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The focus of this article is the problem of formation and development of “Chinese” greenhouses in 2009–2020. The development of migrant infrastructure in rural areas virtually has not been analysed yet by scientists. The purpose of this study is to trace the formation and evolution of ideas about “Chinese” greenhouses among residents of a large Russian region using the example of Chelyabinsk. The source base of the article includes media materials, interviews and archival documents. The regional press is an important source for the analysis of public opinion regarding the “Chinese” greenhouses and concentration of migrants in rural locations. In the sum-mer of 2019, the author gathered a collection of interviews with residents of areas where the “Chinese” green-houses were operating. Documents from the Chelyabinsk regional archive made it possible to supplement the overall picture of the Chinese migration to the Southern Ural region. The complexity of the study object required the use of a combination of methods. These included free informal interviews, content and discourse press analy-sis, and historical imagology. Our study shows that the formation of temporary economic facilities in rural areas has been perceived by the population as an irreversible ethnicization of space. This caused an increase of anxi-ety. In the media discourse and in collective mentality of the inhabitants, the ideas of “Chinese” greenhouses cre-ated images of “expansion” and numerousness of Chinese migrants. Around the greenhouses, a complex of notions of threats was formed (seizing and “spoiling” of land, tax evasion, low-quality vegetables, etc.). The con-cept of “Chinese” greenhouses has incorporated a large number of meanings that are understandable without further explanation: from the organization of rural space to a set of markers defining closed locations. Today there are practically no “Chinese” greenhouses in Chelyabinsk Region, they remain as a media, but not a spatial object. What was left out of sight of most observers is the temporality of the greenhouse complexes, the lack of any infra-structure for their long-term existence. Therefore, even theoretically, the “Chinese” greenhouses could not de-velop into full-fledged settlements (Chinatowns) in rural areas.

The article presents an analysis of the state of development of solar energy in Europe and the Republic of Belarus for 2020. An algorithm for increasing the efficiency factor of solar power plants by localizing the solar trajectory depending on the latitude and longitude of the area has been proposed. In particular, taking into account the angle of the Sun position above the horizon and the azimuth angle of the Sun, the increase in the efficiency factor of solar power plants for the Republic of Belarus is calculated. Based on this algorithm, a program has been written that makes it possible to draw a diagram of the solar trajectory. An analysis has been made of the degree of localization of solar energy for solstice days in 6 oblast (regional) centers of the Republic of Belarus; it is found that the highest intensity of solar radiation is observed in Brest and Gomel, the average in Grodno, Minsk and Mogilev, while the lowest one – in the city of Vitebsk. A comparative analysis of the solar trajectory of the city of Berlin (Germany) with the city of Gomel and the city of Brest is carried out. Recommendations have been developed for the effective operation of solar power plants in the oblast (regional) cities of the Republic of Belarus during the year in an autonomous and combined mode of operation. The obtained numerical calculations of the solar trajectory make it possible to optimize the orientation of solar panels for permanently installed panels and for automated solar tracking systems, as well as to select the optimal configuration of the power plant equipment for any geographic area.

The paper gives an analysis of perspectives for development of wind power generation, information on the share of wind energy in electricity generation in the world and in Russian Federation is provided as well. Data on gross, technical, economic potential of wind energy of Russia and the Murmansk Region has been presented. When calculating the gross wind energy potential of the region, data from the last 10 years of observations carried out at 37 meteorological stations have been used. The territory of the region has been divided into 6 distinctive zones, based on the wind activity. Gross energy potential has been calculated for each zone: for the heights of 10, 50, 100, and 150 m. Gross wind energy potential of the region at the height of 150 m has thus been estimated at 23,090 billion kWh. The Murmansk Region's 201 MW Kola wind farm, which consists of 57 Siemens Gamesa SG 3.4-132 wind turbines with a unit capacity of 3.465 MW, is to be constructed by 2021 under the direction of Enel Green Power. Wind energy potential and annual power generation of the Kola wind farm have been assessed. The difference between the obtained results and calculations of Enel Group's specialists amounts to less than 15 %. For the cases of relocation of Kola wind farm to different wind zones, the annual power generation of the wind farm has been estimated. It has been determined, that in case of Kola wind farm's relocation to the zone with the highest wind activity its annual electricity generation could be increased up to 1.5 times. A model of the Kola energy system has been developed in NEPLAN software, its validity has been proven. The calculations of the wind farm's operation modes show that voltage levels of the system nodes and powerflows are within the boundaries defined by normative documents. The effectiveness of reactive power regulation of the wind farm has been shown.

The problem of searching for damage on overhead lines due to a lightning discharge is relevant for consumers of electricity and its suppliers. A direct lightning strike into power line elements leads to the destruction of insulators, breakage of wires and cables, and a consumer disconnection. The main task of the maintenance staff is to search for damage that occurs after a lightning discharge. Usually, special devices are used, they are installed in substations and based on the wave method, the visual method is also used. The paper proposes a model for detecting likely damage to power transmission line elements by creating a detailed database on the region's power transmission line and combining this database with a real-time archive of lightning discharges. The model in accordance with the proposed algorithm will make it possible to compile a list of supports likely to be affected by a lightning discharge, to identify the affiliation of these supports to specific power lines, and to notify the maintenance personnel of these power lines about the coordinates and supports of the power lines, where damage is possible. The model has a low cost and operating cost, can be easily deployed in any power system, but requires sufficient accuracy to detect lightning discharges and determine their coordinates. The solution to the problem of detection accuracy comes down to installing in the region a certain number of lightning direction finders of a particular system. The paper considers these issues on the example of the power system of the Murmansk region and lightning direction finders of the Blitzortung system.

The increase of average outdoor temperatures and their fluctuations over the past 20 years (as evidenced by the records of summer temperatures in our country) has significantly increased the need for air conditioning premises where people are present for a long time, especially when they are crowded (shops, entertainment halls, classrooms, etc.). The air conditioning process is quite energy-intensive, but the growth of well-being in many republics of the former USSR, as well as the increasing complexity of the physiological adaptation of the human body to rising outdoor temperatures make it possible (and at the same time necessary) to implement these systems on a large scale. It is important to take into account that electricity prices are currently maintained at a high level for homeowners, and in the coming years the prices will only grow. Therefore, the development of new ways of significant increase of the energy efficiency of the indoor air conditioning process is of a great interest. One of these methods is the use of laminar (or close to them) moving layers of conditioned air in a limited area of work or rest of people. Such a zone, about 1.0‒1.2 m height from a floor in each apartment is, e.g., living rooms (bedroom) in which standard temperature conditions are created by means of simple air supplying and air intake devices. In the case of sedentary work of people, the height of such a zone of conditioned air should be increased to 1.3‒1.5 m. It has already been established that the use of laminar (or close to them) air flows allows to reduce the power consumption by two or more times due to significantly reduced heat exchange with the surrounding heated surfaces. Besides, the simplicity of such systems ought to be noted. In particular, in conditions of modern systems of control and management of air conditioning, the "duties" of consumers include only the installation on the control device of the initial data relating directly to the required parameters of the microclimate. At the same time, it should be noted that there is currently no complete scientific and technical description of aerodynamic and heat exchange processes in the air conditioning zone. Even in modern conditions for countries with a sharply continental climate (Russia, Kazakhstan, etc.), the problem is the choice of the type of air conditioner for its effective use in hot periods of summer. In general, it can be noted that all the problems of energy-efficient use of air conditioners must find a comprehensive solution.

Статья посвящена исследованию идейного содержания творческого наследия Василия Назаровича Каразина – просветителя, учёного, инженера, статистика, общественного и государственного деятеля. Прослеживается история генезиса и концептуального оформления установочных идей и представлений, обусловивших феномен отечественной философской мысли, который получил признание как «русский космизм». В рассматриваемых эпизодах исследовательской деятельности В.Н. Каразин, наметивший целевую интенцию и содержательное своеобразие философии космизма, предстает как предтеча Н.Ф. Федорова. Творческое наследие В.Н. Каразина задает интеллектуальное напряжение космософии в ее продолжающемся развитии., The article is devoted to the study of the ideological content of the writings by Vasily Nazarovich Karazin — an enlightener, researcher, scientist and engineer, statistician, public figure and statesman. The work traces fragments of the history of the genesis and conceptual design of guidance ideas and concepts that determined the phenomenon of Russian philosophical thought, known as “Russian cosmism”. In the episodes under consideration Karazin, who has outlined the target intention and contentual originality of the philosophy of cosmism, appears as the forerunner of N.F. Fedorov. The creative heritage of Karazin sets the intellectual straining of cosmic philosophy in its ongoing development., Диалог со временем, Выпуск 74 (74) 2021, Pages 47-61

Многолетние наблюдения учёных показывают, что продуктивность агрофитоценозов в той или иной степени зависит от погодных условий местности, где они формируются. В связи с этим в научных исследованиях оценка агрометеорологических условий произрастания сельскохозяйственных культур при обосновании полученных экспериментальных данных является общепринятой. Цели проведения данной оценки разнообразны. Например, она проводится для определения влияния метеоусловий и тенденций изменения климата на сезонную и многолетнюю динамику развития вредных организмов. Результаты метеонаблюдений важны для выявления степени устойчивости новых сортов к абиотическим стрессам, а также для выяснения, какой из факторов погоды в большей степени влияет на составляющие продукционного процесса той или иной культуры. Однако в силу разных причин экспериментальные участки не всегда имеют метеорологические площадки для наблюдений за погодой. В этом случае исследователи обращаются к метеосводкам ближайших государственных метеостанций. В настоящее время данная информация находится в открытом доступе в сети Интернет, и имеются технические возможности её сбора и обработки. В связи с этим цель статьи познакомить исследователей, чьи опытные поля не оборудованы собственными метеостанциями, с методикой получения из сети Интернет данной информации. В статье приведён порядок работы с архивом данных о погоде на метеостанциях, который находится в открытом доступе в сети Интернет. Статья представляет интерес для учёных-исследователей, чьи полевые опыты не оборудованы площадками наблюдения за погодой, но при этом есть необходимость в характеристике метеоусловий для обоснования полученных экспериментальных данных., Long-term observations showed that to a certain degree productivity of farm phytocenoses depend on climate of their cultivation area. Therefore, scientists use standard evaluation of weather conditions to analyze data on crop growth and behaviour. Such evaluation has various purposes. For example, it is conducted to determine the climate effect on seasonal and long-term dynamics of pest spread. Meteorological observations are crucial when selecting stress-resistant varieties or identifying environmental factors influencing crop performance. For various reasons trial locations do not always have meteorological sites for weather observation. In this case scientists collect such data from nearest state meteorological stations. There are several ways to collect and process this information which is publicly available on the Internet nowadays. This article presents the weather data collection methodology from the Internet to be used by researches lacking respective equipment on their trial fields. The article describes the procedure for archive analysis of online weather data from meteorological stations. It is of interest for the Institutions that have no weather observation sites but need to characterize weather conditions to justify the obtained experimental data., №3(2020) (2020)

The author focuses on the tendency towards increased instability in the countries neighboring the European Union in the east and south, as well as the reaction of the EU leadership to what is happening there. Some of these countries are covered by two EU projects – Eastern and Southern (Mediterranean) partnerships, which are developing within the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP). Their goal is to provide a favorable environment for the European Union and partner countries to build up cooperation potential and thereby minimize the challenges and threats for the EU from these regions. The first wave of shocks unexpectedly swept over the Euro- pean Union from its southern neighbors (the Arab Spring of 2011) and led to a revision of a number of fundamental principles of the EU's partnership with them. Recently, a second wave has emerged that has engulfed the countries of the Eastern Partnership (EaP): renewed hostilities between Azer- baijan and Armenia, mass protests in Belarus. At the same time, the scale of threats to the EU from the south does not decrease either. The author of the article does not seek to analyze the situation with the ENP as a whole, but focuses on the new challenges for the EU in the ENP spaces. The consequences of what is happening there may prompt the EU to further adjust its approaches to ensuring its own security. Against the backdrop of shocks, the ENP itself is losing its former significance - it is increasingly being replaced by the foreign policy practices of individual EU states.

Одной из актуальных задач в развитии возобновляемой энергетики является активное внедрение экологически чистых энергетических систем в частный сектор. В работе представлены результаты анализа выработки и экономической эффективности солнечной энергетической установки, работающей в частном секторе параллельно с централизованной электросетью. Исследованы методы прогнозирования выработки фотоэлектрических модулей в различных географических и климатических условиях. На основе анализа данных о выработке солнечной энергоустановки проведен сравнительный анализ расчетных и фактических характеристик в реальных эксплуатационных условиях. С использованием данных об уровне солнечной радиации на территории Чеченской Республики, а также данных о тарифах на электроэнергию в регионе, спрогнозирован экономический эффект от использования сетевой солнечной энергоустановки., One of the urgent tasks in the development of renewable energy is the active introduction of environmentally friendly energy systems in the private sector. The article presents the results of an analysis of the generation and economic efficiency of a solar power plant operating in the private sector in parallel with a centralized electric grid. Studied methods of predicting the efficiency of photovoltaic modules in different geographical and climatic conditions. Based on the analysis of data on the generation of solar power plants, a comparative analysis of the calculated and actual characteristics in real operating conditions is carried out. Using data on the level of solar radiation in the Chechen Republic, as well as data on electricity tariffs in the region, the economic effect of the use of a grid solar power plant is predicted., Вестник ГГНТУ. Технические науки, Выпуск 2 (20) 2020

В статье обсуждаются вопросы получения беспилотными гидрометеорологическими средствами (БГС) оперативной информации о состоянии тропосферы при производстве сверхкраткосрочных и краткосрочных прогнозов погоды радиолокационным способом. Отмечено, что на базе беспилотных летательных аппаратов (БПЛА) могут быть созданы простые в использовании и сравнительно недорогие БГС для измерения пространственных распределений метеорологических параметров атмосферы и получения информации, обеспечивающей повышение вероятности распознавания опасных явлений погоды (ОЯП) и точности измерения пространственных параметров гидрометеоров радиолокационными станциями (РЛС). Авторами, предлагаются новые способы получения метеорологической информации с применением БГС, позволяющие повысить точность метеоданных, получаемых радиолокационным способом. Представлены результаты исследований, направленных на создание новых средств метеорологического обеспечения с использованием БПЛА. Приведены вертикальные распределения некоторых параметров атмосферы с борта БПЛА. Определены направления дальнейших исследований и разработок. Ожидаемым эффектом от применения БГС на государственной наблюдательной сети Росгидромета является повышение качества интерпретации метеоданных, получаемых с помощью РЛС., The issues of operation information obtaining using unmanned hydrometeorological tools are discussed. This information will be used with radar method for ultra-short and short-term weather forecasts. It was noted that on the basis of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), easy-to-use and relatively inexpensive hydrometeorological tools can be created. These tools can be used to measure the spatial distributions of meteorological parameters of the atmosphere and to obtain information that increases the probability of recognition of dangerous weather phenomena and the accuracy of measuring parameters of hydrometeors by radar stations. The authors propose new methods for obtaining meteorological information using unmanned aerial vehicles which can improve the accuracy of weather data obtained by the radar methods. The directions of further research and development are determined. The results of studies and developments of new means of meteorological support are discussed. Measurements of the vertical distributions of some atmospheric parameters using UAVs are presented. The expected effect of the use of unmanned hydrometeorological tools on the state monitoring network is to improve the quality of interpretation of meteorological radar data., Авиакосмическое приборостроение, Выпуск 8 2020

The task solution of optimizing the parameters for an unmanned high-altitude airship and its power system in order to obtain the maximum of air standing patrol duration over a given geographic point requires an effective comparative analysis of the applicability of solar insolation as the main energy source for a power plant under various altitude, latitudinal, seasonal and wind conditions. The availability of a large number of input parameters for designing such a vehicle leads to the conclusion that it is necessary to use the universal specific energy characteristics of a high-altitude airship and its power plant to simplify the analysis and evaluation of technical solutions effectiveness. The main factor determining the power consumption of the power plant is wind flow speed in a given air standing patrol area. It is also known that solar energy is the most affordable source for long-term energy supply. In most cases, the analysis of solutions is reduced to assessing the ratio between the impact of two natural phenomena, solar energy and wind energy, on the high-altitude airship, for this purpose a simplified model of an airship was designed, which can also be applied to a solar energy airplane. In this work, the value of the available and required power per unit of the aircraft mass is selected as the main performance criteria. The available power is determined for any geographical point with the parameters of latitude, altitude and season (day of the year). The required power is determined by the flight altitude, speed and wind direction. Comparing the values of specific characteristics in space-time coordinates, it is possible to perform an effective analysis of the excess or shortage of available solar energy at a given geographical air standing patrol zone, for different altitudes and days of the year. Using the parameters related to aircraft take-off mass, we are also able to define the required dimensionality of the aircraft to carry out continuous aircraft air standing patrol at a given space point.

climatological information and data on climate and factors that influence climate are of great importance for obtaining complex indicators of climate assessment in urban areas. Models RayMan and SkyHelios are two free available micro-scale models. They are used to calculate and evaluate skyview factors (SVF), the duration of sunshine, shadows and radiation fluxes. In addition, the RayMan model is able to evaluate the modern thermal indicators used in human biometeorology. Two models coincide and link several data formats, for example GIS results and information transfer for subsequent processing in urban climatological studies and problems. The final result of the model is the calculation of the average temperature of eradiation, which is required in the model of the human energy balance and, thus, for the assessment of the thermal bioclimate.

Приведены основные результаты научных исследований в рамках программы DAAD «Научные стажировки для преподавателей и ученых» в Институте метеорологии и климатических исследований Технологического института Карлсруэ (Германия). Исследования были посвящены анализу причин неоднородного пространственного распределения грозовой активности над территорией Центральной Европы за период 2001–2014 гг. Получены выводы о влиянии на пространственную неоднородность грозовой активности не только характеристик состояния атмосферы, включая благоприятные синоптические условия, но и влияние подстилающей поверхности, в частности различных типов ландшафта (город, лес, поле, озеро и др.). Полученные результаты могут быть использованы для косвенной оценки пространственного распределения характеристик грозовой активности над территориями, не оснащенными системами местоопределения молний. Дополнительно изучен опыт подготовки бакалавров и магистров по направлению «Метеорология» в Институте метеорологии и климатических исследований Технологического института Карлсруэ.

Introduction. A climate pattern with marine features is typical for St. Petersburg. Vagaries of weather and climate conditions in the last decade specify the timeliness of this work, the purpose of which is to outline the expected level of the open air pollution in St. Petersburg by the “decision tree” method. Materials and Methods. Current data of weather observations carried out at station 26063 (St. Petersburg) from 2006 to 2014 are studied and processed. Within the framework of the study, the data were considered on the vertical profile of the atmosphere obtained through radiosounding the atmosphere of St. Petersburg at 00.00 and 12.00 UTC (Universal Time Coordinated) at Voeykovo station. Research Results . In the course of the investigation, the dependence of the atmospheric air pollution level on the synoptic process and the inertial factor was established which made it possible to figure a scheme for forecasting the air pollution level in the form of the decision tree by expertise. Accuracy of the predictive determination of the expected air pollution group in St. Petersburg was calculated on the dependent material and topped 90% (nighttime hours) and 91% (daytime hours) for a cold period; and - 84% (nighttime hours) and 87% (daylight hours) for a warm period of the year. This suggests that the proposed schemes allow obtaining a more efficient prediction of the atmospheric air pollution level in a cold period of the year. Discussion and Conclusions . In conclusion, basic outcomes and inferences are summarized. - Archives of baseline standard meteorological data and data of the atmosphere radiosounding, as well as synoptic situations and information on the level of atmospheric air pollution in St. Petersburg for the period from 2006 to 2014, are formed. - Groups of synoptic processes typical for St. Petersburg from 2006 to 2014 are established. - Schemes for forecasting the atmospheric air pollution level are developed using the “decision tree” method with accuracy of 84-91%. The research results are applicable for forecasting the urban air pollution level.

Obtaining of reliable information about the characteristics of snow cover with high spatial and temporal resolution for large areas of Northern Eurasia, with rare or absent network of ground-based observations stations is an important and urgent task. Currently estimation of the value of the snow water equivalent (SWE) and the snow depth have a large degree of uncertainty, especially if we are moving from data at the point of observation stations to distributed space values. In this article, the simulations of SWE and the snow depth using Land-Surface Model (LSM) SPONSOR with input meteorological data taken from the ECMWF ERAInterim reanalysis was performed for Western Siberia for the period from 1979 to 2013. Fields of SWE and of the snow depth with high spatial and temporal resolution corresponding to the resolution of meteorological data of the ECMWF ERA-Interim reanalysis (time step of 6 hours, the grid resolution of 0.75° × 0.75° in latitude and longitude) were obtained. For the entire period SWE data were compared with observations, as simulated using the model and taken directly from the reanalysis ERA-Interim at points corresponding of observation stations. Also comparison of observations and satellite data of SWE for points of observation stations was performed. Correlation coefficients between observations and model and satellite data for SWE and the snow depth were calculated for the period from 1979 to 2013. These correlation coefficients between observations and results of simulations using LSM SPONSOR for SWE, and especially for the snow depth are the best of all methods. Maps with high spatial resolution for SWE, obtained by different methods, were constructed for February averaged. Comparing of constructed maps shows significant uncertainty of the SWE fields, besides field’s distortions are not evenly distributed across the region. It appears that no one of these methods currently can be used as a reference (unique) to determine SWE in the absence of data of ground-based observations. Overall, model simulations using LSM SPONSOR somewhat overstate SWE, however, this overestimation is not more than 10–20% for most part of the territory, except in the South. Model data are reasonably well reproduce SWE for Central, Eastern and, most probably, for Northern parts of the region, differing from a real at 10–15%. Data from used satellite archive a few underestimate of SWE. SWE data taken directly from the reanalysis ERA-Interim, give large distortions of the SWE field: these values for Northern parts of the region, are likely greatly underestimated, and for Western and Eastern parts of the region – inflated. It is shown that in general, the method of simulation of snow cover characteristics using LSM SPONSOR with input data taken from the ECMWF ERA-Interim reanalysis gives good results for the region of Western Siberia.

The main criteria of the airport territory pollution have been revealed during both studying of the data for the ecological conditions of the various airports of the world and carrying out a number of the field measurements. They have been: atmospheric air analysis, analysis of the ground, surface and waste water, measurements of the noise. The structure of such system, the sources of its data and the functionality have been described. The system of the environmental forecasts formation with machine learning elements has been presented. It includes stations of the automatic environmental monitoring, a subsystem of the information analysis and a subsystem of the processed information publication.

The article on the basis of new and already known sources analyses changing approaches to the development of strategic aviation in 1950-1960-ies in the Soviet Union. It is shown that in this period the progress in the development of missile armament entailed the reassessment of the role of long-range aviation in the organizational structure of the Armed forces. The research urgency is caused by necessity of understanding the experience of “Khrushchev’s” military reform in the context of Russian reforms in the military sphere with similar goals and initial conditions. The author pays attention to military-technical aspect of the development of Soviet aviation in the considered historical period. Special attention is paid to N. S. Khrushchev’s role in the transformation of the air force. The research novelty is seen in the fact that the author tries to correct the point of view established in national historiography about the voluntarism of the head of state when making decisions about changing the organizational structure of the USSR Armed forces in 1950-1960-ies. It is argued that a partial reduction in aviation was caused by very specific reasons, the main of which were the technical backwardness of the Soviet strategic bombers from their foreign counterparts and the obvious advantage of missile armament over aircraft.

In recent years, ground-penetrating radars are widely used for measuring thickness and liquid water content in snow cover on land and glaciers. The measurement accuracy depends on radio wave velocity (RWV) adopted for calculations. The RWV depends mainly on density, water content and structure of the snow cover and ice layers in it. The density and wetness of snow, and its structure can be estimated from data on RWV, using the available experimental and theoretical relations. Satisfactory results can be obtained using the Looyenga’s (1965) equations to estimate the density and wetness of snow cover, and equations of van Beek’s (1967) showing the distinction between RWV speeds velocities in snow cover and ice layers with different prevailing orientation and sizes of air or water inclusions. RWV in dry snow with density 300 kg/m3 may vary by 32 m/µs, depending on whether the vertical or horizontal orientation of the air inclusions prevails therein. In ice with density 700 kg/m3 effect of air inclusions orientation on differences in RWV is reduced to 5 m/µs. If the inclusions are not filled with air but with water, the difference in RWV in snow is 21 m/µs, and in ice is 24 m/µs. The RWV is affected not only by orientation of the inclusions, but their elongation. Twofold elongation of ellipsoidal air and water inclusions increases the difference in RWV in snow (with a density 300 kg/m3 ) to 23 m/µs and 22 m/µs. These estimates show a noticeable influence of snow structure on RWV in snow cover. The reliability of the above RWV estimates depends significantly on a thermal state of the snow cover, and decreases during snowmelt and increases in the cold period. It strongly depends on accuracy of measurements of the RWV in snow cover and its separate layers. With sufficiently high accuracy of the measurements this makes possible to detect and identify loose layers of deep hoar and compact layers of infiltration and superimposed ice, which is important for studying the liquid water storage of snow cover and a glacier mass balance. Therefore, considerable attention should be given to accuracy of the RWV measurements in dry and wet snow cover and its individual layers. With sufficiently high accuracy of measurements of the RWV, this should allow revealing such layers and estimating their thickness and average density.

The paper considers reasons of internal air parameter mismatch in warm season of the year for public building premises having large area of translucent structures. The main reason of uncomfortable air environment is an underestimated value of air supply volume due to air exchange calculation according to multiplicity factor or air exchange rate per one person which are determinative values only for cold period and transient conditions. In other words multiplicity factor and air exchange rate do not take into account equipment abundance in modern offices and heat input of the office equipment is rather significant value. The paper contains an analysis and comparison of the existing air exchange rates for the Republic of Belarus, Russian Federation, European countries and USA. Calculation of heat input and air exchange for public building premises during warm season of the year for assimilation of evident heat excess has been made at various orientations of curtain walls. The paper provides structure of heat input into premises. The required rate of air supply volume per one person has been determined on the basis of air exchange and it has been compared with the existing air exchange rate. The required rate averagely exceeds the standard one by 12-fold. But this does not mean that there is necessity to increase the rate in such a way because it entails an increase in capital and operational costs. In this connection the paper reviews variants for improvement of micro-climate in the building premises with large area of translucent structures: automatic regulation of heat transfer in heating appliances during cold period of the year; usage of air conditioning and increase in temperature difference of input and output air during warm period.

С использованием метода гидродинамического моделирования проведен анализ штормового нагона на побережье Приморского края в августе - сентябре 2016 г., вызванного воздействием тайфуна Лайонрок. Основой моделирования являются программный комплекс CARDINAL и численная модель Японского моря. Входные поля давления и ветра для океанографической модели задавались по данным оперативной региональной прогностической модели атмосферы WRF-ARW. Приводятся результаты сопоставления расчетных и наблюденных данных об уровне моря. Сделан вывод о возникновении штормового нагона на побережье заливов Петра Великого и Посьета в результате длительного действия штормового ветра восточного направления и вызванного им потока вод в сторону побережья. В открытой части моря получено поднятие уровня за счет понижения давления., The main goal of the work is the analysis of storm surges on the coast of primorski krai in august-september 2016 caused by typhoon lionrock. This study is conducted using hydrodynamic modelling. The basis of modelling is the program cardinal and numerical model of the sea of japan built on shallow water equations in two-dimensional space. Input pressure and wind fields for the oceanographic model are simulated by operational regional forecasting model wrf-arw. In general, the numerical model of the sea of japan with the mentioned input pressure and wind fields simulate well variations of sea level during the passage of typhoon lionrock. The scheme of simulated sea currents is obtained. During the whole period of calculation the direction of a flow on the area of peter the great gulf and posyet bay was southwest and it is led to a significant sea level rising alongshore of these bays. When the typhoon came to the sea of japan the sea level was rising in the open part of the sea due to drop of atmospheric pressure. However, the rise in the level at sosunovo was not modelled and the rise in the level in vladivostok, observed from the noon on august 30 until the morning of august 31, was significantly underestimated. Tuning the model (doubling of wind coefficient, decreasing of time step, decreasing of meteorological values assimilation time step from three to one hour, use of different variants of wrf model, use of observed data on the open boundaries instead of simulated data of tpxo v. 7.2) Has not changed results significantly. The tide-gauge of vladivostok is located in the long and narrow zolotoi rog bay, into which the ob’yasnenie river and the entire runoff from the adjacent hills of vladivostok flow. The tide-gauge in sosunovo is located at the mouth of the svetlaya river, 500 m from the sea shore. Probably, in both cases, local effect on the level was due to locking discharge of rivers by wind and the anomalous flow of rainwater., №2(24) (2019)

Практическая работа №7 по курсу «Карты природы». Student Practical Report Nr.7 for the Course 'Environment Maps'. Bachelor's (BSc) studies at Lomonosov Moscow State University

Введен сравнительный анализ психоэмоциональных особенностей лиц, проживающих в полярных, субполярных и средних широтах, принимающих участие в многоширотном мониторинге, в зависимости от наличия у них психологической чувствительности к действию гелиогеомагнитных факторов. Установлено, что добровольцы, проживающие как в северных (полярных и субполярных), так и в средних широтах, имели ряд сходных черт, в зависимости от наличия психологической чувствительности к действию гелиогеофизических факторов (стремление анализировать проблемы, подавлять эмоции, доброжелательность, целеустремленность). Результаты данного исследования позволят осуществлять персонифицированный подход профилактики психосоматических заболеваний и невротических состояний у относительно здоровых лиц с учетом наличия у них психологической чувствительности к изменениям гелиогеомагнитной возмущенности, а также в зависимости от широты их проживания., The article presents a comparative analysis of psycho-emotional peculiarities of persons from polar, sub-polar and middle latitudes, taking part in multiple-latitude monitoring, in relation to a psychological sensitivity to heliogeomagnetic factors. It is found that the volunteers, living both in northern (polar and sub-polar) and middle latitudes, have a number of similarities depending on a psychological sensitivity to heliogeophysical factors (tending to analyze problems, emotional suppression, agreeableness, purpose). The findings of the study allow organizing patient-specific preventive methods for psycho-somatic diseases and neuroticisms in relatively healthy persons taking into consideration their psychological sensitivity to changes in heliogeomagnetic activity, and the latitude of their place of living., №4(64) (2019)

The technique for calculating the snow cover characteristics (a water equivalent and a snow cover thickness) with high spatial and time resolution on spacious plains is proposed. The model SPONSOR of local heat- and moisture exchange (Land-Surface Model, LSM) and data of reanalyses NCEP/DOE and ECMWF ERA-Interim were used for calculations. The above characteristics of the snow cover on the test area of the Moscow region were calculated using this method over the period 1979–1996. The results were compared with actual data of the snow gauge stations and with data on snow cover, derived directly from reanalysis. The data from the NCEP/DOE reanalysis did not show satisfactory agreement with data of the observations for both the water equivalent and the thickness (Fig. 1, б and Fig. 2, б): deviations reached 60–70%. Monthly mean values of snow water equivalent from the ERA-Interim reanalysis were in a good agreement with the observations, but the snow thicknesses were reproduced much worse. At the same time, using the LSM SPONSOR with input meteorological data from the reanalyses allowed obtaining the snow cover characteristics which were in a good agreement with data of the observations for both the monthly means and individual daily values. The correlation coefficients with the data of snow gauge surveys increased, on the average, up to 0.83–0.89 for the water equivalent, and up to 0.85–0.91 for the snow depth (see the Тable in the text). Especially good results were obtained when meteorological data from the ERA-Interim reanalysis were used together with the LSM SPONSOR (Fig. 1, д and Fig. 2, д). It allows us to conclude that meteorological data from the ERA-Interim reanalysis together with data of regular observational network can be used as an additional source of information for calculations of the snow characteristics. This conclusion is especially important for areas with sparse network of regular observations.

In the article is considered the modern approach to the assessment of climate parameters on the basis of the thermal comfort indices in accordance with the requirements of GOST R ISO 7730-2009. For the first time is introduced the concept of isocomfortable values of microclimate parameters, representing a set providing a predetermined thermal comfort level. Are calculated and presented the examples of three-dimensional arrays of given parameters as the convection temperature function from relative humidity and mobility of air. Microclimate parameters ensuring a specified level of thermal comfort were calculated by the method of successive approximations. Proposed in this article matrixes of isocomfortable values of microclimate parameters can be formulated for different combinations of source parameters.

Article is dedicated to landing to Pikshuiy cape in April – May 1942. The article is described the preparation for it, stated problems, forces and facilities, and also motion of debarkation, the influence of severe weather conditions on the results of landing operation especially in detail is examined. The authors note that the tragedy played at Cape Piksaev was made possible due to the lack of attention of the command of the fleet to the weather, as an important element of the theatre, and the rear of miscalculations in the preparation of units, advancing from the occupied bridgehead on the land direction, to act in complex meteorological conditions. In the preparation of the landing was a violation of the requirements of a number of guidance documents.

Obtaining actual data on a change in the value of snow load for a snowfall is an important task the solution of which is usually neglected. The purpose of the work was to obtain a data on dynamics of the snow load change on a roof for a snowfall. A system for remote monitoring of the snow load was developed for this purpose. This system allows continuous gathering and transmission of the data on the snow load change from a unit of area. Obtaining this information gives an indication of the size of snow loading and dynamics of the snow accumulation during snowfall. The developed system provides continuous collection and transmission of data about the changing snow load per unit area. This information makes possible judging values of the snow load and its dynamics during a snowfall. Using of this system allows monitoring of snow accumulation during a snowfall. Discreteness of the system is 1 minute, and the sensitivity to the load change is 50 g. The platform is designed for a load less than 100 kg. When a snowfall ends the platform should be cleaned. In 2015, the system has been just tested, but in future we plan to use the system without cleaning for the whole snow season. In this connection, the more powerful sensors will be used. The system consists of a rectangular platform with an area of 1 m2, and it is equipped with four load cells «TOQUES» BBA at the corners. It was used for two months from late January to mid-March. In total, nine snowfalls were observed. In the winter season of 2014/15, increases of snow loads changed within the range of 10–100 kg/m2. Analysis of the data shows that the maximum snow load exerted on the roof takes place at a snowfall peak, after that it decreases under the influence of external factors. Three main factors influencing formation of the snow loads on a flat roof are as follows: the quantity of solid precipitation, the snow melting, and redistribution of snow by wind. Using of the system allows obtaining actual values of snow load on roofs of buildings instead of data calculated from the snow weight on the ground. These values can be then used to correct standards for the snow loads.

The article considers the ways of optimizing the existing calculation procedure for the heat input through infilling the area lights. While maintaining public buildings with large areas of translucent structures during the warm season, it is possible to encounter the premises overheat due to a large volume of incorrectly accounted in the heat balance heat input from the solar irradiation. The calculation procedure presently in use in the Republic of Belarus does not account for diversity of the existing forms of glazing employed in construction and needs revision. The authors adduce and analyze the heat-input calculation principles from solar irradiation through translucent structures applied in designing ventilation and air-conditioning systems in Belarus, FRG and USA, and make comparisons between them. Based on the analysis, they establish the ways of optimizing the existing heat-input calculation procedure. Firstly, on account of small geographical latitude difference it is possible to average the flows of direct and dispersed solar irradiation over the territory of Belarus. Secondly, in calculation it is proposed to discard use of heat fluxes of the solar irradiation that passed through the single glazing and to utilize the fluxes falling onto the surface. Therefore, the paper considers the notion of the solar factor of glazing and offers an expression for determining the radiative heat-input component from the solar irradiance appreciating the heat fluxes falling onto the surface. The authors consider the variants of decreasing amount of heat entering the premises through the area lights: glazing type optimal choice, engineering apertures with certain ratio of dimensions, and the use of out-of-door solar protection.

During the war, government of the allies considered the construction of ice structures converted from artificial icebergs into aircraft carriers. The idea to use ice for construction of floating aerodromes, or giant aircraft carriers, was launched by Geoffrey Pyke, and then was developed in a project called «Habbakuk». Aircraft carriers, made of ice, had to work for a long period of time at temperatures of water and air, resulting in rapid destruction of the structure of ordinary ice. The ice in its pure form is unsuitable for any engineering form therefore the experiments on reinforcement of ice were undertaken. New form of ice engineering was based on the type of reinforcement patterns of ice and coating it with an insulating material, which would greatly reduce the influence of melting due to the temperature of the ambient air. After tests with different substances and proportions, it was found that the mixture of ice with wood pulp, amounting to about 14%, gives the best result of reinforcement. Proposed dimensions of «Habbakuk» were 610 m (2000 ft) long, 90 m (300 feet) in width and a height of 60 m (200 ft). In 1943, on the surface of the lake Patricia a reduced model to test the viability of the project was constructed. Development of improved long-range aviation, the airbase in Iceland and other technological advances contributed to the successful elimination of the threat from submarines, so the project had been suspended. The technology of strong ice structures invented during the World War II time can still have practical applications today.

В настоящей работе при заданном в таблице Фудзиты значении ширины полосы разрушений для всех торнадо установлены два внешних радиуса притока воздуха в придонную часть торнадо: in1 и rin2. Первый из этих радиусов in1 такой, что кинетическая энергия вращательного движения построенного потока составляет половину всей его кинетической энергии. При втором радиусе rin2 кинетическая энергия всего потока становится равной кинетической энергии самого слабого торнадо, при котором имеют место разрушения. Знание значений этих радиусов позволит более надежно прогнозировать возникновение торнадо., The natural phenomenon of a tornado, known for its destructive power, is an object of study of many scientists. The available part of the data of field observations of this natural phenomenon is systematized and collected in the so-called Fujita scale. In particular, it indicates the width of the fracture band for tornadoes of different intensity, and only the values of the maximum wind speed are given from the gas dynamic parameters. Bautin S.P. proposed and justified the scheme of occurrence and functioning of natural ascending swirling flows of the tornado and tropical cyclones. Based on both this scheme and the data of the Fujita scale, the external radii of air inflow in the near-bottom parts of tornadoes of various intensities are established and the gas dynamic parameters of these flows are calculated. It turned out that in the case of the lowest intensity from the Fujita scale, the kinetic energy of the rotational motion of the air is half of the entire kinetic energy of the flow in the bottom part. As tornado intensity increases, the kinetic energy of rotational motion becomes the more prominent part of the total kinetic energy of the flow. In this paper, given the Fujita value of the width of the destruction zone for all tornadoes along with the two external radii of air inflow into the bottom part of the tornado are established as rin1 and rin2. The first of these radii, namely rin1 , denotes the radius at which the kinetic energy of the rotational motion of the constructed stream is half of all the kinetic energy of this stream. The second one denoted as rin2, is the radius at which the kinetic energy of the entire stream becomes equal to the kinetic energy of the weakest destructive tornado. Knowing the values of these radii allows reliable predicting the origin of the tornado., №5(23) (2018)

Aerial photographing performed during the field season of 60th Russian Antarctic Expedition (2014/2015) made possible to construct a photoplan of the Mirny station. Its size is 3,5×3,5 km with resolution of 16 pixels/cm, and it will be used as a basis for designing of new airport. Similar work had been done over the Progress station along the route “Progress – Vostok”, about 35 km long. It was found that any crevasses dangerous for people and transport were absent on this area.

The paper presents a novel approach to the study of development of microstructures in snowpack based on the crystal-morphology and on the fundamental laws of natural symmetry. An empirical deterministic model describing the sublimation-metamorphic cycle in seasonal snow cover and the polymorphic variants of this cycle is suggested. Staging in the formation of crystal shapes and self-development of snow microstructure in snow layers is revealed. The crystal shapes are the result of successive process of superposition of ice crystalchemical symmetry and dissymmetry of the soil - snow cover - atmosphere system, according to the known P. Curie principle. Morphological classifi cation of snow crystals in seasonal snow cover is developed on the base of evolutionary model. Evolution of snow microstructure is conditioned by a marked degree by probabilistic conformity to natural laws, manifesting itself in the processes of auto-regulation of metamorphism. These processes include two types of regulation: the self-regulation of snow layers, on the one hand, and the regulation related to external conditions - under the infl uence of atmospheric perturbations, on the other hand. The accounting the processes of auto-regulation of snow metamorphism for allows development of new methods in short- and long-term avalanche forecast.

Different ways of defining the characteristics of Antarctic subglacialLakeVostokcirculation are considered. The disadvantages of hydrodynamic models using the hydrostatic approximation exposed to analysis. Differential equations and boundary conditions of three-dimensional nonhydrostatic model in terms vorticity–vector potential, specially developed for the modelling of the lake circulation are presented. 3D model passed through the testing by means simulations of convective currents in the simple-form reservoirs. On the basis of the seismic data on the thickness of a glacier and bathimetry of the lake the computational domain approximating a water body ofLakeVostokis constructed. Some results of modeling of the convective processes in the lake, obtained at the initial stage of circulation evolution using finite-difference grid with a spatial resolution of 8000 × 1500 ×30 mare shown.

A possibility of space-temporary short-term forecast-diagnosis of dry sublimative recrystallization and mixed (recrystallization plus fresh snow) avalanches is under consideration. The special discriminate analog–macrophysical models of the short-term background forecast is verified on correlation degree with probabilistic zoning of avalanche site № 22 in Khibiny. Аs a result we have correlation coefficients of order –(0.6÷0.7). The statistical significance of correlation coefficients (an order of 0.02–0.07) are checked and a conclusion on likelihood of assumed hypothesis is made. So by the current and predicted meteorological data such kind of forecast for such genetic avalanche types release in concrete sites becomes possible. The short-term forecast function transformation of the examined in the article avalanche types into long-term ones by averaging perennial realized forecast function values on slipping optimal 5-years intervals shows avalanche activity trend with probable 8–10 and 32-years harmonics during selected observation period. But in comparison with purely dry and wet fresh snow avalanches forecast analysed before the examined here above types are less precisely predicted. So it is needed an improvement of correspondent forecast functions on the base of theory contribution and future observations by increasing their series

Overview of researches conducted over 50 years (1963–2012) by Institute of Geography RAS on the surging glacier Medvezhiy, the West Pamirs is given. Ground investigations (changes of its surface altitude, ice movement velocity, ablation, ice thickness, temperature and others) made after surge 1963 allowed finding the basic features of this glacier regime and calculating the mass balance of its surging part for the whole cycle from the recovery phase up to a surge. Using the results a quality model for prediction of rapid motions of surging glaciers had been developed. Forecast of the next surge of the Medvezhiy Glacier made for 1973 on the basis of this model had been justified. As a result of the aerial and topographic monitoring (1989–1991) the glacier surge was quantitatively followed for the first time over its whole cycle, i.e. from a surge up to a next stage of its recovery. Results of our researches allowed formulating the foundations of the space monitoring of surging glaciers. In 2001 and 2011 surges of the glacier were detected and traced using the satellite imagery (MIR, ISS). In total for 50 years, five surges of this glacier and two full cycles of its life were investigated by various methods in different details.

The paper tells a story how the “blank spot” at the Pamirs center was puzzled out. In 1878, a small party of explorers headed by V.D. Oshanin had found here a big glacier about 30–40 km long and named it for Fedchenko. In 1884–85, known investigator G.E. Grumm-Grzhimailo made his important proposal about orographic structure of the Pamirs central part. In 1890, expedition headed by topographer N.I. Kosinenko investigated the lower part of the Fedchenko Glacier and, for the first time, saw a separate high peak. In 1916, astronomer Ya.I. Belyaev had put on a map a great pyramidal summit but he had mistaken it for the Garmo Peak well known to local Tadzhiks (Fig. 2). In 1927, N.L. Korzhenevsky published a chart of arrangement of ridges near sources of the river Muksu (Fig. 3) that became a basis for work of the Tadzhik-Pamir expedition of 1928–1932. In 1928, Ya.I. Belyaev determined a true length of the Fechenko Glacier that was 70 km, and geodesist I.G. Dorofeev mapped the whole basin of this glacier (Fig. 4) including also a high irregular truncated pyramid of 7495 m in height (as he believed). But earlier this summit was identified as known the Garmo Peak. And only in 1932, it was established that definitions made by Dorofeev in 1928 were related to this highest peak of the Pamirs and also of the whole Soviet Union. The chart of real Central Pamir orography constructed by I.G. Dorofeev is presented in the paper together with his letter addressed to the author (Fig. 5). Thus, the “Garmo peaks” which were observed by the above mentioned explorers were actually three different summits. One of them does tower on the north of the “knot being puzzled out” and reaches 7495 m, and namely this “one-tooth” peak was repeatedly seen by N.V. Krylenko from valleys Gando and Garmo. It was named then the Stalin peak, and later – the peak of Communism. Another one is located in 18 km southward, and this peak is actually the true Garmo Peak 6595 m high known to local Tadzhik people. And the third summit is located between the two others, it is the Belyaev Peak 6852 m high that once Ya.I. Belyaev, and next N.L. Korzhenevsky confused as the Garmo Peak. So, at the beginning of 1930s, orography of the Central Pamirs had been finally ascertained. A group of distinguished well-known scientists and travelers of the first third of 20 th century (Fig. 7) participated in this outstanding investigation that was followed by a number of geographical discoveries. And, the highest peak of the Pamirs does now bear the name Ismoil Somoni (Fig. 8).

Validation of remote sensing data MODIS «snow cover» in the period from September to May 2000/01, 2007/08, 2008/09 is realized on the base of weather stations data. Good repeatability of weather stations data and snow cover data is shown (more than 80% when snow depth is exceeds 2 cm). The minimum accuracy is in May and October for the variety of snowfall winters. Remote sensing data give possibility to extend the dot information of hydrometeorological stations network on the spatial snow distribution to the mountainous area of Predbajkalje where ground-based observations are absent. According to remote sensing earlier appearance and later melting of snow in mountain areas were identified. The plains and basins areas are characterized by later appearance and earlier melting of snow.

Winter tourism that is intensively developed in the Russian Federation in recent years strongly depends on the snow availability and properties in the region. Climate changes exert significant influence on the functioning of mountain ski resorts, especially if they are located in areas with relatively high air temperatures in winter season. At the present time, a snowy cluster of mountain ski resorts is intensively progressing in vicinity of Krasnaya Polyana. This region in the West Caucasus (Russia) is characterized by relatively warm climate conditions. The snow cover thickness (of 1% insurance) in area of the Aibga mountain range may reach 8.1 m. But the snow cover thickness is not the only characteristic of the mountain skiing attractiveness. According to the Swiss standards a mountain ski resort can be considered reliable if during seven seasons of ten ones the snow cover with minimal thickness of 30–50 cm exists for a time not shorter than 100 days during a period from 1 st December till 15 th April. According to the forecast, during future decades the calculated amount of solid precipitation should reduce by 25–30% in mountain regions on the south macro-slope of the Great Caucasus. As the calculations show, by 2041–2050 the maximal decade thickness of snow cover will decrease by 29–35% while a number of days with snow – by 35–40%. If this is the case, artificial snow will be needed in addition to the natural one. But, under warm climate conditions using of plants for artificial snow production will require a certain perfecting of the nowadays technologies, and very likely, with use of chemicals. That is why a shadowing of existing mountain ski routes by means of the tree planting along them could be ecologically more promising. As for the mountain ski resorts of the West Caucasus, we should mention a possible weakening of the avalanche activity as a potential positive effect of the climate warming predicted by models.

The aerosol lidars intended for expeditious monitoring of the atmosphere allow us to define remotely characteristics of atmospheric aerosol and cloudy formations in the atmosphere. When designing the laser systems, one of the first tasks to be solved is to determine a potential range of laser system operation. The laser system operation range depends on the algorithm for processing laser signals used in laser system. It can be estimated from an equality condition (for the limit range) between the power characteristics of the useful laser signal (coming to the receiver) and the threshold power characteristics of the laser system receiver. Today, practically, all the existing aerosol lidars operate with rather low repetition rate and with rather powerful single pulses. An alternative to it is operation with high repetition rate and with a low power of single pulses. The paper presents comparative analysis of a sounding range for the Aerosol Lidar in UF (0.355 microns), visible (0.532 microns) and near infrared (1.064 microns) spectral ranges for various lidar options (with different repetition rates of laser pulses and different algorithms to process laser locational signals). To estimate the limit sounding ranges L three different algorithms were used: - equality of useful signal power and threshold power of the receiver; equality of useful signal power in the no-accumulation mode and minimum detected (threshold) power in the no-accumulation mode; equality of useful signal power in the accumulation mode and minimum detected (threshold) power in the accumulation mode. Results of mathematical modelling show that the signals accumulation mode provides significantly longer sounding range, than the signals no-accumulation mode. The limit sounding range in the mode of signals accumulation is defined by dependence of the laser pulse power on the repetition rate.

A so-called wind shear (a vector difference of wind speeds in two points of the space referred to the distance between them) is of essential practical interest to air force. The wind shear is a hidden and cliffhanging phenomenon. The growth of aircraft incidents at their taking off and landing have drawn attention to this phenomenon.Laser methods are one of the advanced remote techniques to measure a speed and detect a wind shear. Remote laser methods of wind speed measurement are divided into Doppler and correlation ones. More simple (and, respectively, demanding less expensive equipment) are correlation methods and near to them non-Doppler techniques.Today almost all existing wind correlation lidars run in the visible range. However, in terms of safety for an eye, other ranges: near infrared (IK) and ultra-violet (UF) ones are also of interest.The work assesses a sounding range of the aircraft lidar in UF, visible, and near IK spectral ranges to solve a problem of wind shear detection for different altitude levels in the troposphere.Results of calculations show that the sounding ranges decrease with increasing flight altitude (at lidar parameters used in calculations) to be in range from ~ 2.7-3.3 km (the lowest atmospheric layer height ~ 0) to ~ 200 - 300 m (a flight altitude of 10 km). And the main reduction of the sounding range vs height is within the range of heights of 5-10 km. Such dependence is caused by the strong reduction of aerosol extinction and atmosphere scattering with the altitude increase in this altitude range.In a ground layer of the terrestrial atmosphere (height ~ 0) the greatest sounding range is realized for a wave length of 0.532 microns. With increasing flight altitude a difference in sounding ranges for the wave lengths of 0.355; 9.532 and 1.54 microns decreases, and at big heights the greatest range of sounding is realized for a wave length of 1.54 microns.

Для инициирования молниевых разрядов из грозовых облаков создают плазменный токопроводящий канал между грозовыми ячейками или ячейкой и землей вблизи объекта, защищаемого от поражения молнией. Канал создают синхронным подрывом серии артиллерийских боеприпасов плазменно- оптического действия с перекрытием облаков разрыва, Lightning produced by conductive plasma channel between the thunderstorm cells or between the cell and the ground near the object to be protected from lightning. Channel created by synchronous detonation of series of artillery shells with plasma-optical action with overlapping scopes of explosions, Геология и геофизика Юга России, Выпуск 3 2015