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The author examines the concept of ingrowing in Lev Vygotsky’s cultural-historical psychology. The theoretical significance of his metaphors of ingrowing and gardening, and the connection between the terms “ingrowing” and “interiorisation” are revealed. The plain criterion for evaluating the success of ingrowing higher psychological functions is found in the development of verbal thinking. By analysing the concepts of interpsychic and intrapsychic function, the author shows how Vygotsky understands the process of transformation of one function into another: (i) types of ingrowing and (ii) the nature of changes in the structure of higher psychological functions during the transition of interpsychic forms of behaviour into the child’s consciousness. The controversy between Vygotsky and Aleksei Leontiev on the ingrowing of word meanings is discussed. Special attention is paid to the ingrowing scientific concepts at school age. The epilogue briefly outlines the fate of the concepts of ingrowing and interiorisation in Russian cultural-historical psychology.

The article discusses the main ideas of the cultural-historical theory of social environment as a source of development from the point of view of the possibility of "refocusing research on development" and the transition from descriptive (empirical) ways of analysing experimental data to explanatory ones. In this article, based on Vygotsky's works, it is shown: 1) how the general idea of social environment as a source of development can be further conceptualised with the concepts of "social situation", "social situation of development" and "perezhivanie" and 2) how the analytical model created on this basis can become a concrete tool for analysing the experimental data. The cultural-historical genetic-analytical model developed by the author and experimentally validated is presented as a general framework for analysing experimental data in accordance with the general requirements of the experimental-genetic method. The second part of the paper presents a cultural-historical analytical matrix based on the model, which allows the data to be analysed in terms of revealing internal processes of development. The genetic-analytical model allows the analysis to capture the aspect of universality. A matrix based on this model (and therefore retaining the aspect of universality) can be used to analyse a particular social situation in terms of the specific conditions in which this universality manifests itself.

This paper analyzes select 1940s works of A.N. Leontiev’s school of psychological thought in light of the methodological principles of psychotechnical cognition which F.Ye. Vasilyuk formulated on the basis of L.S. Vygotsky’s ideas about practice as a constructive principle of psychological science. The paper refutes the assertion that Soviet-era cultural and activity psychology had no psychological practice in its own right, and demonstrates that such practice did really exist, had a distinctly activity-oriented nature, and contributed to the advancement of the activity theory. It was the practice of movement recovery which the team of psychologists, put together by A.N. Leontiev, practiced at the military hospital in Kourovka, fusing “psychotherapy”, research, and education into an inseparable whole. We observe that unity in Z.M. Istomina’s 1948 research, discussed in this paper in light of the eight general principles of psychotechnical cognition identified by F.Ye. Vasilyuk. Revisiting the Leontiev school’s heritage is relevant in the context of the ongoing conceptual revolution in psychology, for many methodological principles and provisions of activity psychology were ahead of their time.

At the Second All-Russian Congress on Psychoneurology in Petrograd (January 1924), Vygotsky delivered three papers. The first paper (“Methodology of Reflexological and Psychological Research”), was printed separately, but the text of the other two reports (“How Psychology Should Be Taught Now” and “Results of a Questionnaire on the Moods of Students of the Graduating Classes of the Gomel Schools in 1923”) has not survived. A brief account of these two reports, which appeared in the magazine Krasnaya Nov’ in 1924, is reprinted here for the first time. The author was the revolutionary M.I. Ginzburg (1877-1940), a researcher at the Moscow Psychological Institute in the mid-1920s. He wrote under the pseudonym G. Dayan. Ginzburg-Dayan was severely criticised in 1935 on charges of Trotskyism.

The article dwells on the earlier period of Vygotsky’s works before the time when the principles of the Cultural Historic Theory were formulated. His report on the 2nd Psycho-Neurologic Congress in 1924 as well as some adjacent works including “The historical sense of psychological crisis” are considered by the author as key moments. If to compare Vygotsky’s approach with I.P. Pavlov’s theory of conditioned reflex, V.M. Bechterev’s reflexology and K.N. Kornilov’s reactology,from one side, and psychology, from the other, it reveals Vygotsky’s determination to restructure psychology on the objective basis. In his opinion this implies the turn of psychology to higher forms of human’s behavior, actually, to human activity. In these methodological changes of Vygotsky’s views one can trace certain relations of Vygotsky’s early works with P.Ya. Galperin’s theoretical survey on subject and method of psychology.

The article gives a brief overview of the emergence and development of the cultural-historical theory of higher psychological functions over the century after it was created. Lev Vygotsky began the development of his theory with the study of the instrumental function of “cultural signs” (primarily words) and therefore he gave it the name “instrumental psychology”. The formation of human personality was understood by Vygotsky as the “ingrowing” of social relations into the individual mind and the conscious “mastery of the self”, its psychological functions and affects, by means of signs and basing on concepts. The authors of the article point out the main milestones in the development of cultural-historical psychology, briefly characterise its key concepts, methods and the most important tendencies of its development, up to its most recent trends in Russia, which have already emerged in the 20th century.

The year 2024 marks the 100th anniversary of cultural and historical psychology. Taking in consideration the growing demand for the ideas and positions of cultural-historical psychology in the world professional community started in 1978 and continues to this day, we have to highlight a number of emerging problems. Without the analysis of these problems it is impossible to further develop the theory itself. Firstly, it is the variety of interpretations and readings of the theoretical foundations of cultural-historical psychology that have emerged over the past decades. Secondly, it is the transformation of the conceptual apparatus of cultural-historical psychology into a "screen" for eclectic and purely empirical constructions of modern research aimed at studying the problems of the development and structure of consciousness and higher psychological functions. At the same time, it is possible to truly understand Vygotsky's concept only on the basis of an analysis of the genesis, content and interrelation of those concepts that make up the methodology of cultural-historical psychology. This article examines the concept of "sign", which is one of the key concepts in the cultural-historical concept of L.S. Vygotsky. The aim is to reconstruct the path that the author of cultural-historical psychology himself took in determining the place and role of this concept in the holistic theoretical and methodological structure of the concept he developed.

The article presents a dialectical analysis of psychological means as one of the problems within cultural-historical psychology. The author raises the question of what properties psychological means must have in order to serve as a tool for influencing the actor's behavior. As means are considered those presented in L.Vygotsky's works: sign, symbol, visual diagram, concept of opposition. This study offers a solution to a number of theoretical problems: it gives a description of the primary and ideal forms’ structure as well as explains the possibility of their interaction (including in the process of mediation). The key properties of symbolic means are determined: the presence of material and ideal components, as well as experiences that presuppose the unity of affect and intellect. These qualities allow the sign to mediate the interaction of the primary and ideal form. The product of sign mediation is the formation of higher psychological functions in the child. The hypothesis is substantiated that it is advisable to consider relations of opposition as cultural means, and their mastering is necessary for the dialectical thinking formation as the highest psychological function. The study shows that one of the fundamental properties of opposite relations is their two-level nature. This property is demonstrated in the use of opposites in cycles as it involves a transition from content analysis to structure analysis and back. The theoretical research carried out is aimed at developing the cultural-historical concept, including the problem of psychological means. The work done has practical significance, because it provides a detailed description of the means’ transformations that arise in the process of social interaction between an adult and a child.

In the article we carried out a historical and psychological analysis of psychological and pedagogical research of joint activities (its genesis) from the 60s of the XX century to the present time. Research reference points have been identified/ The first one is the beginning of the 60s of the XX century with a primary study of the genesis of the subject of joint activity in groups of children of preschool and primary school age. The secon is the end of the 80s of the XX, early XXI centuries within the framework of the development of the theory of developmental education (V.V. Davydov, V.V. Rubtsov, D.B. Elkonin, etc.) based on the positions of cultural-historical psychology L.S. Vygotsky, who emphasizes joint activity as the most important sociocultural mechanism of development. The third point takes place in the second decade - the beginning of the third decade of the XXI century, it’s the study of the issues of promoting the ideas of sociogenesis in the traditions of cultural-historical psychology and activity theory, and an attempt to look differently at the key problems of joint activities in a modern school environment. The space of possibilities for modern children is analyzed. Current research shows that educational organizations today form and develop not only the abilities of students, but also their activities (from joint games, educational activities, to role-playing experimentation and project activities).

The problem setting of the paper stems from the idea of shifts in research contexts and explanatory emphases in the Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) through the history of its development, specifically, from putting the concepts of mediation and self-regulation (autoregulation) to the foreground in the 1980s. The immediate object of the analysis are the elements of activity autoregulation structure and varieties of its possible distortions. In line with the distinction of five elements of any contour of autoregulation as the mechanism of cyclic action correction basing on the comparison of the feedback on the current results with the preset goal criterion, ten arts of autoregulation distortions are differentiated and described: 1А. Lack of goal criteria or lacking selectivity as regards such criteria; 1B. Excessive rigidity of the goal criteria; 2А. Difficulties in the transition from decision to implementation; 2B. Uncontrolled, uncorrectable acting; 3А. Lacking sensitivity to the feedback; 3B. Anxious hypersensitivity to the feedback. 4A. Lack of readiness to detect mistakes and to correct erroneous actions; 4B. Failed comparison of the feedback with goal criteria, spontaneous responding; 5А. Denying mistakes and refusal of their correction; 5B. Painful responding to errors and failures.

The main idea of ​​the article is to trace the development and use of the concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) in the works of Russian psychologists since its introduction into the conceptual apparatus of cultural-historical psychology by L.S. Vygotsky. The article consists of three parts. The first is devoted to the definition of the concept of ZPD, in which the contradictions between the ideas of the author of the concept and the interpretations of it by other authors are analyzed. The “classical definition” of ZPD is supplemented by the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky, expressed by him in other works. The other two parts of the article are devoted to changes in the methodological functions of the concept at different stages of its development: from an explanatory principle to the subject of research, and from the subject of research to a methodological means for the construction of new subjects of practice-oriented technologies. The general trend is to expand the areas of application of the ZPD concept, to go beyond the initial tasks of explaining and theoretically justifying the special connection between learning and development, and beyond the problems of interaction between a child and an adult. Particular attention is paid to the helping activity of an adult (teacher, psychologist, parent, etc.): the main question is how to help in order to contribute to the development. It is shown that the concept of ZPD is now used in psychotherapy and practice of working with adults with developmental disorders, i.e. it becomes the link between education (learning), development and mental health.

A child-adult group building an educational project is an effective environment for the formation of adolescent agency. Agency is аn important parameter of professionalism and maturity in any work. However, so far, the diagnostics of agency has not been sufficiently developed; conceptually grounded indicators of agency in activity have not been formulated. The aim of our research is to develop indicators of agency and create diagnostic techniques based on the thinking-activity approach. Agency is not an ability, but a certain level of mastery of activity, allowing grasping it as a whole, managing it and developing it. Either an individual person or a community-group or a community consisting of individual groups can be an agent. There are two main phases in the process of the agency formation: agency initiation and agency action. From the point of view of project agency formation, we can distinguish three activities which form it: game, educational and project activities. The types of agency corresponding to them form a hierarchy.

The article analyzes the importance of research in the field of special education and psychology for the development of cultural-historical theory. In this article we show that the development of the principles of cultural-historical psychology should be analyzed, and problematic areas of special education are identified. We have analyzed an importance of researches on special education and psychology to better understand a correlation between learning and development, the cultural development of a child as "growing into culture", the development of the regulatory function of speech, the content of the category "development" in psychology, the role of the collective in the development of children with disabilities. For the first time in cultural-historical psychology were shown the role of interaction with a peer without disabilities in the development of higher mental functions of a child with disabilities, the importance and conditions of interaction of a special child with an adult for making a step in development, the ratio between disability and its compensation, ideas about the zone of proximal development and the patterns of abnormal development. We showed how L.S.Vygotsky's ideas on the diagnosis of abnormal development in modern special psychology work, and importnt modern studies are for better understanding of normal development. It is shown that many problems of special education (including the problems of inclusive education) pose a challenge to cultural-historical theory and can be solved using it. The article shows prospects for the development of the analyzed problem area.

This article theoretically examines some contradictions and major milestones in the development of the doctrines of just laws as laid out by prominent Russian scholars during the 19th century. It analyzes the problems surrounding different theoretical approaches and conceptions regarding the connection between justice and law through the works of M.M. Speransky, N.M. Karamzin, P.I. Pestel, N.M. Muravyov, K.A. Nevolin, B.N. Chicherin, V.S. Solovyov, and S.A. Muromtsev. The results obtained show that the period under study was marked by the elaboration of a conceptual framework and basic criteria of positive law from the perspectives of liberal (natural law) and ethical beliefs, which align with spiritual (Christian) principles. This strengthened the humanistic and moral foundations of Russian legal understanding. Additionally, a continuing and stable connection is revealed between the philosophical and legal doctrines of the 18th and 19th centuries, indicating the common (abstract, not fully comprehended) motivational grounds and logic in the establishment of legal freedoms.

This article explores human rights mechanisms as a set of international and domestic bodies that are legally authorized to perform oversight and supervisory activities for protecting the rights, freedoms, and legitimate interests of convicts. A classification of human rights mechanisms within the penitentiary system was given, taking into account the universal and regional value of Russian and international laws and their influence on the legal status of convicts serving their criminal sentences. A new type of legal process, (penitentiary) criminal enforcement, was proposed for future consideration and defined. The status of the cross-sectoral institution of death penalty was discussed from our own perspective on the matter. With regard to the primacy of international legal norms and treaties in expanding and upholding the rights, freedoms, and legitimate interests of convicts, it was concluded that the Russian legislative system has a legal axiom worthy of integration into other modern legal systems.

This article examines the problems of identifying the values of procedural policy from theoretical and applied perspectives. Rooted in the general axiological principles of law, the values of procedural law guide law enforcement toward achieving positive outcomes by effectively resolving conflicts and disputes among the parties of legal procedures. It was shown that the values of procedural policy are best described by the axiological approach, which highlights its focus on meaningful, effective, rational, fair, and reasonable actions that align with the higher purpose and value of law. The conclusion was made that, in accordance with the strategies of legal axiology, procedural policy should be based on the doctrinal principles of legal science to enhance the efficiency of legal activities and uphold the value of lawmaking and law enforcement, including the administration of law, within today’s legal framework. The value of legal procedural policy was found to lie in setting new axiological standards, primarily associated with the dynamic development and use of new information technologies in legal practice. The value of jurisprudence in systematizing the legislative process and law enforcement was explored, thereby affirming the axiological nature of legal procedural policy.

The legal methods for regulating political party relations in Russia were analyzed using formal logical, systematic, institutional, and hermeneutic approaches. The Russian constitutional law employs the mixed method, which underpins the constitutionalization of political parties. In contrast, the prevailing imperative method emphasizes the administrative and legal foundations of the standards that define the rights and obligations of political parties. In turn, the interplay of the imperative and mixed methods in the Russian political party law has resulted in covert obligations for political parties, which are also their subjective rights. However, not all rights of political parties align with the concept of subjective rights as developed in constitutional and legal doctrine. The results obtained suggest that the current constitutional legislation in Russia is abstract, impeding a clear understanding of the rights and obligations of political parties. By exploring the doctrinal approaches, the strategies for recognizing the methods of legal regulation were singled out, depending on the interests protected by the analyzed legal standards. Thus, the specific methods of private and public law were identified, which, with the institution of political parties as an example, explain the complex nature of most legal standards. Taken together, these standards outline a complex variety of legal means to influence political party relations. Therefore, being crosssectoral, the political party standards facilitate the resolution of conflicts in law enforcement that arise in constitutional, party, electoral, and administrative legislation.

The primary task of enforcement proceedings in civil cases is to ensure that court decisions are executed appropriately. Much of the responsibility to timely and effectively enforce court decisions falls on bailiffs. However, their behavior is not always legal. This article discusses the important issues of compensating for harm caused by the Russian Federal Bailiff Service. The legal regulations that apply to a bailiff’s actions or inactions were analyzed. The real legal cases were considered. The statistical data from the Judicial Department at the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation were summarized. Based on the results obtained, the procedural aspects of handling such cases in both general jurisdiction and arbitration courts were identified. Finally, the emphasis was placed on predicting the development of Russian legislation and procedures in compensation for harm caused by the public authorities, including the Russian Federal Bailiff Service. The enduring relevance of the studied issues for further advancement of legal science and practice was highlighted.

The health and well-being of the population are two core values that underpin the Russian state policy. With digitizing healthcare, a growing interest has been witnessed in the constitutional value of health, as well as the right to healthcare and medical assistance. This focus is essential for the development of the Russian healthcare legislation and state policy strategies. Here, the normative content of the right to healthcare was explored from historical and current perspectives. The study used both standard (analysis and synthesis) and some specific (historical, statistical, logical and comparative legal) methods. The analysis was based on the constitutional provisions of the Soviet era and the Constitution of 1993; the laws and regulations of the federal Russia that concern healthcare and define the priority areas of the Russian state policy; and the legal interpretations from the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation and general jurisdiction courts. Particular attention was given to the role of health in different areas of life, such as the economy, society, environment, science, and technology. The retrospective research on the constitutional regulation of the social value of health during the Soviet era was performed. The normative content of this value and its components in the current Russian legislation was identified. Guarantees for the right to healthcare and medical assistance in the priority areas of the Russian state policy were considered. Recommendations to improve these established guarantees were designed.

Globalization has had far-reaching effects on all key spheres of public life, leading to mixed outcomes, both positive and negative. One of the recent global trends is the fast and large-scale spread of viral infections, which has profoundly reshaped the economic landscapes, political environments, and government systems of most states. As the COVID-19 pandemic progressed, governments worldwide were forced to impose unprecedented restrictions that interfered with fundamental human rights, such as the freedom of movement and speech, to curb the virus spread. It sparked rigorous debate among the academic community and practicing lawyers. This article overviews the measures taken by Russia and other states in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The obtained results highlight the need to legally establish new conceptual frameworks related to disease control, as well as to develop clear legal guidelines on optional and mandatory steps that public authorities should take in order to ensure the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population. Therefore, it was concluded that certain legal provisions must be specified to define the grounds and extent to which the rights and freedoms of citizens can be limited in case of viral epidemics.

In this article, certain factors that influenced legal continuity during the Age of Enlightenment are discussed. The major processes of the period are analyzed, and the importance of legal traditions as the foundation of legal continuity is highlighted. A brief overview of the key approaches to understanding legal traditions is given. Particular attention is paid to the regional divergences of the Age of Enlightenment, with a focus on its specifics in England and later Great Britain, the German and Italian states, France, Russia, and the USA. It was revealed that all factors can be divided into two groups. The first group includes general conditions, circumstances, and prerequisites, which can be further classified into natural and social ones. Natural factors are largely unaffected by the landscape of the period, while social factors are closely tied to society. The factors pertaining to the Age of Enlightenment are part of the latter group. They are of two types. The first type is not actually related to the legal reality of the period. The second type reflects the Enlightenment political and legal doctrines. Conclusions are drawn about the direct and indirect impacts of these factors on the historical processes. It is also demonstrated that the factors of legal continuity formed a unique combination in each studied society, with their influence apparent even after the Age of Enlightenment.

The number of arbitration cases handled by the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation has steadily increased over the years. The evolution of social practices and judicial approaches to arbitration procedures has prompted the supreme body for judicial protection of the Russian Constitution to repeatedly review whether the legal concepts used to resolve civil disputes by arbitration courts and international commercial arbitrations align with the nation’s basic law. The outcome of this process is a set of legal principles that define the constitutional and judicial foundations of arbitration in Russia. The above trends have facilitated the use of the integrative concept of constitutionalism in arbitration. This study highlights the constitutionalization of both arbitration and its social application. From a standalone perspective, the problems of enhancing the constitutional and legal principles of arbitration were discussed, and the further progress of constitutionalism in Russian arbitration was predicted.

This article substantiates the need for shaping a separate legal system to regulate the relations in tissue banking, as well as biomedical tissue and hybrid technologies. The key problems that have been faced by biomedical and cellular tissue technologies in Russia were analyzed. The major deficiencies and contradictions regarding organ and tissue transplantation in the current Russian legal system were pointed out. First, there have been no federal laws governing the activities of tissue banks. Second, the procedures of human biomaterial donation for medical use remain uncontrolled. Third, there has been no consistency in the retrieval, storage, and transportation of human biomaterials. Finally, the list and legal status of organizations engaged in relevant activities and the legal regime of biological material used for these purposes have not been defined. The study focuses on the practical problems of tissue banks and innovative biomedical technologies that require a legislative initiative. Possible ways to overcome the identified contradictions and problems were discussed.

Hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS) is a common congenital heart defect, accounting for 4 to 16% of cases, and is one of the most prognostically unfavorable, involving single-­ventricle hemodynamics. HLHS involves hypoplasia of the left ventricle, often in combination with atresia and/or stenosis of the aortic and/or mitral valves, as well as hypoplasia of various parts of the aorta. Intrauterine reduction in blood flow to the left heart structures at early stages of fetal development subsequently leads to severe changes in cardiac structures, often not amenable to surgical correction. Objective. To study the clinical and morphological features of HLHS using a clinical case as an example. Materials and Methods. The patient was a child from the first pregnancy, which was complicated by anemia and first-­trimester preeclampsia. The defect was diagnosed prenatally at 23/24 weeks. At 39 weeks, labor was induced, and the infant was hospitalized in the intensive care unit with symptoms of cardiac and respiratory failure. On the 6th day of life, surgical treatment was performed — a Norwood operation, which is a single-­ventricle hemodynamic surgical correction of the defect. Despite intensive care measures, multiple organ failure progressed, leading to the development of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) and subsequent death on the 10th day of life. Results. Autopsy, including staining of the myocardium with Masson’s trichrome and hematoxylin and eosin, showed pronounced plethora of the microcirculatory vessels with formation of erythrocyte thrombi. Pronounced perivascular edema and fraying of muscle fibers were detected. Fibroelastosis of the endocardium of the left ventricle was observed, characterized by pronounced sclerotic thickening due to significant proliferation of fibrous tissue, with the spread of connective tissue strands into the myocardium. Endocardial fibroelastosis is a component of HLHS and one of the determining factors in the outcome of cardiac surgery. Conclusion. The results of this work indicate the complexity of HLHS as a developmental defect, the severity of its clinical manifestations, and the limited prospects of currently existing surgical treatment methods. These patients may require heart transplantation in the first days of life. A potential alternative to early postnatal heart transplantation may be the development of methods for intrauterine correction of the existing developmental defect.

The development of right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH) is a consequence of a large group of diseases that lead to increased pressure or volume load on the right ventricle. Electrocardiography (ECG) is a commonly used diagnostic method in clinical practice. This method allows for the identification of RVH signs in the early stages of examination. During the 20th century, more than 30 diagnostic criteria were developed. Several of these criteria are associated with worse prognosis, including increased mortality. Authors of international guidelines recommend the verification of criteria in local populations. Such studies have not been published in Russia, but according to data obtained from foreign researchers, the diagnostic properties of ECG criteria can vary significantly. In most cases, the criteria are characterized by low sensitivity and high specificity, which complicates early diagnosis of conditions leading to RVH development. It is proposed to increase the sensitivity of the method by using all the developed criteria or sets that include some of them. However, this approach may reduce the specificity of ECG diagnosis of RVH, and the selection of criteria for inclusion in diagnostic algorithms is not always based on scientific research data. This article analyzes the history of the development of RVH criteria, research data on their diagnostic capabilities, and ways to improve diagnostic algorithms.

The SARS-CoV‑2 coronavirus has become a major global health concern. Infection with SARS-CoV‑2 has caused millions of deaths worldwide, and the case fatality rate has been found to be largely related to pre-existing clinical conditions. The main clinical manifestation of COVID‑19 is the presence of respiratory symptoms. Severe complications of COVID‑19 are most often observed in people with significant medical histories. The SARS-CoV‑2 virus primarily attacks the respiratory system, causing pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome, which can lead to severe systemic inflammation, multiple organ dysfunction, and death, especially in patients with pre-existing comorbidities. A number of meta-analyses strongly suggest that comorbid respiratory diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and interstitial lung diseases, are factors in the development of severe forms of COVID‑19, worsening patient outcomes and survival rates. Studies have shown an association between adverse outcomes of COVID‑19 and the expression level of the angiotensin-­converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in these patients. Regarding other respiratory system pathologies, such as bronchial asthma and cystic fibrosis, it is known that the main unfavorable factor is long-term immunosuppressive pharmacotherapy preceding infection. In this article, we highlight the main respiratory comorbidities to better understand the pathogenesis of COVID‑19.

The obvious disadvantage of online education is the lack of real interaction and meaningful communication among students while solving a learning problem. We assume that under these conditions a full-fledged learning activity in its function of assimilation of theoretical concepts cannot be formed in primary school. To verify this hypothesis, we analyzed the results of meta-subject diagnostics of the fourth graders who graduated from primary school in 2015-2019 (real interaction) and graduated in 2023 (online education). 316 children in total were recruited for this study. We also used diagnostic data on meta-subject results of fifth grade students from two Moscow schools in 2019 and 2021, where “traditional” educational programs were implemented. 248 children were recruited. It is shown that the lack of conditions and opportunities for constructive interaction and meaningful communication in the process of solving learning problems complicates and slows down the development of childrens’ main social competencies, but also affects other important meta-subject results of primary education. Thus, the results of meta-subject diagnostics of primary school graduates in 2023 made it possible to identify the weaknesses of online learning, its disadvantages, and to assess the consequences for the mental development of children.

The paper studied the content of mental representations of paradise and hell in Orthodox believers. We searched for differences in detailing of the representations and correlations with the religiosity of the subjects. After pre-selection, the final sample for analysis was: 62 people of Orthodox Christianity, residents of Russia (67.74% women and 32.26% men), age from 18 to 57 years (M = 34.32; SD = 11.03). The following research methods were used: The Centrality of Religiosity Scale (S. Huber & O. Huber), method of directed associations, mini-essay. Orthodox believers are found to produce a significantly greater number of associations with the concept of hell than with the concept of paradise (p = 0.001); the effect size is above average (Cohen’s d = 0.574). The mental representations of hell at the associative level are more detailed and ordered compared to those of paradise. This can be regarded as an indicator of subjective experience at the unconscious or weakly realized level that hell is farther from believers than paradise (in the sense of psychological distance). The degree in which these religious concepts are detailed at the associative level is not related to the level of religiosity of Orthodox believers, but is related to other factors: presumably, to the cultural background of the concepts, individual characteristics of believers, etc.

The concept of "free action" was introduced by L.S. Vygotsky to explain the driving forces of mental development. Using the method of reconstruction, we determined that the trinity of awareness (awareness - logicality - arbitrariness) in each mental function is transformed in the process of development into the trinity of reflection - motive - will, which represents "free action". We investigated three properties of free action: reflection of the whole psyche in itself (permeation of triangular connections of mental functions); fulfillment of a dynamic function as a way of development; connection with neuropsychic and vegetative structures of the organism. Results: the contradictions between L.S.Vygotsky's methodological reflection and our reconstruction of his ideas about psyche as a dynamic triangular network are highlighted; the regulatory function of free action is substantiated; the connection of free action with electrophysiological and vegetative parameters of the organism is established; the age limit of qualitative changes in free action is marked.

The article presents the results of a study of the characteristics of the value-semantic sphere of Tuvans living in remote rural areas of Tuva. The assumption was tested that one of the predictors of meaningfulness among Tuvans may be ethnicity: features of ethnic identity and values. Tuvans living in three rural districts of Tuva (Erzin, Mugur-Aksy, Toora-Khem) and Kyzyl were compared. 825 people were recruited for this study. To test this assumption, the multiple linear regression method was used: the dependent variable was the indicators of the PIL test, and the indicators of the “Values Questionnaire” by S. Schwartz and “Types of Ethnic Identity” (S.V. Ryzhova, G.U. Soldatova) were considered as predictors. It was shown that significant predictors of meaningfulness among Tuvans are ethnic negativism (-0.307), positive identity (0.148), values of achievement (0.195), power (-0.150) and kindness (0.098). Regression models obtained for individual regions had their own specifics. It was also shown that residents of the districts differ significantly in the indicators of the PIL test, scales of the “Types of Ethnic Identity”, as well as the values of conformity, tradition, kindness and universalism. Based on the results obtained, a conclusion was made about the contribution of ethnicity to the dynamics of meaningfulness among the residents of Tuva.

The article is devoted to an analytical review of the work of the Russian philosopher, psychologist and teacher Georgy Ivanovich Chelpanov and his scientific school. The article describes his educational, organizational, research and pedagogical activities in pre-revolutionary and Soviet Russia. Chelpanov created a system of higher psychological education, was the author of textbooks and scientific papers, defended the need for the development of psychology as an independent science based on a subject oriented methodology on theoretical and experimental basis. The Institute of Psychology at Moscow University became the place of formation of the first scientific psychological school in Russia. Its main idea is : psychology is an independent science with its own subject, research methods and areas of application in various fields of social practice. Chelpanov created the profession of a psychologist in demand in modern society, the process continues in the activities of his students and followers, the creators of new psychological schools.

The concept of “psychological structure of a defect” is analyzed in the context of its use for designing psychological assistance for a child with developmental disabilities. The potential of this concept is revealed for identifying individual characteristics of abnormal mental development. The psychological structure of the defect is defined as a set of nuclear mental anomalies that serve as the basis for the emergence of the entire spectrum of particular manifestations of the child’s abnormal development, as well as the agent’s reaction to them. Two types of personality response are identified – objective and subjective. The first reveals changes in mental functions, the second reveals the subject’s experiences about the defect, including the attitude towards the defect, emotional-sensory and behavioral components. The agent's reaction to the defect reflects the cyclical nature of the formation of the structure of the defect. It can both support the existence of the nuclear defect, generate defects of a higher order (dysfunctional cycle) and facilitate overcoming them (evolutionary cycle).

According to research data, perfectionism scores in the student population are on the rise. The article describes the sociocultural and educational context that causes the revealed trend. The study conducted on a student sample (N=194) confirms the conclusions of researchers regarding the destructive impact of mixed and socially prescribed perfectionism. Subjectness and self-efficacy are considered as possible protective factors of emotional well-being that can reduce the negative impact of perfectionism. The results of correlational analysis and application of the mediation model demonstrated the protective effect of the identified factors. It is concluded that it is necessary to carry out preventive measures in higher education institutions with the implementation of methods of reflexive-activity approach, which implies the actualization and support of students' subjectness position.

The article describes the results of a study of G.I. Chelpanov's ideas about the subject of psychological science. We applied comparative historical and bibliographic methods, categorical analysis; the source base of the study was monographs, textbooks and articles by G.I. Chelpanov, published in the first quarter of the 20th century, as well as the works of his scientific opponents. In the first part of the article devoted to his methodological views in the pre-revolutionary period, it is argued that the scientist included psychic (mental) phenomena of consciousness to the concept of "subject of psychology", which caused rejection by most representatives of philosophical and natural fields in Russian psychological science. The second part of the article examines the methodological views of G.I. Chelpanov in the 1920s, he kept his views on the subject of psychology as they were before the Russian Revolution. The article captures his confrontation with the proponents of the "behavioral turn" in psychology, who tried to carry out a Marxist restructuring of psychology based on behaviorism. There are two possible interpretations of G.I. Chelpanov's commitment to psychic (mental) phenomena as a subject of psychology: according to the first, the scientist appears to be a fighter for truth, not ready to sacrifice principles for political conjuncture, in the second, his position is assessed as conservative, supporting outdated scientific ideas.

In the article, the authors continued to develop the concept of corporeality as the higher psychological function, and presented an original model of the psychological structure of corporeality, developed on the basis of a cultural-historical and phenomenological approaches. The need to create such a model is due to the ambiguity of horizontal connections and hierarchical relationships between various bodily phenomena. As the higher psychological function, corporeality should have an appropriate level structure within which it would be possible to qualify bodily phenomena. In the psychological structure of corporeality, we have identified the following components: the body image, the phenomena of body ownership and body agency, bodily functions. To distinguish these elements as separate taxonomic units, we turned to the results of empirical studies that use the clinical principle of double dissociation.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the process of interaction of a child with culture. Domestic psychologists, including L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, D.B. Elkonin, A.V. Zaporozhets and others, assigned a decisive role in the development process to the development of culture by the child as a source of development. One of the issues that is specifically considered in this paper is related to the analysis of situations that allow a child to master cultural forms. The publication examines three types of situations in the context of which the child's appeal to culture occurs. First of all, the study of normative situations, the structure of which includes cultural artifacts, is carried out. Being in such a situation requires the child to master the rules of interaction with a cultural artifact. The second type of situations in which children turn to culture are imaginary or imaginary situations. The third type of situations includes creative situations. Each situation determines its own way of addressing preschoolers to culture and its own form of development. There are three forms of development: learning, play and creativity. All these forms of development should be presented in preschool childhood, which will allow to amplify children's development.

Throughout its history, Kazan University has always been proud of its distinguished alumni and esteemed professors. Among them, Modest Yakovlevich Kittary, a professor at Kazan Imperial University and the head of the Department of Technology from 1850 to 1857, stands out as a strong advocate for technical education. He was one of the few who embraced and supported the state’s vision for universities as centers of academic, pedagogical, educational, and cultural progress within the province, region, and the entire nation. As a passionate civic and public activist, he championed the importance of technical education for industrialists and the general public, recognizing its potential to elevate the level of culture, literacy, and prosperity. His work prompted the revival of the Kazan Economic Society, the opening of new factories, as well as technical and technological advances. M.Ya. Kittary’s life has been the research focus of many Kazan University scholars. Here, his contribution to promoting technical education is analyzed in greater detail based on the materials from the Journal of the Ministry of National Education. Particular attention is paid to the changes in the educational system of the Russian Empire during that period, as documented by the above journal, and the central role of M.Ya. Kittary in the modernization of the higher technical education landscape.

The period since the 1970s has seen a «cultural turn» that affected many areas of historical research. Environmental history is no exception. It emerged in the United States five decades ago and was strongly influenced by intellectual history. However, in the 1990s, the focus of environmental historians gradually shifted towards «new cultural history». Although foreign historiography has repeatedly acknowledged this shift, the underlying reasons that prompted historians to pursue the new research path remain overlooked. This article seeks to bridge the «gap» in the historiography of human interactions with the natural world over time, an important branch of history. The results of a thorough analysis of the major works written by American historians between the 1970s and 2010s show that the «cultural turn» in the American historiography of environmental history was gradual and included two distinct stages. During the first stage, from the 1980s to the mid-1990s, historians explored the problems of environmental history from the perspectives of postcolonial and gender discourses. The second stage, from the mid-1990s to the present day, was marked by a rethinking of the concept of «wilderness», as well as an emphasis on a variety of previously unaddressed problems of environmental history.

This article considers the role of the Kazan school of history and ethnology in the development of Professor P.V. Denisov’s views and professional expertise. Kazan University is the alma mater of numerous notable Chuvash researchers. Many studies on the Chuvash people were performed within its walls, particularly by N.V. Nikolsky, V.K. Magnitsky, I.Ya. Yakovlev, N.I. Zolotnitsky et al. P.V. Denisov, who rose to prominence as a scholar and lecturer within the scientific and educational centers of Kazan, carried on their work with great merit. Here, his collaborations with Kazan colleagues and his substantial contributions to the advancement of ethnology and pedagogy were analyzed. Based on the analysis, several conclusions were drawn. P.V. Denisov dedicated his life to promoting science and mentoring further generations of highly qualified and skilled historians and ethnologists. His academic and pedagogical endeavors were mostly connected with I.N. Ulyanov Chuvash State University, where he taught historical and ethnographic disciplines, as well as established and headed the Department of Archaeology, Ethnography, and Regional History. Throughout his life, he published 120 scholarly works and supervised 20 holders of candidate and doctorate degrees in history. He was proud to be an alumnus of Kazan University and always maintained friendly and professional ties with his colleagues from Tatarstan. P.V. Denisov’s heritage and achievements have become deeply ingrained in Russian ethnology and pedagogy. His influence and ideas live on in the memories of his students. The obtained results hold both scientific and practical significance, shed light on the history of ethnology in the Volga–Ural region, and provide valuable material for studying and sketching the lives of famous Kazan University alumni.

This article explores the official duties of the hazarapat (hazarapatiš) at the court of the Achaemenid kings and defines the relationship between the terms chiliarch (χιλíαρχος) and isangeleus (εἰσαγγελεύς), both used for this Persian title, in the evolution of the ancient written tradition. Ancient Greek authors, up to Ctesias of Cnidus, discussed the chiliarch only in the military context. In later periods, it was increasingly perceived as both the Persian king’s bodyguard and the isangeleus at court ceremonies, thus implying broad political powers. In reality, the chiliarch never combined these two duties. He remained the commander of his military unit, which consisted of a thousand of men, and apparently checked the reliability of royal visitors before audiences. The isangeleus, another royal courtier, was responsible for informing the king about the intentions of visitors, as well as for guiding their adherence to Persian etiquette and customs.

This article examines the interpretations of the causes, features, development, and outcomes of the English Revolution of the 17th century by scholars from the «Russian historical school» (école russe). Its older and younger generations were primarily focused on the history of France and the French Revolution. While renowned for their studies on revolutionary France, they also covered other topics. N.I. Kareev (1850–1931), M.M. Kovalevsky (1851–116), P.P. Shchegolev (1903–1936), and I.L. Popov-Lensky (1893–1931) addressed the problems of revolutionary England during the 17th century. Their complex works analyzed the revolutionary process of that period from all angles. Therefore, the theories of the English Revolution and their interpretations by the «Russian historical school» determined the subsequent development of English studies in both Soviet and post-Soviet space.

This article examines several narratives about the posthumous veneration of King Leonidas in Sparta. The details of the funeral ceremony held for him are analyzed. Leonidas was the only ruler to be commemorated with three tombstones and three funerals, all in different locations. These unprecedented honors emphasized the exceptional importance attributed to Leonidas by the Spartan authorities. They affirmed his commanding role in strengthening Sparta’s reputation as the leader of the Greek resistance. Leonidas’ recognition and the annual holiday in his honor were fundamental in shaping the mentality of the Spartan citizens. He and the three hundred Spartans who perished with him at Thermopylae embodied the ideal of a noble death in defense of the homeland and showed the Spartans that they were expected to either triumph over the enemy or meet their fate. This concept became ingrained in the ideology of the Spartiates. The intrigue surrounding the transfer of Leonidas’ remains from Thermopylae to Sparta is discussed. Due to a gap in Pausanias’ text, the identity of those responsible for this action and its timing are still unknown. The speculation is fueled by the discrepancy between the name and date provided in the manuscript. Here, several different options to fill the gap are considered. Out of all the options, the one that involves the least amount of intervention, i.e., simply replacing one digit in the manuscript, stands out.

This article focuses on the evolution of the concept of vagrancy in Russia during the period between the second half of the 17th to the first half of the 19th centuries. A set of legislative acts defining vagrants as a separate social group are analyzed. The stages and causes that underlie the transformation of the concept of vagrancy in the state discourse of the Russian Empire are singled out, systematized, and described. A qualitative shift in the Russian state’s perception and understanding of vagrancy as a multifaceted phenomenon is revealed. Based on the results obtained, it is shown that the evolution of vagrancy unfolded in three stages. In the first stage (from the second half of the 17th to the first quarter of the 18th centuries), this concept had no legal status. In the second stage (from the second quarter to the end of the 18th century), vagrancy was gradually introduced into the official legal space of Russia. The third stage (the first half of the 19th century) was marked by the criminalization of this concept in Russian criminal legislation. The key indicators of this process were the introduction of the passport system, the discussions circulating in the Russian public around the status of fugitive people, the recognition of people «who do not remember their kinship» as a social group, and the efforts to curb poverty. The conclusions drawn contribute immensely to the development of historiographic research, as the concept of vagrancy and its formation have escaped the attention of most scholars and remain insufficiently explored.

This article considers the revival of the Kryashen media between 1992 and 2002. There was an increase in the Tatar media’s attention to the Kryashen problems during that period, along with the overall advance of the Kryashen periodicals. The late 1980s and early 1990s witnessed the rise in national self-awareness among the Kryashen population and the emergence of the Kryashen social movement. Here, the efforts of various public organizations, figures, leaders, and activists of the Kryashen movement to promote the cultural and educational development of the Kryashens through the revival of their printed media are analyzed. Their role in establishing and publishing the «Kryashen Suze» (‘Word of the Kryashens’), one of the first private newspapers in the Russian media space, is highlighted. It is also shown that the endeavors of the Kryashen movement activists to expand their reach to the republican media were successful: they started and broadcasted programs on the national radio and television channels and created online platforms about the Kryashens.

This article explores how «Vechernyaya Kazan’» (‘Evening Kazan’), a socio-political newspaper specializing in urban affairs, shaped the celebratory image of Kazan for its 1000th anniversary by publishing a variety of multi-genre materials in the late 1990s–early 2000s. For the first time, the vital and informative role of «Vechernyaya Kazan’» in documenting the city’s transformation in anticipation of the celebration held on August 24th–30th, 2005 is shown. The newspaper did not only cover the changes in the urban landscape–their scenarios, progress, and results, but also was actively engaged itself in these events, emphasizing to the general public the importance of both the city’s anniversary and the preparations involved. In addition to spotlighting the official commemorative sites, «Vechernyaya Kazan’» showcased numerous public initiatives and efforts aimed to make the city more comfortable. Particular attention is paid to the newspaper’s interactive features, which contributed significantly to its success.

This article considers the status of ambassadors in the Roman Republic, focusing on the relations between foreign embassies and the Senate from the 6th to the 1st centuries BC, as described by Titus Livius (Livy) in «The History of Rome from the Founding of the City». Livy addresses many aspects, including the arrival of ambassadors and their reports to public officials, which the Senate deemed necessary for recognizing them as legitimate representatives. Additionally, he details their claims in the Senate and the subsequent discussions held by the Senators, as well as the process of making decisions and responding to ambassadors. Livy’s narrative offers an insight into the entire process of how ambassadors were received, from their arrival in Rome and registration with magistrates until their departure from Rome or Italy in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Special attention is paid to the Senate’s debates over the problems raised by ambassadors. Overall, Livy outlines the general procedure used by the Senate to settle foreign policy matters.

This article focuses on the problems associated with shaping the civic identity among students in Russia as they study the history of the North Caucasian peoples. One of the powerful tools to overcome them is to develop a sense of historical consciousness in the younger generation of Russians. However, while the collective memory of the past can serve as a unifying force through shared national values, it can also ignite historical grievances, claims, and conflicts in the present. Here, the debates revolving around the conflicting interpretations of the events that took place in the North Caucasus during the 19th and early 20th centuries (the Caucasian War, the tactics and warfare methods of the Russian military commanders and mountain leaders, the Muhajir movement, and the actions of the imperial power structures) are considered. The questions are raised about how to effectively convey the history of the North Caucasus to the youth, as well as what approaches should be employed to explain the complex, contradictory, and sometimes tragic events of the region’s past so that it would contribute to the development of an all-Russian civic identity instead of fueling confrontations and divisions. Several approaches (recommendations) for teaching the history of the North Caucasus are outlined. They highlight the integrative tendencies in the history of the region, emphasizing the factors that unite its diverse peoples, cultures, and worldviews and define their common pathways for historical development.

The period from the late 19th to the first third of the 20th century witnessed a revival and advance of national science, culture, and art. It was also marked by a growing sense of national identity and a historical and cultural pursuit by the Tatar intelligentsia. In the 1920s, the formation and development of national humanities research in Kazan were driven by the efforts of dedicated Tatar scholars and educators. Among the most prominent figures were Gali Rakhim (Mukhametgali Mukhametshakirovich Gabdrakhimov) (1892–1943)–a writer, poet, literary historian, and folklorist, Gabdrakhman Saadi (Saadi Gabdrakhman Gainanovich (1889–1956)–a literary critic and orientalist. They were the pioneers of the Tatar Renaissance and contributed substantially to the development of scholarly studies in history, literature, linguistics, and archeography of the Turkic peoples, with a particular focus on the Tatar people. Engaged in solving a variety of problems, they were the encyclopedists who determined modern academic and pedagogical trends in many university and educational centers of Kazan during the 1920s. This article considers their previously unknown epistolary heritage: one letter of G. Rakhim (1927) and two letters of G. Saadi (1928 and 1929) to V.V. Bartold, an outstanding orientalist and academician, from his personal collection stored in the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg Branch. These letters provide clear and strong evidence of the enduring professional and personal contacts between the Tatar scholars and leading Russian orientalists in the late 1920s.

This article examines S.Yu. Witte’s perception of certain political practices in late Imperial Russia, with a special focus on his memoirs. The financial reform introduced by him and the «struggle» for its implementation, both in the bureaucratic field and public political communication, are considered in detail. The primary sources used in the analysis include S.Yu. Witte’s «Memoirs», accounts from his contemporaries, periodicals, correspondence, and unpublished materials stored in the archives of Moscow and St. Petersburg. The results obtained reveal that the Russian Empire pursued contradictory political practices during the studied period. Key algorithms of the political behavior of public officials and their characteristics in the «Memoirs» as a valuable source are outlined.

This article provides an overview of the alcohol reform in the Russian Empire during the second half of the 19th century based on the key publications in «Ekonomicheskii Zhurnal» (‘Economic Journal’). Crop distillation on preferential terms is considered in detail. The statistics resulting from the changes in the drinking business over the studied period are analyzed. The assessment of the reform’s success and effectiveness in fiscal and budgetary matters by A.P. Subbotin is discussed. The contradictory basis of the wine monopoly is shown: while reducing the rates of «public drunkenness», it also retained the revenue from alcohol sales to the state budget. The alcohol policies pursued by Western European countries and the USA in the 19th century are outlined. The findings reveal that the alcohol reform in the Russian Empire was influenced by these foreign models. A.P. Subbotin’s position that the government sought to maximize the fiscal potential of alcohol production and trade is justified. The legislative framework of the state policy on the sale of alcoholic beverages is summarized. It is concluded that A.P. Subbotin was the first to highlight the necessity of taking into account the regional diversity of the Russian Empire when developing and implementing alcohol-related policies.