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The review discusses cognitive functions in late-onset schizophrenia and very late-onset schizophrenia-like psychosis compared to cognition in normal aging, early-onset schizophrenia, and neurodegenerative diseases. The problem of the dynamics of the state of the cognitive functions in patients with late-onset schizophrenic psychoses is highlighted, and prospects for further research are discussed. Patients with late-onset schizophrenic psychosis are characterized by more pronounced cognitive deficits compared to normal aging, but less severe than cognitive changes observed in early-onset schizophrenia. Late-onset schizophrenia may be a heterogeneous condition in terms of cognitive dysfunction.

This review considers the issues of clinical typology of delirium (mental confusion), its etiology and pathogenesis. Based on these data, the peculiarities of treatment, prevention and rehabilitation of delirium are discussed. Attention is drawn to the risk factors of this disorder (potentially modifiable or non-modifiable), which are most important in treatment and prevention of delirium. The questions of rehabilitation measures are regarded. Section "Treatment" presents pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches to treatment of delirium.

Authors studied 198 patients with first-ever cerebral stroke. Affective disorders, including depression, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and phobias, were identified in 71.2% of patients. The study demonstrated that the anxiety syndrome developed in the post-stroke period may be regarded as relatively independent. Some post-stroke anxiety disorders had different risk and pathogenetic factors. GAD is associated with young age and phobias are associated with female sex and inherited predisposition. In contrast to post stroke depression, anxiety-phobic disorders develop more frequently in patients with mild stroke.

An aim of the study was to evaluate clinical features and risk factors of post stroke apathy. The study included 209 patients with first-time stroke. Assessments of neurological and mental status were carried out on the 1st, 7th day, after 2 weeks, 1 month, 3, 6 and 12 months after stroke. The frequency of apathy was 28.2%. Three types of apathy were singled out: classical, depressive, and combined. Apathy was significantly associated with the older age of patients, right-sided brain lesion and worst recovery of neurological deficit. Patients with depressive apathy were significantly older than patients without apathy, classic apathy was more common in men, and depressive apathy - in women. Depressive apathy was significantly associated with small lesions, while classic or combined apathy was significantly associated with the average volume of lesions.

We have studied 198 patients with first-ever stroke. The spectrum of affective disorders included depressions, generalized anxiety disorder, phobias. The study has demonstrated that mentioned post stroke affective disorders have different risk and pathogenetic factors. In stroke patients, affective disorders were caused by the damage of different brain areas. Depression was associated with the damage of left frontal/temporal cortical areas and left subcortical structures. On the contrary, anxiety disorders were associated with the damage of these structures in the right hemisphere.

Platelet serotonin content in patients in the acute period of stroke is an important index of clinical changes during the post stroke period as well as a predictor of development of mental disorders. We studied the association between two polymorphisms (5-HTTLPR and Val66Met BDNF) and the platelet serotonin content in 47 patients with stroke. We also investigated the moderating effect of genetic variants on the association between platelet serotonin content and development of affective and anxiety disorders in stroke patients in the acute period of stroke. The interaction effect of two polymorphisms on levels of platelet serotonin was found. The lowest level was observed in patients with the diplotype LL*ValVal, the highest level--in the group of patients with the LL genotype and genotypes containing at least one copy of a Met allele. No moderating effect of genetic variants on the relationship between serotonin content and affective or anxiety disorder was found.

Fifty patients with affective disorders developed after first cerebral stroke were studied. A spectrum of affective disorders included post-stroke depressions, generalized anxiety disorders, anxiety-depressive disorders and pseudo post-stroke depressions. Platelet serotonin (PS) levels were measured in these patients as well. The levels of PS at the first three days after stroke and their changes towards the 28th day are associated with the development of post-stroke affective disorders. The development of anxiety-depressive disorders in the acute period of stroke is related to the localization of brain lesion focus. The low levels of PS in patients at the first three days after stroke may be the risk factor of delayed affective disorders development.

One hundred and forty-nine patients with ischemic stroke who had different affective disorders developed one year after stroke (depression, anxiety, depression-anxiety disorders) were included in the study. Based on the computer data analysis of EEG, we singled out the characteristics of bioelectrical brain activity in patients with different types of poststroke affective disorders in acute, early and late restorative periods.

Different types of depression in patients who survived cerebral stroke and their influence on the rehabilitation process were studied. One hundred and fifteen patients were examined. The clinical heterogeneity of post-stroke depression was shown. A clinical analysis allowed to find different nosological and psychopathological forms of depressive disorders. Two main nosological forms of depression--reactive and endoreactive--were found. The liability to affective disorders exerts the influence on the development of depression; reactive depression is related with more severe functional damage. Depression, in particular reactive one, has an unfavorable effect on the rehabilitation of neurological deficit and ability to self-service.

Variation of serum protein allotypes serving as genetic markers of the blood has been analyzed in 29 populations of the domestic pig and subspecies of the wild boar. The population biodiversity and genetic structure have been estimated by two methods: by the frequencies of allotype combinations and with the use of a map constructed in the space of two principal components. The results obtained are the basis for determining the characteristics of the microevolution of wild boars and formation of the breeds of domestic pigs.

The specificity of phenotypic expression and inheritance of immunoglobulin allotypes IgG1a and IgG2b in pigs are discussed. It was shown that a negative state by both these allotypes is repeatedly found among newborn pigs but is extremely rare in pigs older than one month. A model, which simultaneously describes the genetic determination of allogroups formed by allotypes IgG1a and IgG2b and the dynamics of ontogenetic expression of individual genotype by system IgG with a result of a visually registered phenotype, was developed. Allele frequencies by system IgG were assessed in populations of domestic pigs of productive breeds, laboratory miniature pigs, and wild Eurasian pigs.

A bank of reagents for hog serum protein allotypes has been created. All of these allotypes passed international comparison tests in 1987-1988. The bank can be used for typing the animals for four generally accepted (Gp, LpB, Lpr, and IgGH) and several experimental systems. In this study, immunogenetic characteristics of some pig breeds (Large White, Lithuanian White, Swedish Landrace, Kakhetinskaya, and Svanetskaya) bred in Georgia are compared with those of western Siberian breeds (Large White, Kemerovskaya, and Northern Siberian), and some foreign breeds, as well as with European, Caucasian, and Siberian subspecies of the wild boar.

Combinations of four alpha-2-globulin allotypes were studied for their distribution in pigs of nine different breeds and hybrid groups. Based on this analysis, a new, previously unpublished polyallelic genetic system designated A2G was postulated. The complex alleles of this system control alpha-2-globulin allotypes and are suggested to be encoded by genes of two subloci. One of these subloci is virtually monomorphic, whereas the other has at least four allelic variants.

Associations between the alleles of nonlinked polymorphic genetic systems were studied in the population of the Semirechenskaya breed of pigs. The study of marker pairs of 21 genetic systems revealed that 7% of associations are statistically significant. Most of the associations detected are assumed to arise from breeding by commercial productivity traits and from the formation of an integral genotype adapted to conditions of artificial selection in the population.

The results of genetic studies of transformation of alpha-macroglobullin (AM) allogroups (i.e., fixed allotype combinations) in pigs are presented. Population and hybridization studies showed that the phenomenon discovered was based on activation/inactivation of the AMI allotype expression, which depended on the genetic environment and interlocus relationships. Genetic and selection bases, as well as the significance of the transformation phenomenon described, are discussed.

The combinations of genetic markers (allotypes, blood-group systems, and polymorphic proteins) were analyzed in pigs of two phylogenetically related Siberian populations: the newly selected Siberian specialized meat breed SM-1 (daughter breed) and the reproductive core of the Kemerovo breed (maternal breed). Statistically significant interlocus associations were found between the genetic markers that are known not to be linked, being assigned to different linkage groups, and the main selected meat-productivity traits. Some of these associations were shared by both breeds; others were found to be specific to either maternal or daughter populations. Possible genetic mechanisms underlying these associations and their significance are discussed.

As a result of several cycles of isoimmunization, two variants of antisera dose-dependently reacting with antigens of the porcine G blood group were obtained. It is suggested that the specific response of immunized pigs to antigens inherited from different wild boar subspecies may be associated with allele Ga and probably with Robertsonian translocations 15/17 and 16/17.

The 5 alpha-macroglobulin allotypes alpha M1, alpha M2, alpha M3, alpha M4 and alpha M5 were identified in pig. The alpha M1 allotype was reported as a marker of pig alpha-macroglobulin, the latter being homologous to alpha 2-macroglobulins in human and in mink. The allotypes alpha M2-alpha M5 were specified as markers of the second isotypical variant of pig alpha-macroglobulins, which was homologous to mink Lpm macroglobulin (alpha 1M). As seen from data obtained by International Comparative Test ISABR 87-88, alpha M1 is a new allotype, while allotypes alpha M2--alpha M5 correspond to four allotypes in the Gp system (Janik et al.). Based on these data, a conclusion was made on the homology between the Lpm system in american mink and the Gp system in pig. Since the allotypes studied are the part of alpha-macroglobulins, a locus controlling them was designated the AM locus. We also find it more advantageous to apply the same name to the homologous locus in mink, instead of the Lpm used earlier. Genetic control of 5 allotypes was studied and the structure of the AM locus in pig analysed in detail. Comparative study of organization of the above locus and the homologous locus in mink was carried out.

Two kinds of intercellular interactions have been observed in cultures of 12 investigated Leishmania species (L. major, L. tropica, L. donovani, L. infantum, L. sp. ZMA, L. mexicana, L. hertigi, L. braziliensis, L. tarentolae, L. adleri, L. gymnodactyli, L. gulickae). The first kind looks as adhesion of two specimens with their fore-ends. This way is characteristic of promastigotes of different morphotypes as well as of the interphase and dividing organisms to be most frequently seen in L. mexicana and L. gymnodactyli, and in both dark and lucid forms. The second kind of intercellular interactions involves a coupled adhesion of morphologically similar promastigotes with free ends of flagella. It is most characteristic of L. gymnodactyli and specially of dark promastigotes. Proves are provided that both the kinds of cell interactions are not associated with cell division, that they may only partially be connected with the phenomenon of rosette formation, and that they represent different phenomena. It is supposed that the intercellular contacts with the fore-ends may reflect gene exchanges in two partners, with a possible involvement of the kinetoplast DNA.

Antisera to 15 allotypes of pig serum protein were raised and compared with those prepared elsewhere, within the framework of International Comparison Test of pig blood groups and polymorphic proteins and enzymes in 1987-1988. Of 15 allotypes tested 8 were found to coincide with the known GpB, GpD, GpA, Gpa, IGH3 C1, Lpb3, Lpb12, Lbr1. For 7 allotypes left, no analogues were found out. They seem very likely to be new allotypes of pig serum proteins.

A more than 60-case outbreak of cutaneous leishmaniasis was documented in the Geokchaĭ District of Azerbaijan between 1987 and 1988. The disease was noted in the rural areas only. All age groups were involved. The clinical picture of the disease was significantly different from anthropogenic cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by L. tropica but similar to cutaneous patterns caused by L. infantum which was a prevalent pattern in the southern France. Isoenzyme assay of the strain isolated in the Geokchaĭ causative agent defined it as Leishmania donovani sensu lato. Though an undoubted similarity of its enzymatic profile to L. infantum was observed it was distinguished as a singular zymodeme. A total of 9 Phlebotominae species were isolated in the Geokchaĭ District. Among them 5 species (P. kandelakii, P. tobbi, P. transcaucasicus, P. brevis, P. alexandri) were reviewed in the literature with regard to L. infantum transmission. Thus cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by L. infantum species in the rural area of the USSR was identified for the first time.

Genetic peculiarities of mice were studied in regards to their susceptibility to toxoplasms. Differences in susceptibility to little virulent toxoplasms in mice of 9 different lines are shown, which manifest at all stages of the infection process or only at acute or chronic stages. The susceptibility of 6 lines of mice to virulent toxoplasms was found to be equally high.

Ld1, an antigen of serum low density lipoprotein, was identified by means of mink alloimmunization. No genetic relation was established between Ld1 and the Ipm-system of very high density lipoprotein. Based on the analysis of breeding data, the existence of an autosomal dominant gene, Ld1+, is postulated. This gene codes for the new alloantigenic marker. The existence of at least one other allotype of the Ld-system is suggested.

Data on immuno- and biochemical identification, genetic control and phylogenesis of new allotype Lpm13 of the Lpm system in domestic mink are presented. This allotype is encountered in mink populations with the frequency 0.9 and higher. The availability of Lpm13 genetic marker permitted another haplotype to be revealed, in addition to the eight known Lpm haplotypes by means of genetic analysis. It was established that, alongside with the earlier described haplotype Lpm3,4,6,8,9,10,11 (abbreviation H3), there exists a similar haplotype, Lpm3,4,6,8,9,10,11,13 (abbreviation H3.13), containing the Lpm13 gene. Of the rest seven haplotypes, five have the Lpm13 gene and two do not. Taking into account this gene and corresponding antigenic marker, the differentiation of 28, instead of 25, phenotypes and 45, instead of 36, genotypes for the Lpm system became possible. Lpm13 antigenic specificity was found with no exception in all individual serum samples taken from ten species and interspecific hybrids of Mustelidae which are closely related to domestic mink. The data obtained give grounds to refer the newly identified Lpm13 gene to the first evolutionary conservative category of genes of the multigenic Lpm system which is also represented by the Lpm6, Lpm9, Lpm10 and Lpm11 genes. The hypotheses of instantaneous formation of polymorphism of the Lpm system in domestic mink are briefly regarded.

The density class accessory of 8 mink alpha2-lipoprotein allotypes are determined by means of preparative ultracentrifugation. It is found that Lpm1, Lpm2, Lpm2, Lpm3, Lpm4, Lpm5, Lpm7 and Lpm8 are determinants of lipoproteins with density exceeding 1.210, i.e. they are VHDL. The allotypic marker 6, which has been earlier assigned by other criteria to Lpm group, belongs to mink lipoprotein, which distributes during ultracentrifugation at the region of low and, partially, high density.

Experiments on cross infection of peritoneal macrophages of mice with Leishmania of reptiles L. gymnodactyli and free cells of abdominal cavity of caucasian Agama (some part of which is composed by fibroblasts) with Leishmania of mammals L. major and L. donovani have shown the possibility of reproduction of the above species both in reptiles and mammals. The persistence of L. gymnodactyli and L. major in macrophages of mice was traced up to 10 days, the abundance of L. gymnodactyli during the whole period of observations being lower than that of L. major. The abundance of the above Leishmania in these cells happened to be higher than in the cells of reptiles. In the cells of reptiles the infection with these three species of Leishmania was eliminated by 5-6 days. More activity internalization of Leishmania of reptiles into cells of reptiles as compared to Leishmania of mammals was revealed that, apparently, reflects a definite degree of their adaptation to existence in reptiles in vivo.

A series of intraspecific immunizations of pigs by whole blood serum in complete Freund's adjuvant was performed. Four allo-antisera to different serum allotypes were obtained. These allotypes were assigned to A1, B1, C1 and D1. The results of identification show that the allotype A1 is probably a marker of immunoglobulin G. The allotypes B1, C1 and D1 were established to belong to different alpha-globulins, D1 being a marker of lipoprotein. Two geographically isolated populations of white large breed were tested. Two allotype combinations were found to be independent of one another and of sex. Significant differences in allotype frequency between two populations were only established for the G1 (F = 0.142 and 0.334; P less than 0.01). In both populations allotype B1 has the frequency 1.0, the frequencies of allotype A1 being 0.734 and 0.747. Most rare is the allotype D1 (F = 0.078 and 0.082).

During their cultivation on diphasic medium Leishmania donovani, L. major and L. gymnodactyli pass through the regular differentiation within the promastigote stage of the life cycle that involves a gradual change of the four main morphological forms: 1) extremely basophilic, short, wide, actively dividing cells; 2) lightening longer forms with pointed posterior ends; 3) long, cigar-shaped uniformly light specimens with the clear nucleus in the central or posterior position and distinct karyosome; 4) small narrow nearly non-basophilic cells with a long compact nucleus and a rather large kinetoplast. The latter are similar, on the one hand, to the final stage of Leishmania development in Phlebotomus and, on the other hand, to metacyclic forms of Trypanosoma cruzi infective for the vertebrate host.

Distinct differences in the intensity and dynamics of the infection with cysts of toxoplasms of law virulent (Czech) strain of brain of mice of three different pure lines and strainless ones differing in the sensitivity to the agent during a chronic period of infection have been noted. In sensitive mice of AKR line the period of formation and growth of cysts as well as the period of their elimination from the brain is longer than in less sensitive ones. In this connection cysts in the brain of these mice turned out to be larger than in the brain of less sensitive mice of CC57BR line. Activation of the infection in the brain, revealed microscopically, is observed most commonly in mice of AKR line (40%), more seldom in CC57BR (9.1%) and strainless ones (7.7%) and is not observed at all in resistent BALB/c. Lethality of these mice was by 9 months of infection 87, 40, 41 and 5.3%, respectively. 1-1.5 year after the infection in animals without relapses the infection level of brain was equally low.

The results obtained by testing 3127 mink sera as well as the analysis of families completely confirmed that the Lpm allotype system of very high density proteins is under genetic control, as postulated earlier. The polymorphism of the first five allotypes is due to the genetic units Lpm1, Lpm4, Lpm1,2, Lpm3,4 and Lpm2,4,5, which behave as Mendelian alleles. The data obtained suggest the existence of an additional gene, LpmX, which, in the homozygous state, determines a very rare phenotype, negative for the first five markers.

The diameters of toxoplasms' cysts in native preparations of brain of bredless and inbred mice (AKR and CC57BR) infected with the toxoplasms of Czech low-virulent strain were measured. It is shown that the growth of cysts ceases by the 7th week from the infection and the ratio between cysts of different sizes does not change for 38 weeks and more. The curve of the ratio between cysts of different sizes, which in the period of infectious process stabilization is close to the even distribution curve, is apparently a result of primary parasitemia. By the 1st year of the infection a reactivation of the infection in some animals occurs judging by the rise of the number of small cysts. Stabilization and then reactivation of the infection are correlated with the dynamics of humoral antibodies.

Immunodiffusion studies have been made on the plasma of 9 species (Vulpes vulpes, V. corsak, Alopex lagopus, Canis aureus, C. lupus, C. familiaris, C. dingo, Nyctereutes procynoides, Fennecus zerde) from the family of Canidae using milk antisera. Unlike rabbit antisera used earlier, milk antisera make it possible to detect more significant antigenic divergency with respect to 5 alpha- and beta-globulins. These globulins seem to have a higher evolution rate of antigenic mosaics as compared to other plasma proteins in the family investigated. The family Canidae serologically may be divided into two main groups: 1) the genus Canis which includes the wolf, domestic dog, dingo, jackal and 2) species which significantly differ from the former (the fox, polar fox, dog fox, fennec). In relation to these two groups, the raccoon dog occupies special position.

The conditions of the increase in the virulence of toxoplasma lines of the Czech low-virulent strain obtained by means of the infection of mice or chicken embryos with one cyst washed three times in physiological solution were investigated. It has been shown that all the 12 were potentially virulent since in the process of frequent (in each 7 days) passage through sensitive animals (bredless mice) they increased their virulence. The lines of toxoplasms passed only one time through chicken embryos increased their virulence quicker (1 to 10 passages) than lines passed only through mice (18 to 22 passages). At the simultaneous passing of toxoplasms of the same line through sensitive animals (bredless mice) and through more resistant ones [mice of lines AKR and BALB/c] toxoplasms increased their virulence during the 4th passage and did not change it up to the 25th passage, respectively.

An idea on organization of the Ld-system of low density lipoprotein in the domestic mink as on a "closed" immunogenetic system with two codominant alleles Ld1 and Ld2 was confirmed. Significant differences in frequencies of genes and genotypes of the Ld-system between state farm "populations" unaffected with Aleutian disease and those which were centres of this epizootic were established. The results obtained confirm the assumption made earlier on subvitality of the Ld2 gene.

Three new allotypes were discovered in mink sera by means of isoimmunization. Based on the results of identifications, they were referred to the Lpm system of serum alpha2-lipoprotein. They were designated as Lpm 6, Lpm 7 and Lpm 8. The allotyping of serum samples from 342 minks made possible to establish a relation between Lpm 7 and Lpm 8 using the chi2 method; it was also found that these two allotypes related to each of the first five Lpm as well as to their phenotypes, which was described earlier. There was a significant dependence of the expression of Lpm 6 on Lpm 5 indicating a genetic relation between Lpm 6 and other allotypes. The detection of Lpm 6, 7 and 8, which are the most likely under the control of the same gene (or a sustem of genes) as Lpm 1, 2, 3 and 5, is an evidence for the complex structure of the Lpm locus.