal mechanism for countering terrorism, which infringes on the rights, freedoms and legitimate interests of the population of the Russian Federation and its state sovereignty. The provisions have been stated that determine the importance of studying the phenomenon of terrorism in the context of the growth of globalization processes and active opposition to them on the part of opponents of globalization. The author emphasizes the idea that deepening of the modern spiritual crisis influences the replacement of traditional moral values with a pragmatic orientation towards personal material success, which greatly contributes to the development of international terrorism. Despite a fairly wide list of subjects empowered by the national legislation of the Russian Federation to fight terrorism, the current legal field has not developed a concept that defines terrorism not only as a form of illegal action, but as a socio-cultural problem. In many respects, this became one of the reasons for the lack of interaction and coordination between the executive authorities and management in terms of its organization and implementation of measures aimed at countering terrorist manifestations. The study concludes that victory in the fight against terrorism cannot be achieved solely by forceful methods and state institutions. Civil society must make its contribution to the fight against terrorism.

Objective: to elaborate recommendations on counteraction against terrorist crimes committed in the digital (cyber-) space and/or using digital technologies.Methods: the methodological basis of the research are the universal dialectic method of cognition, the integrity of general and specific scientific methods such as analysis, synthesis, logical method, ascent from the abstract to the specific, induction, deduction, etc.Results: it was determined that the development of the digital (cyber-) space and digital technologies promotes the intensity of terrorism and has led to the change of the mechanism of terrorist crimes commitment. A conclusion was made that, to provide the efficiency of measures for counteracting terrorist crimes committed in the digital (cyber-) space and/or using digital technologies, a distinct strategy is necessary, as well as the appropriate regulatory basis.Scientific novelty: the article analyzes such forms of criminal activities of terrorist groups, committed in the digital (cyber-) space and/or using digital technologies, as dissemination of the ideology of violence and propaganda of terrorist activity, recruiting new members and their training, implementing digital technologies for preparation and immediate terrorist activity, and funding. The advantages were revealed of the use of digital space and/or digital technologies when committing terrorist crimes. In the author’s opinion, the change of the mechanism of terrorist crimes commitment associated with the use of digital technologies should be taken into account during criminalization (change of the intensity of penalization) of publicly dangerous deeds. The important areas of state policy in the sphere of counteraction against these crimes are education and enlightenment activity, training of the personnel of law-enforcement agencies, broadening their authorities to ensure a clear and effective control over digital content.Practical significance: is due to the possibility to use the formulated conclusions and proposals for further scientific elaboration of the state criminal policy in the sphere of counteraction against terrorist crimes committed in the digital (cyber-) space and/or using digital technologies.

Introduction. Russian civil legislation takes into account innovations in information exchange by fixing the concept of digital rights, while giving them an exclusively private legal understanding. The modern doctrine proceeds from the fact that development of digital technologies has also significantly influenced the concept of fundamental human rights. Continuation of this vision is the emergence of digital rights in the public sphere. This actualizes the analysis of their possible limitations in order to counter terrorism. Theoretical analysis. The research reveals the consequences of the transfer of a significant amount of social relations to digital format. At the same time, while the general discourse of discussions stems from the principle of “normative equivalence” between “offline” and “online” (which does not require fundamental changes in law), the experience of the spread of digital technologies shows that it increasingly faces systemic failures. The authors indicate the difficulties with the definition of digital rights and their regulatory consolidation (by analyzing the regulations of the European Union). Empirical analysis. Based on the identified characteristics of digital communications, the paper presents the models for countering terrorist threats in modern cyberspace. The features of the legislative support of the Chinese model of the “Golden Shield”, based on the principles of digital sovereignty (in particular, the Law of the People’s Republic of China “On Data Security”), are shown. The authors highlight the features of imposing restrictions on the right to digital communication for persons suspected of involvement in terrorist activities (in particular, on the basis of the Anti-Terrorism and Border Security Act adopted in 2019 in the UK) and consider other foreign experience in countering terrorist threats in the digital sphere. Results. The necessity of taking into account the technological features of information exchange in the digital space is demonstrated. This has a significant impact on the emergence of new measures to counter terrorism. Foreign experience testifies to the expansion of the list of operational and search measures, the list of elements of crimes of a terrorist nature.

Copyright of Law of Ukraine / Pravo Ukraini is the property of Editorial Board of Journal "Law of Ukraine" and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Contemporary criminal procedure legislation establishes some features of the procedure for criminal proceedings relating to terrorist crimes. However, the size and importance of such features are so insignificant that there is no differentiation in the form of proceedings in this group. Meanwhile, in the second half of the 19th and early 20th century, military criminal proceedings in Russia were characterized by significant specifics in criminal cases involving state crimes. The study of historical experience seems to be very useful for determining the directions for improving the current legislation, because in contemporary criminal proceedings, the consideration of criminal cases on terrorist crimes is attributed to the competence of military courts. Purpose: to identify the peculiarities of criminal proceedings concerning state crimes related to terrorist activities used in the military courts of tsarist Russia, and on the basis of a comparative analysis with the current procedure, to outline ways to improve modern criminal procedure legislation. Methods: the dialectical method is the methodological basis of the study. In addition, general scientific me-thods of analysis, synthesis and a systematic approach are used, as well as special le-gal methods: historical-legal, legal interpretation and logical-legal. Results: the study shows that the steps taken by the modern legislator in regulating criminal proceedings on terrorist crimes largely repeat the processes that took place in the legislation of the Russian Empire during the period when the country faced an unprecedented terrorist threat. At the same time, the historical and legal analysis reveals gaps in the current regulation of procedural activities, such as the lack of influence of special legal regimes (including the legal regime of the counter-terrorism operation) on the procedural form of criminal proceedings.

Crime control at the sea involves public activities to create a modern security system in seaports, at the territorial sea and the adjacent zone throughout the sea corridors, as well as in the open sea on sea routes with intensive shipping.Aim. Impact assessment of digital transformation on maritime crime control.Tasks. Firstly, to characterize the impact of digital technologies on the nature of pirate attacks and other maritime offenses, which are actual threats to the maritime infrastructure. Secondly, to analyze the impact of modern measures to combat maritime crime on the economy of seaports, shipping companies and other maritime business entities. Thirdly, to demonstrate the role of the seaport administration and private military companies in the fight against offenses at sea.Methods. The study is carried out by formal legal and comparative legal methodology using a review-analytical approach.Results. Data analysis shows that the administrations of seaports are interested in optimizing security costs by creating a convenient digital management system for the coastal infrastructure. Security systems and logistics solutions depend on the effectiveness of digital technologies implemented in the interests of ensuring the safety of navigation. The Convention for the Safety of Human Life at Sea (SOLAS-74/88), supplemented by the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS) in 2004, provides for a universal maritime security system, however, the implementation of these standards in a number of regions of the World Ocean is not enough to neutralize coastal criminal threats.Conclusion. In the context of digitalization, measures to combat crime at sea lead to significant costs, as they require complex technological infrastructure on ships and in ports. The norms of the law of the sea aimed at combating piracy and smuggling should be implemented at the national level, taking into account the socio-economic features of the maritime infrastructure development. Since negative economic trends entail an increase in criminal activity, the economic interests of commercial shipping entities should not be sacrificed in the fight against piracy and smuggling.

Objective: to analyze the reasons for senior schoolchildren’s interest to destructive social groups dedicated to challenges, criminal culture, weapons, erotic and sex, dangerous leisure, death and suicide, mass killings and violence, and drugs; to describe the hierarchy of interests and life values of adolescents based on the research results (questionnaire survey of schoolchildren and multidimensional content analysis of VKontakte social network).Methods: general scientific (analysis, system-structural approach to the analysis of the research object, comparative-legal method) and specific scientific methods (questionnaire survey of schoolchildren, N = 589, conducted in April 2021, and multidimensional content analysis of VKontakte social network, 314,708 fragments).Results: the interests of schoolchildren to various groups in social networks were analyzed. The determinants of joining groups are factors such as the degree of trust in relationships with parents, plans for the future, the amount of time spent daily on the Internet, the tendency to hedonism in everyday life. The methods of involving adolescents in the destructive ideology of the Columbine* movement were revealed.Scientific novelty: two groups of users of sites propagating the destructive ideology of Columbine movement were identified: the core (characterized by the abundance of negative moods, these social network users are potentially capable of committing terrorist acts) and the periphery (characterized by an increased general interest in extreme leisure activities). The hierarchy of interests and life values of representatives of the core and the periphery is described; assumptions are made about the ways and reasons for the flow of users from the core to the periphery and back. The study showed that the breeding ground for Columbine and other destructive youth network movements are the adolescents who do not have trust relationships with their parents, are aimed at enjoying life here and now, do not have clear plans for the future, and prefer virtual communication to real one.Practical significance: the materials of the article can be useful to federal and regional authorities in implementing various aspects of youth policy, preventing sociopathic behavior of the youth, ensuring the safety of educational institutions, as well as to scientists researching destructive youth network movements. * Note: The international youth movement "Columbine" ("Schoolshooting") is recognized as a terrorist organization.

This article informs of training as a form of «business game» for functioning regional contraterrorist commission of Russian Federation, as well estimation the certain level of terroristic threat for personal and authorities supposed to manage such a case. Some difficulties are being marked and ways to solve similar are shown. These training was used as an example in several regions of Russia and was a rather successful.

The emphasis on youth in the information and propaganda space allows the use of new improved methods of influencing consciousness (including through ICT), to form stable patterns, socio-political attitudes that have a prolonged effect. The article analyzes certain aspects of the information and propaganda counteraction to terrorism in Russia, describes the theoretical and methodological foundations of its study. The empirical part was the analysis of the results of the author's sociological research of the opinions of the youth of the Kursk region. The ideological motive for the spread of terrorism is the most multifaceted and difficult to eradicate. Information and propaganda counteraction to terrorism, according to the authors, is a complex of interrelated information and propaganda measures aimed at the objects of influence in order to change and block antisocial behaviors based on the ideology of terrorism, and the formation, preservation and reproduction of significant patterns of behavior for the sustainable development of society. Indicators of measuring the level of information and propaganda counteraction to terrorism in Russia are the basis of an empirical study. There is a widespread opinion among the youth of the Kursk region that ideology is closely linked to terrorism, and that Russian society needs an anti-terrorist ideology. The presence in Russian society of common goals, national ideas and awareness of past achievements can form its basis. According to young respondents, the information impact should be of a complex nature, ranging from the presence of important competencies of representatives of authorities and law enforcement agencies to the creation of an effective system of limiting information through various communication channels. Young respondents are more convinced that there should be a state body in Russia that counteracts extremism and terrorism in the information space. Young people pay special attention to professional training in countering terrorism. The work on carrying out propaganda anti-extremist actions in the Internet space with the involvement of bloggers, among others, will contribute to such counteraction. The younger generation is confident that social networks and virtual space contribute to the spread of terrorism to varying degrees. In general, sociological measurements have shown the presence of a number of risks and factors that worsen the work of the system of information and propaganda counteraction to terrorism. The first aspect is associated with the low efficiency of the communication channels used. According to the Kursk youth, such work should not be limited to actions in one area of communications. The system of information and propaganda counteraction to terrorism should combine a whole range of multidirectional measures using traditional channels and methods of communication in combination with ICT. Working with bloggers can become an effective method and channel of informational influence on young people. The second problem is based on the low level of Internet literacy of some Kursk youth. Some young people do not see the threat of terrorism in the Internet space. This category can become potentially vulnerable and influenced by the ideology of terrorism. The third aspect is related to the formation of a culture of countering terrorism in Russia, which should be based on rejection of the ideology of terrorism, increasing legal responsibility, the general level of education and a healthy lifestyle.

Background. In recent years, Russian crime has been characterized by a steady modification of its quantitative and qualitative indicators. New forms of criminal activity are emerging, the ways of committing crimes are changing, new qualities and signs appear in the personality structure of a modern criminal. All this predetermines the study of the processes of determination of modern crime and the determination of the features of its social orientation in order to develop the most effective means and methods of countering socially dangerous acts. The above highlights the relevance of the study. The purpose of the study is to identify the main trends in the development of modern crime in the Russian Federation. Materials and methods. The article used official statistical data on registered crime and scientific papers on the problem under study. The methodological basis was the universal dialectical method of cognition. Also, during the preparation of the article, the following methods were implemented: logical, formal legal, statistical, expert assessments. Results. In the course of the study, the vector of the social orientation of modern crime was determined. Conclusion. It is concluded that crimes against public safety and public order, state power, as well as fraudulent acts and encroachments committed using information and telecommunication technologies have prevailed in the structure of crime in recent years.

Background. At the beginning of the 21st century, the problem of terrorism and religious and political extremism has acquired global significance. Currently, numerous manifestations of extremism violate the stability of socio-political life and pose a threat to the security of the entire world community. In this regard, it is necessary to monitor public opinion about threats and attitudes to extremist activities, which would allow us to develop an effective system for countering extremism and preventing terrorism. In this aspect, it is important to work with the younger generation. The purpose of the study is to analyze the causes of the emergence and growth of religious and political extremism among high school students, as well as their parents and teachers. Materials and methods. The materials used are: the results of the author’s research of high school students and their parents in schools of the Republic of Dagestan (2021); the results of the secondary analysis of All- Russian studies: FOM (Public Opinion Foundation, VTsIOM (the Russian Public Opinion Research Center). Results. Based on the conducted research, it was revealed that among the most significant causes of terrorist activity, in particular on the territory of the Republic of Dagestan, are socio-economic problems (unemployment, poverty, corruption), as well as religious reasons. These causes are closely interrelated, and they can be affected through the prevention of terrorism, primarily through joint efforts in the fields of education and upbringing. The opinions of parents and teachers agree that the most effective directions in this case are solving the problems of youth (unemployment, standard of living), improving the quality of education at school, education in the spirit of patriotism and law-abiding. Conclusions. According to the results of the study, it is concluded that comprehensive measures are needed both at the federal level and at the personal level. The main groups of measures to prevent extremism and terrorism include: socio-economic, legal, information and propaganda.

The process of radicalisation, that often takes place in prisions in European and Muslim countries, is extremely important to understand the challenges and threats for the international security, caused by jihadist terrorism. It is necessary to analyse how condemned individual becomes involved in militant activities. The article analyses the problem of violent radicalisation in Spanish prisions and examines anti-terrorist policy based in this context on the idea of prevention, deradicalisation and disengagement. The research is focused on the conditions and purposes of the Spanish strategies and programmes introduced in the penitentiary centers in the response to the jihadi recruitment in the Iberian Peninsula. The author emphasises the priorities of the National Strategic Plan to Combat Violent Radicalisation approved in 2015 and other initiatives and regulations to stop the Salafi proselytism and unable the indoctrination activities among the Muslim in prisions. The methodological analysis is based on the integration of historical and system method and refers to the Marc Sageman’s theory of the jihadist network, which is more appropriate to understand how they appear and operate. The main finding of the article is that Spanish authorities have implemented the multidimensional and integrated programmes countering violent extremism and anti-radicalisation in prisions that are effective, despite some elements that could be improved.

The article examines the reasons for the increasing terrorist activity in Burkina Faso after the revolution in 2014. For decades, the Sahel has been one of the most unstable regions in Africa and the Afrasian zone of instability. However, in the 2010s the Sahel has experienced a dramatic increase in terrorist activity: by 2015, the number of terrorist attacks there increased more than seven times compared to 2010. At the same time, the dynamics of terrorist activity in Burkina Faso had its specific characteristics compared to the rest of the Sahel. The growth of terrorism in this country was largely a consequence of the overthrow of the B. Compaoré regime. The new authorities were unable to maintain security at the same level. This can be explained, on the one hand, by the stable agreements that had been settled between Compaoré and terrorist structures. His resignation destroyed all the informal ties and agreements that the regime had established with regional jihadist organizations, freeing their hands to infiltrate Burkina Faso quickly and easily. On the other hand, the dissolution of the Regiment of Presidential Security (precisely the structure largely responsible for the fight against terrorism) after the failed military coup attempt of September 2015 played an important role. The new leadership stripped the country of the protection they had against jihadist organizations poised to infiltrate across the border into Burkina Faso. As a result, after 2015, a very safe country in terms of terrorism faced an unprecedented increase in terrorist activity.

In the era of new challenges and threats, the most dangerous of which has occurred terrorism, the Republic of Turkey becomes one of the key centers of power in the Middle East and pursues the goal to create a regional security architecture around itself as well as to counter various terrorist organizations. The aim of the research is to scrutinize the peculiarities of Ankara's anti-terrorism policy both – inside and outside the country – and its political and legal approaches to understanding the phenomenon of terrorism and methods of its combating.The study of Russia and Turkey's aspects of interaction is of particular importance. This issue seems to be especially relevant in the scope of strengthening of Russian-Turkish cooperation in recent years including the field of combating terrorism, ensuring global and regional security, and maintaining international stability. As a result of quantitative content analysis of President R.T. Erdogan's public speeches and the use of general scientific research methods, the authors conclude that the fight against terrorist threat, especially the so-called "Kurdish terrorism", is a matter of great importance for the country's leadership. At the same time Turkey's anti-terrorist activity has certain specifics and is characterized by Ankara's desire to lead anti-terrorist missions in different parts of the world and using a predominantly militaristic approach to solving the problem. This approach primarily consists in conducting cross-border anti-terrorist military operations on the neighboring states' territories. However, the military campaigns that have become an integral part of Turkey's anti-terrorism policy in many respects do not contribute to the demolishing of terrorist elements. Instead of that such operations on the contrary become an extra destabilizing factor in the Middle East. Besides that, due to the peculiarities of Turkey's interpretation of the concept of "terrorism" and its policy's implementation, Ankara's foreign anti-terrorism actions in most cases are limited to the realization of its own interests but not to achieving the goals set within the framework of the ongoing campaigns.

Terrorism is not a new phenomenon, it has existed for more than two millennia, developing, changing and acquiring new features and peculiarities of a particular historical period. Nevertheless, terrorism has kept one feature unchanged: it still poses a serious threat to humanity. The way a person comes to recognize the legitimacy of terrorist activity describes the process of radicalization. This article is focused on a social psychological analysis of the impact of information strategies on the process of radicalization in modern society. The relevance of addressing this problem is explained by the fact that measures to counter terrorism are necessarily based on knowledge of the psychological patterns by which radicalization occurs. The article consists of two parts: in the first part, the specifics of the problem of terrorism and radicalization within the framework of social psychological knowledge are discussed. Particular attention is paid to the fact that the process of radicalization is a form of collective response to a situation of intergroup conflict (real or imaginary). In addition, in this part of the article, the role of communication in the process of radicalization is indicated. The second part deals with the specifics of communication processes (their content and form) in connection with radicalization in the digital society.

The article is devoted to the study of the means and methods of combating terrorism in Russia. The preventive actions of public authorities under the terrorist threat are defined. An attempt was made to work out a program of antiterrorist work among the population, and also formulated tasks in this area of social relations.

The author of the article focuses on a topic that has not been sufficiently studied by experts and analysts – the role of the Shiite factor in the religious and political life of Muslim communities in Europe. This situation is partly due to the small size of the Shia communities and the increased loyalty of most of their members to the authorities of the host country in comparison with the Sunni communities, which are much more numerous and have a longer history of coexistence with the indigenous population on the European continent. As part of the study of the problems of Islamic radicalism and extremism in Europe, the previous issues of the Bulletin examined in detail the structure, system and features of the activities of the cells and organizations of the international association of the Sunni Muslim Brotherhood there. They are almost openly patronized by such states as Turkey and Qatar, and Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Egypt and a number of other Arab states are trying to expose in the eyes of Europeans and limit the influence of «brothers» in the Old World. Behind the Shiite radicals in Europe are, of course, Iran and groups like Hezbollah sponsored by it, as well as international organizations of Shiite Muslims. The author notes the strengthening of radical sentiments in the Shiite communities of European countries. This is due not only to the efforts of Iran’s paramilitary structures, extremist Hezbollah, but also in many respects – paradoxically – the rapprochement between Sunni and Shiite radicals on European territory.

Purpose: to identify criminologically significant factors of the consequences of COVID-19 and the processes of digitalization of society affecting the current state of terrorism and extremism. Methods: the methodological basis of the study is the fundamental criminology provisions on crime and its determinants, the conceptual requirements of scientific analysis. The most important principles of the dialectical method of cognition are observed: objectivity, comprehensiveness, concreteness, historicism. The study uses general scientific (systemic, logical, analysis and synthesis) and specific scientific (formal-logical, structural analysis, comparative) methods. Results: the correlation of the processes caused by the digitization of society and the spread of COVID-19 with changes in the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of terrorism and extremism is established.

Background. The article is devoted to the constitutional and legal foundations of countering terrorism using cyberspace. With the development of digital technologies, crimes using the Internet have become more and more prosperous. Modern terrorism is characterized by complexity, multidimensionality and multiplicity of its manifestations. States are suffering serious resource losses, terrorism is penetrating into all aspects of the life of society and the state, using various methods. Currently, there is no universal tool to counter this area of terrorist activity, which predetermined the relevance of this study. The purpose of the article is to form the concept of the constitutional and legal framework for countering terrorism using cyberspace. Materials and methods. The implementation of this goal was achieved by analyzing the norms of Russian legislation, in particular the Constitu-tion of the Russian Federation, federal laws, judicial practice, statistical data and the provi-sions of legal science. The methodological framework is presented by methods such as comparative legal, formal legal and systemic structural. Results. On the basis of federal legislation, the constitutional and legal foundations and materials of legal practice on coun-tering terrorism using cyberspace are analyzed, problems are identified that require special attention from the state, and proposals are made related to the specifics of countering terror-ism in cyberspace. Conclusions. Terrorism committed using cyberspace poses a great threat to Russian society and the state. In view of the insufficient elaboration of the current legis-lation, it is necessary to further improve the constitutional and legal framework for counter-ing terrorism.

Since the second half of the XX century, the importance of social and humanitarian resources has been increasing. This process intensified in the XXI century, which is reflected in the sphere of international security. The study analyzes the mechanisms through which the social and humanitarian resources affect international security problems, solving or escalating them. If the Copenhagen School began to include the social and humanitarian phenomena in the security sphere, this research focuses on how social and humanitarian resources are used in the security sphere (including in the military field). At the same time, it claims that the growing involvement of social and humanitarian resources in security issues does not mean a decrease in the importance of military and political instruments. The author considers the evolution of the use of social and humanitarian resources in the field of international security from the Cold War period to the present. They show that, in general, the social and humanitarian resources are becoming more diverse in their tools, as well as more and more important in solving international security problems. They note that in conflict situations social and humanitarian resources are used in two ways: 1) for the peaceful settlement of conflicts and 2) in order to win. In addition to conflicts, social and humanitarian resources can also be applied to such areas of international security as terrorism, migration, biogenic threats, threats related.

This article attempts to analyze the situation in North-East India (NER) and the entire region in the light of existing and potential interaction between countries of South, South East and East Asia for solving the serious problem of the local separatism and terrorism. The author states that even a superficial glance at the situation demonstrates a very contradictory approaches and actions of the different countries in this field. The relevance of the research implies the possibilities of practical application of the potential of cooperation between countries of this region (using examples of the positive interaction between India and some of its neighbors) to choose the best ways to solve the problem of separatism and terrorism.

Abstact. The article is based on the data of the sociological survey conducted in the Republic of Bashkortostan in August-October 2021. The study focused on the public perception of the influence of the ideology of extremism on the situation in the region and of the activities of the authorities to counter terrorism. 1030 respondents representing all 63 municipalities of the region and its social-demographic structure were interviewed with the formalized guide. The relevance of the study is determined by the potential of the destructive impact of the extremism and terrorism threats on the public consciousness - from anxiety and fear to apathy and aggression, which affects the social-political situation, estimates of the authorities and the state development trends. In recent decades, extremism and terrorism as means of influencing the authorities and society have attracted increasingly more participants and supporters, have globalized their goals, modified strategies and adapted to the measures of state-legal and social counteraction. Such quantitative and qualitative changes of extremism and terrorism explain the need for their more active study and a tough, irreconcilable, anticipatory reaction to them from both the state and society, which requires various means, including sociological, to monitor the dynamics of these phenomena, measure their destructive potential and the efficiency of measures to counter and prevent them at all levels of the social organization, including regional and local. Based on the statistical data for 2018-2020, the article considers the state and trends of the extremism and terrorism threats in the Russian Federation and the Republic of Bashkortostan, and based on the sociological data of 2021, the author identifies the peculiarities of the public perception of the extremism and terrorism threats in the region. The article also presents estimates of the interethnic and interreligious relations for problems and contradictions in this sphere often become causes and a favorable environment for extremist ideologies and terrorist practices; and the respondents assessments of their level of security and their attitudes to measures to counter the threats of extremism and terrorism.

The subject of study. The article examines certain aspects to realize freedom of thought and expression, as well as the acceptable limits. Freedom of thought, speech and expression issues are considered separately in the context of the religious component, its characteristics in the Islamic religion. The provisions of the main sources in the Muslim system of law – the Holy Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet and Messenger of Muhammad (May Allah bless him) have been studied in sufficient details. The legal analysis on the issues under consideration was carried out based on doctrinal opinions, the current Russian and international legal acts, judicial practice, including the practice of the European Court of Human Rights. The article describes extremism through the prism of freedom of thought, speech and expression. It is noted that extremist activity is one of the consequences of misinterpretation, true awareness and perception of freedom of thought, speech and expression.The purpose of the study. The main purpose of the study is to clarify the origins of conflicts in the process of realizing freedom of thought, speech and expression, and substantiate the hypothesis that freedom of thought, speech and expression should have certain boundaries, especially in context of the influence of the religious factor.The methodology of the study. The study is based on a dialectical approach to the disclosure of legal phenomena and processes using general scientific methods (systemic method, logical method, method of analysis and synthesis) and special scientific methods. Among the latter there are formal legal method, linguistic method, comparative legal method, which have found their application in the legal analysis to realize freedom of thought, speech and expression.Conclusions. As a result, it is emphasized that freedom of thought, speech and expression is the achievement of modern mankind, one of the foundations of a democratic system and an element of civil society. The state-guaranteed opportunity for individuals to exercise these freedoms in society is a guarantee of a "healthy" society in the legal sense. However, as practice shows, unlimited freedom leads to its abuse, thereby infringing on the freedoms of other individuals and therefore, freedom of speech and its expression presupposes the existence of boundaries outlined by the state in the interests of society. The specifics of freedom of thought, speech and expression in the Muslim system of law based on the Holy Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet (May Allah bless him), is that this freedom ends where the border line begins, designated by the law of the Most High.

The article presents an analysis of the key areas of combating threats of an extremist and terrorist nature on the territory of the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The authors considered the evolution of the development of terrorist threats and political risks, as well as the factors and reasons that contributed to the growth of radicalization of public consciousness, especially in the Central Asian region. Faced with the threat of terrorism, the leadership of the Commonwealth countries realized the need to form an effective counteraction system, a set of joint measures was implemented for these purposes, model legislation was adopted, decision-making mechanisms in crisis situations were worked out. However, the practice of terrorist activity is constantly improving and changing, which requires the leadership of the Commonwealth countries to effectively respond to new challenges and realities, harmonize national legislation, and use new forms and methods of struggle.

This year marks the 20th anniversary of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). This is a good opportunity to assess its performance over the past two decades, to draw some conclusions, and to discuss possible future developments of the SCO. The author examines milestones in the formation of the SCO, its institutional structure, as well as its key activities which encompass four focal areas: politics, security, economy, and humanitarian cooperation. The paper focuses on the decisions of the 21st SCO Summit in Dushanbe, especially those aimed at strengthening cooperation in combating the eff ects of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and addressing security challenges, arising from the latest developments in Afghanistan. The latter particularly imply an increasing threat of terrorism, extremism, and drug traffi cking from Afghanistan to neighboring countries in Central Asia. The author emphasizes the crucial role of the SCO Regional Antiterrorist Structure (RATS) in countering these threats. Finally, the paper addresses both the circumstances and possible implications of Iran’s ascension to a full SCO member, which was approved during the summit in Dushanbe. The author concludes that over the past two decades the SCO has successfully transitioned from an important, yet regional in scope and framework, organization to an infl uential global actor, which plays a major role in the maintenance of peace and security in Central Asia and could serve as a model for the establishment of a new non-confrontational approach to the interstate relations.

The Central Asian region due to its economic potential and strategic signifi -cance has traditionally been of particular importance for Russia’s foreign policy. It was therefore not surprising that a serious deterioration of the political situation in Afghanistan in summer-autumn 2021 caused by the military defeat and the subsequent collapse of the pro-Western regime followed by the seizure of power by the Taliban raised serious concern of the Russian leadership. The developments in Afghanistan have attracted an increasing attention of the expert community, prompting a fl urry of comments and forecasts. Although many of these papers were published hastily, their assessments and conclusion were usually based on the long-term observations. This paper attempts to provide an overview of the military-political situation in the Central Asian region as it was caught by a new crisis in Afghanistan and as it is seen by both Russian and foreign experts. The fi rst section outlines positions and interests of the key regional and non-regional actors that have a signifi cant impact on the military-political situation in Central Asia. The second section examines the response of the Russian Federation to the situation in Afghanistan after the Taliban took power. Finally, the third section provides an overview of the latest expert comments and reports that attempt to assess possible implications of those events for the regional military-political dynamics and the national security interests of the Russian Federation.