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According to numerous studies, gut microbiota plays a significant role in multiple sclerosis (MS) development. However, data on changes in the gut microbiota in MS is often contradictory. The most common approach in gut microbiota research is the 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing of fecal microbiota. However, such data do not reflect the composition of the entire body microbiota. There is also a lack of data on microbiota markers in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with MS and predisposing conditions.Objective: to assess the level of microbial markers in the CSF of patients with MS and radiologically isolated syndrome (RIS).Patients and methods. We used gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to evaluate microbial markers levels in eight patients with MS, five patients with RIS, and seven controls.Results and discussion. We found an increase in microbial load in patients with MS, indicating a possible association of MS with polymicrobial infection. In particular, an increase in the content of Streptococcus markers was observed, as well as a tendency to a three-fold increase in the campesterol content (a marker of campesterol-producing microfungi) in the CSF of patients with MS, compared to the control group (diagnostic punctures, various diseases of the nervous system of a non-autoimmune or inflammatory nature, not acute states).Conclusion. GC-MS of microbial markers can be used to assess the presence of microbial markers in the CSF. The CSF of patients with MS contains an increased amount of various microbial markers, which may indicate a possible association of MS with polymicrobial infection.

The human gut microbiota has been a major focus of scientific research in recent years. Studies based on metagenomic methods have revealed the multifaceted abilities of gut microbes, from metabolic functions to immunomodulation, from antipathogenic activity to behavioral formation. Since the gut microbiota plays a crucial role in maintaining human health, more or less specific changes in the gut microbiota are associated with various gastrointestinal diseases. These data strongly support the use of gut microbiota modulators, such as antibiotics, prebiotics and probiotics, as the choice for almost all gastrointestinal disorders. The traditional use of antibiotics in clinical practice is to counteract local or systemic infections. It can be assumed that antibiotics have a detrimental effect on the intestinal ecology. However, this is not true for all antibiotics.Rifaximin is a non-systemic oral antibiotic derived from rifampin and is characterized by a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and negative, aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. Rifaximin was first approved in Italy in 1987 and then in many other countries of the world for the treatment of several gastrointestinal diseases. This review presents the pharmacology and pharmacodynamics of rifaximin, describing various actions beyond its antibacterial activity, such as altering virulence, preventing intestinal mucosal adhesion and bacterial translocation. Key studies on the different uses of rifaximin are also described. In addition, rifaximin has some anti-inflammatory effects with minimal impact on the overall composition of the gut microbiota. All of these properties make rifaximin a good candidate for the treatment of various gastrointestinal diseases.

The article presents modern data on the formation, structure, functions and possibilities of correction of the gut microbiota. The gut microbiota is a collection of living organisms that inhabit the human intestine and form a complex microecological system that performs many functions. It is known that the composition and state of the gut microbiota is influenced by both environmental factors, such as diet and lifestyle, and the human body, including genetic predisposition. A violation in this system (dysbiosis) can provoke the development of a number of diseases and pathological conditions, in which the correction of the gut microbiota may be a promising therapeutic strategy. The most common methods of correcting dysbiosis are dieting, the use of pro-and prebiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation. The diet affects the qualitative and quantitative composition and functions of the gut microbiota, the activity of its individual representatives. Probiotics are used to modulate, preserve the gut microbiota in dysbiosis, as well as to prevent its development. Fecal microbiota transplantation is performed by transferring the microbiota from a healthy donor. This method is one of the most effective ways to treat Clostridium difficile infection. This review article also presents the results of fecal microbiota transplantation in patients with inflammatory bowel disease and hepatic encephalopathy. It is shown that after transplantation, there is a rapid change in the composition of the gut microbiota, which becomes similar to the microbiota of a healthy donor. Each of these methods of correction demonstrates a different degree of influence on the gut microbiota, and their therapeutic effectiveness depends on the direct characteristics of the methods used, as well as the specific disease and requires further study.

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is one of the most common non-communicable diseases in the world. Despite the long struggle with this nosology, the medical community still does not have a clear answer to all the pathogenetic links of this disease. Every year, the number of sugar-lowering medications increases, but most patients develop complications of diabetes. This is probably because not all aspects of the pathogenesis of DM have yet been studied, and therefore it is impossible to fully influence the course of this disease. One of the promising directions in the study of additional aspects of the pathogenesis of DM is the study of the gut microbiota of patients. Science knows the influence of microflora on the formation of eating behavior, various pathological processes, including inflammation, but this knowledge is limited. What influences the microflora itself and whether it is possible to change its composition with the help of changes in external factors? Additional research is required on the mutual influence of microflora and host organism, as well as the possibility of correcting these interactions. Several studies have confirmed the positive effect of lactobacilli on the physiological processes of the body. However, the human gut microbiota is very diverse, and the question of identifying bacteria that can participate and correct pathological processes requires additional research. Probably, if it is possible to influence the composition of the gut microbiota, the medical community can get a powerful tool for correcting many pathological conditions. It may be that this component is the missing component necessary for a more accurate impact in the treatment of many diseases, including diabetes.

Background. Arterial hypertension poses a relevant problem and roots in early childhood. Today, arterial hypertension in children and adolescents is considered rather common and should be controlled and prevented as early as possible, which warrants further research into its pathogenesis and effective correction.Objectives. To generalize current knowledge of microbiota in the development of arterial hypertension in children.Methods. National and foreign published sources were surveyed in the eLibrary, Web of Science and PubMed databases. Keyword queries were: gut microbiota, arterial hypertension [артериальная гипертензия], children [дети], chronic systemic inflammation [хроническое системное воспаление], probiotics [пробиотики]. All sources have a publication depth of 7 years. The study used content analysis and descriptive analytics.Results. Arterial hypertension remains a problem of high economic, medical and social importance as a major cause of brain disorders and coronary heart disease. Hypertension is shown to emerge early in childhood and adolescence during the regulatory network formation. Manifold evidence is accumulated on the involvement of human microbiota in pathogenesis of arterial hypertension. Infant microbiota is more unstable than in adults. Its taxonomic profile is viewed important for sustaining health, with imbalances in intestinal microbiota potentially entailing serious consequences. The impact of microbiota on chronic systemic inflammation, lipid metabolism, development and progression of atherosclerosis has been reported. Certain bacterial strains are known to exert benign effect on arterial hypertension and blood cholesterol. Selected mechanisms of the microbiota-mediated regulation of blood pressure have been identified. Improved methods for microbial community correction are being developed and include diet, antibiotic, prebiotic and probiotic regimens, faecal microbiota transplant.Conclusion. Current achievements promise the emergence of novel approaches for arterial hypertension control early in childhood to avoid incorrigible adult complications.

Aim of review . Description of intestinal mucosal barrier permeability disruption causes as morbid factors in gastrointestinal tract (GIT) functional disorders. General provisions . Intestinal mucosal barrier is composed of several elements: pre-epithelial barrier, a mucosal lining of epithelium; epithelial barrier that leverages tight junctional structures and high regenerative capacity of epithelium; post-epithelial barrier established by immune cells and blood vessels. Gut microbiota profile may also be constituent of the intestinal mucosal barrier. Functional dyspepsia (FD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) leave distinct morphological imprint. For instance, FD patients exhibit variant expression of cell junction proteins (claudin-1, zonula occludens, occludin, E-cadherin, β -catenin and desmoglein-2), and IBS patients — overexpression of claudin-2. Permeability disruption leads to inflammatory changes in intestinal wall resulting in visceral and central sensitisation, as well as intestinal motor dysfunctions causal of IBS and FD. Conclusion . Disruption of intestinal mucosal barrier may be considered a pathogenetic factor of PD and IBS progression.

Acute cerebellitis is a common inflammatory syndrome typically occurring in children and only on very rare occasions in adults. Thus, there was no description of acute cerebellitis, associated with Crohn’s disease, found in Russian sources of literature. We reported a case of acute cerebellitis in 45-year-old woman with a long history of Crohn’s disease treated with Mesalazine as a basic therapy and a resection of ileotransversoanastomosis together with small intestine two months before the onset of neurological symptoms. She first presented with severe headache and left-sided cerebellar dysfunction. The MRI showed signs of pronounced edema of the left hemisphere of the cerebellum, pial Gd-enhancement along the cerebellar folia, difficulty of CSF- flow. The application of lumbar puncture was impeded by the possibility of complications, such as brain herniation. Treatment with high-dose intravenous Methylprednisolone resulted in clinical and radiological improvement. Over the following year, her clinical status remained unchanged, except for one case of epileptic seizures as a result of switching of basic therapy of Crohn’s disease on Adalimumab. In this case, hemicerebellitis most likely has an immune-mediated nature. The temporal relationship with increased activity of Crohn’s disease and a significant positive response to corticosteroid therapy favored this hypothesis. It was known that inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) had many extra-intestinal manifestations including neurological ones. With regard to that, the alterations in gut microbiota could be a possible common base for systemic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as Crohn’s disease or autoimmune cerebellitis, described in this study.

Problems of obesity, nutrition and microbiota are discussed in this review. In a world of constant economic and cultural changes traditional diet is being replaced by western diet, rich in free sugars, saturated fats, salt, and characterized by increased average daily dietary energy consumption intake. Such «western-style» diet is associated with high weight gain, leading to metabolic disorders, namely diet-related obesity, which is rapidly increasing globally. The impact of ethnicity to the development of obesity as inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic differences in dietary habits is showed. Dietary habits of different countries, including ethnic minorities, provide a specific pattern of gut microbiota and microbiome. In the context of globalization, international migration and rapid urbanization, changes in dietary habits occurred without proper adaptation of gut microbiota. Gut microbiota plays the fundamental role in regulation and pathogenesis of metabolic disorders due to making metabolites for normal human development, therefore gut microbiota dysbiosis may lead to metabolic dysfunction, including obesity. The review shows actual worldwide data of evolution of adult obesity over time, dietary energy consumption in different country and different climatic regions. It analyzes changes in gut microbiota composition depending on traditional or western diet, and on nationality and race.

Today, the composition of the gut microbiota has been studied in sufficient detail. Increasing number of studies show that the respiratory tract, both the upper and lower respiratory tract, have their own microbiota. The article presents the main today’s data about the species diversity of microorganisms in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, describes the role of a healthy microbiota in providing local and general immunity. The authors specify the role of probiotic strains of microorganisms and their effect on various parts of the immune response and present the data of studies on the effect of probiotic products on the immunological resistance of humans, especially the respiratory tract with high viral load. Restoration of a healthy microbiota in the human tract using probiotic products administered through the gastrointestinal tract can reduce the risk and severity of manifestation of the respiratory infections.

Цель - исследовать интенсивность экспрессии белка альфа-синуклеина клетками Панета у крыс в норме и условиях длительного бактериофагального инфицирования микробиоты. Материал и методы. Экспериментальные исследования проведены на 12 половозрелых крысах-самцах линии Вистар массой 280-320 г. Крысам основной группы (n=7) еженедельно на протяжении 12 нед ректально вводили 0,5 мл раствора, содержащего смесь бактериофагов против 14 патогенов человека (Microgen, Россия). Однократная доза вводимой бактериофагальной смеси содержала 0,5×10ед./мл каждого фага. Животные контрольной группы (n=5) получали по аналогичной схеме 0,5 мл стерильного изотонического раствора натрия хлорида. После интракардиальной перфузии отбирали фрагменты проксимального отдела подвздошной кишки на уровне 1-3 см выше илеоцекального соединения. Серийные криостатные срезы кишечника использовали для окрашивания гематоксилином - эозином и выявления иммунопозитивного альфа-синуклеина при помощи моноклональных мышиных антител (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) и коммерческого набора, содержащего авидин-биотин-пероксидазный комплекс (АBC Elite; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA). Результаты. Длительное бактериофагальное инфицирование приводило к значимому снижению относительно контроля количества клеток, иммунопозитивных к альфа-синуклеину. В клетках Панета значимо снижались площади, занимаемые иммунореактивным продуктом к альфа-синуклеину и ацидофильными гранулами. Выводы. В апикальных частях клеток Панета, в области локализации ацидофильных гранул детектируется иммунопозитивный альфа-синуклеин. Дисбиоз кишечника, вызываемый бактериофагальным инфицированием микробиоты, приводит к гранулярному истощению клеток Панета и снижению экспрессии в них иммунореактивного альфа-синуклеина, что свидетельствует о его вовлеченности в механизмы экскреции., Objective - to investigate the intensity of the alpha - synuclein expression by Paneth cells of rat in normal conditions and prolonged bacteriophagal infection of gut microbiota. Material and methods. Experimental studies were performed on 12 adult Wistar male rats weighting 280-320 g. The rats of the main group (n=7) received rectally a 0,5 ml of solution containing a mixture of bacteriophages directed against 14 human pathogens (Microgen, Russia). The solution was introduced weekly for a period of 12 weeks. Each dose of bacteriophagal mixture contained 0,5×10 units/ml of each phage. Animals of the control group (n=5) received 0,5 ml of sterile physiological saline according to the same scheme. After transcardial perfusion, specimens of proximal portion of ileum 1-2 cm upstream the ileocecal junction were obtained. Serial cryostat sections were used for hematoxylin and eosin staining and for detection of immunopositive alpha-synuclein by monoclonal mouse antibodies (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) and commercially available kit containing avidin-biotin-peroxidase complex (АBC Elite; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA). Results. Prolonged bacteriophage infection led to a significant decrease in the number of alpha-synuclein immunopositive cells compared with control. The area of Paneth cells occupied by the alpha synuclein-immunoreactive product and acidophilic granules significantly reduced. Conclusions. Immunopositive alpha-synuclein was detected in the apical parts of Paneth cells, in the area of acidophilic granules localization. The intestinal dysbiosis caused by bacteriophage infection of microbiota led to granular depletion of Paneth cells and a decrease in the expression of immunoreactive alphasynuclein in them, which indicates its involvement in excretion mechanisms., Морфология, Выпуск 4-5 2020

Radical changes in the composition, diversity and metabolic activity of gut microbiome in critically ill patients most probably affect adversely the outcome of treatment. Microbiota dysfunction may be a predictor and presumably the main cause of infectious complications and sepsis. Clinicists use objective scales for evaluation of patient condition severity including specific parameters of disorders of organs and systems; however, microbiota function is not considered specific and, hence, not evaluated. Technical capabilities of the recent decade have allowed characterizing the intestinal microbiota and that helped understanding the ongoing processes. The authors have analyzed data about the role of intestinal microbiota as a metabolic 'reactor' during critical states, possible complications related to misbalance of 'harmful' and 'beneficial' bacteria, and examined potential of a targeted therapy aimed directly at correction of intestinal microbiota. Search for papers was carried out using Scopus and Web of Science databases 2001 to 2018 years: (Gut Microbiota) AND (Critically ill OR Intensive care unit), key words taken for the search were: intestinal microbiota, metabolism, sepsis, antibiotics, critically ill patients, multiple organ failure. A number of questions in understanding of the interaction between gut microbiome and host remain open. It is necessary to take into account interference of microbial metabolism while assessing metabolome of patients with sepsis. Among low-molecular compounds found in blood of sepsis patients, special attention should be paid to molecules that can be classified as ‘common metabolites’ of humans and bacteria, for example, degradation products of aromatic compounds, which many-fold rise in blood of septic patients. It is necessary to take into consideration and experimentally model changes in the human internal environment, which occur during radical transformation of microbiome in critically ill patients. Such approach brings in new prospects for objective monitoring of diseases by evaluating metabolic profile at a particular moment of time based on integral indices reflecting the status of microbiome/metabolome system, which will supply new targets for therapeutic intervention in future.

The modern concept of symbiotic relationship between the macroorganism and the gut microbiota is practically assured. The microbiota composition is primarily influenced by environmental factors, genetic and immune factors of the host organism. The gut dysbiosis can lead to the dominance of certain types of bacteria that promote the activation of carcinogenesis mechanisms and the development of malignant tumours of the colon due to chronic inflammation or local immunosuppression. The role of the intestinal microbiota in forming a response to the immunotherapy of malignant neoplasms is of great interest to the medical community in the era of immunooncology. Given that the gut microbiota composition is individual for each person, its examination fits nicely into the up-and-coming concept of a personalized medical approach.

The intestinal microbiome plays a significant role in the regulation of peristalsis, exerts some influence on the functioning of the immune system, course of metabolic processes and formation of some aspects of behavior. There is evidence that maternal microflora can exert an influence on the fetus by translocation of bacteria or bacterial particles through the placental barrier, although, of course, the main colonization of the intestine of the infant occurs in the process of natural childbirth under the influence of the vaginal and intestinal flora of the mother. In children born by cesarean section the normal colonization of the gut is disturbed, which can determine a higher risk of developing in the future of some immune-mediated diseases, Type 1 diabetes mellitus and obesity. Medical men often try to adjust dysbiosis or changes in the composition of the fecal microflora called dysbiosis by the use of probiotics. In addition to the well-known effects of probiotics in the treatment of acute diarrhea in children, these drugs currently are being increasingly used for prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis of the newborn, despite the fact that evidence of the effectiveness of their routine use is not sufficient. A number of studies have shown that some probiotics may be effective in the prevention of atopic diseases, prevention and treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea, reducing the frequency and severity of necrotizing enterocolitis, relief of infant colic, and therapy of constipation. Given the role of microbiota in the development of obesity, some probiotics have been used and showed their effectiveness in weight loss. The fecal microflora transplantation was introduced relatively recently to treat Clostridium difficile infection and inflammatory bowel disease. In this review we discuss current data on the intestinal microbiota, its formation, functions, disturbance of the composition and possible ways of their correction.

Aim. To study the state of gut microsymbiocenosis in children with reactive arthritis (RA), with the assessment of biofilm formation (BFF) of microsymbionts and the ability to change cytokine levels (their anticytokine activity) in vitro. Materials and methods. The investigation of gut microsymbiocenosis by means of bacteriological method was conducted in 34 children with RA and 25 relatively healthy 3 - 16 year- old children. Microorganisms were identified with the help of MALDI-TOF mass-spectrometry, anticytokine activity (АСА) of microsymbionts - according to Bukharin O.V. et al. (2011), biofilm formation - according to O’Toole G.A., Kolter R. (1998). Results. On the ground of species composition differences of gut microbiota discrimination model was created which allowed to separate the group of children with RA from healthy individuals. Microsymbiocenosis of patients with RAwas characterized by increasing number of opportunistic microorganisms (OM) (enterobacteria, clostridia, bacteroides, and Candida), BFF and АСА level. Conclusion. The obtained data greatly contribute to the deciphering of spondylo-arthritis and disclose the role of microbial factor under given pathology. Hypercolonisation of human gut with OM, having pronounced ability to BFF and regulating cytokine level, promotes strengthening of arthritogenic potential and serves as additional marker of arthritis development risk in children.

The review demonstrates mechanisms in the relationship of obesity to gut microbiota, as well as possible therapeutic measures to normalize the intestinal microflora. There is evidence that the latter makes a great contribution to the pathogenesis of obesity and related diseases. Investigations have shown the role of the nature of consumed foods (fatty foods) in reducing the amount of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, as well as the effects of bacterial lipopolysaccharides and metabolites from the intestinal microflora (trimethylamine-N-oxide, bile acids, etc.). The use of prebiotics, probiotics and ursodeoxycholic acid preparations and fecal transplantation are promising in correcting the microflora and in providing their positive effect on metabolic disturbances. Certain probiotic strains are effective in treating dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Gut microbiota is impaired in obesity and contributes to the development of cardiovascular diseases. The control of the gut microbiota and the use of drugs altering the composition of the microflora may become a novel approach to reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.В обзоре продемонстрированы механизмы взаимосвязи ожирения и микробиоты кишечника и возможные терапевтические меры по нормализации кишечной микрофлоры. Доказано, что кишечная микрофлора вносит большой вклад в патогенез ожирения и ассоциированных заболеваний. В исследованиях продемонстрирована роль употребляемой пищи (жирная пища) на сокращение количества бифидо- и лактобактерий, влияние бактериальных липополисахаридов и метаболитов кишечной микрофлоры (триметиламин-N-оксида, желчных кислот и др.). Перспективно применение пре- и пробиотиков, препаратов урсодезоксихолевой кислоты, трансплантация кала для коррекции микрофлоры и положительного влияния на метаболические нарушения. Определенные штаммы пробиотических бактерий эффективны при лечении дислипидемии, сахарного диабета, ожирения, метаболического синдрома. Кишечная микробиота нарушается при ожирении и способствует развитию сердечно-сосудистых заболеваний. Управление кишечной микробиотой и применение препаратов, меняющих состав микрофлоры, может стать новым подходом в снижении риска развития сердечно-сосудистых заболеваний.

Purpose of the study. To study the relationship between the gut microbiota composition, the state of the vascular wall and nutrient intake in patients without clinical manifestation of cardiovascular disease.Materials and methods. The study included 92 residents from Moscow and the Moscow region, men and women aged 25 to 76 y.o., without clinical manifestations of chronic diseases, with no medical treatment but with possible presence of cardiovascular risk factors. All the participants were examined with duplex scanning of the carotid arteries with the definition of the thickness of the intima-media complex (IMC), the presence of atherosclerotic plaques, measuring carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (PWV), the measurement of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (C-RP) and sequencing of the V3-V4 variable regions of 16S rRNA genes of the gut microbiota.Diet was studied by quantitative assessment of consumer products using a standardized computer program «Analysis of Human Nutrition states» (version 1.2.4 Research Institute of Nutrition 2003-2006).Results. The study revealed that in the investigated cohort IMC thickness was greater in those with a large number of bacterial genera Serratia and Blautia. Bifidobacterium representation was increased and Blautia representation was decreased in those who consumed a lot of starch.Conclusion. The composition of the gut microbiota is associated with both vascular wall stiffness and atherosclerosis. In addition, the bacteria associated with subclinical atherosclerosis were more represented among those who consumed smaller amounts of complex carbohydrates.

Of the main significantly prevalent modifiable risk factors of cardiovascular risk are carbohydrate and lipid metabolism disorders. Recent years have shown some findings of the mechanisms. The current review highlights contemporary understanding of the link of gut microbiota with carbohydrate and lipid metabolism disorders. The data provided on the influence of probiotics on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. The data of last decade is covered.

С течением времени подходы к изучению резистентности к антибиотикам трансформировались от сосредоточения на выделенных в виде чистой культуры патогенных микроорганизмах к исследованию резистентности на уровне микробных сообществ, составляющих биотопы человека и окружающей среды. По мере того, как продвигается изучение устойчивости к антибиотикам, возникает необходимость использования комплексного подхода для улучшения информирования мирового сообщества о наблюдаемых тенденциях в этой области. Все более очевидным становится то, что, хотя не все гены резистентности могут географически и филогенетически распространяться, угроза, которую они представляют, действительно серьезная и требует комплексных междисциплинарных исследований. В настоящее время резистентность к антибиотикам среди патогенов человека стала основной угрозой в современной медицине, и существует значительный интерес к определению ниши, в которых бактерии могут получить гены антибиотикорезистентности, и механизмов их передачи. В данном обзоре мы рассматриваем проблемы, возникшие на фоне широкого использования человечеством антибактериальных препаратов, в свете формирования микрофлорой кишечника резервуара генов резистентности., Over the time, studies of antibiotic resistance have transformed from focusing on pathogenic microorganisms isolated as a pure culture to analysis of resistance at the level of microbial communities that constitute human and environmental biotopes. Advancing studies of antibiotic resistance require an integrated approach to enhance availability of information about observed tendencies in this field to the global community. It becomes increasingly obvious that, even though not all resistance genes can geographically and phylogenetically spread, the threat they pose is indeed serious and requires complex interdisciplinary research. Currently, the antibiotic resistance of human pathogens has become a challenge to modern medicine, which is now focusing on determining a potential source for bacterial genes of drug resistance and mechanisms for the gene transmission. In this review, we discussed problems generated by the widespread use of antibacterial drugs in the light of forming a reservoir of resistance genes by gut microflora., №3 (2017)

The importance of adipose tissue is much greater than it has been expected. Adipose tissue is a large endocrine organ, value of which is difficult to overestimate. Its work influences a lot of metabolic disorders, cardiovascular pathology. Recently, there is active research on the relation of obesity and microbiota contents. It is studied depending on the food type, physical activity, and microbiota itself might influence the absorption of nutrients, permeability of the gut wall, and appetites. The article is focused on several mechanisms of interrelation of gut microbiota and obesity, on the results of last years studies.

The experience of the recent decade has led to ability of complex evaluation of human health, including not only external influences, genetic determinants, but to regard human body as an "environment" for billions of microbes that continuously interact with the host. Microbiota of the gut — the most "inhabitated organ" — is it was discovered, relates to a variety of cardiovascular risk factors. In the series of articles the description of recent data to be provided of the relations of gut microbiota and cardiovascular risk factors. Current article focuses on the recent views on the relation with no modifiable cardiovascular risk factors — sex and age. Some aspects to be described of the microbiota formation since in the womb development and during ageing, the recent results of the studies are described. Also some data on the relation of the sex and gut microbiota is mentioned.

The article provides a review of contemporary literature, which generalizes experimental and clinical data on the role of gut microbiota in atherosclerosis development. Gut microflora can be named a marker of the macroorganism condition, reacting on age-related, physiological, dietic, climatogeoraphic factors with its changes of qualitative and quantitative compounds. It was shown that L-carnitine and choline being received with food, are utilized by microflora to synthetize trimethylamine, which then rapidly oxydized by flavinmonooxygenase of liver to trimethylamin-N-oxide, that causes atherosclerosis development and increases risk of cardiovscular diseases.

In poultry, and birds in general, the gut is not only the first line of the defense from exogenous pathogens, but also the biggest immunity organ. The microflora inhabiting blind gut plays multifunctional role in the maintenance of homeostasis in macroorganism, being involved in different processes including fodder digestion. Probiotic, antibiotic, prebiotic, symbiotic preparations, enzymes, etc., affecting directly or ndirectly the gut microflora, can thus increase daily weigh growth and viability in chickens, and the slaughter yield. They also improve a digestibility of fodder nutrients, quality and sanitary condition of the birds. However, the influence of these agents on gut microflora in chickens is still not cleared up. Recent molecular approaches allow studying microbial biodiversity without traditional limitations we are faced with when applying microbiological techniques. By T-RFLP and RT-PCR, the composition and growth dynamics of gut microflora were examined in the Cobb 500 broiler chickens fed with probiotic Cellobacterin-T and antibiotic Stafak-110 as feed additives to the complete diet. By these methods, the probiotic and antibiotic additives were shown to contribute to the development of microbiota. In particular they increased the total number of bacteria, what is more, the normal gastrointestinal flora, i.e. cellulolytic bacteria, lactobacilli, bifidobacteria, bacilli, selenomonas species, increased, while the unwanted enterobateria and actinimycetes decreased. In case we used the probiotics in poultry diet when compared to antibiotics, in the studied parts of the intestinal of broiler chickens there were more cellulolytic bacteria, and in the blind gut the number of lactobacilli, bifidobacteria and bacilli was 10-100 times higher, while clostridia and transit bacteria number decreased. Numerous investigations affirmed the effectiveness of probiotics in poultry basing on zootechnical parameters, however, only molecular identification of the gut microbiota members by means of T-RFLP-PCR and RT-PCR analysis allows detecting and attributing their taxonomic groups influenced by a specific feed additive for further justification of its rational use.