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The various mechanisms of payment for health services aim to create incentives which affect the health provider behavior, economic efficiency and productivity of a health system, and ultimately its quality. This paper describes and analyzes the current methods of funding used in hospital systems worldwide, from the "diagnosis related groups" (DRGs) method to the recent development of hospital-based "pay for performance" (P4P) of the US Medicare system and the "payment by results" of the UK. Emphasis is placed on studies measuring hospital efficiency before and after adoption of the new methods of payment. The necessary institutional reforms are described which enhance competition between the health care funding schemes, such as social security funds and insurance companies, and the health care providers, such as hospitals. The Greek case is evaluated from the beginning of the economic crisis in 2009 until the present, with the establishment of a single health insurance fund, EOPXY, the creation of the database esy.net for the collection of complete, reliable data on the costing and operation of the state hospitals (ESY) in order to monitor their financial and administrative functioning, and the adoption of the payment method of KENDRGs, where classification was made in 760 groups based on the initial diagnosis and treatment process. Finally, several changes are proposed which would lead towards a more sophisticated payment system based on performance criteria, including quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper discusses the role of basic science in the modern knowledge society and its relations to the applied research, development and innovation. The main conceptual models in this respect are also considered, as well as the evolution in science policy orientations of EU and USA. Further, the perspectives of so-called "frontier research" and "converging technologies" and their role for the "radical innovations" are presented. The conclusion is made that high quality basic research has the potential for future applications with great societal impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author deals with the subject in this paper divided into introduction, five chapters and conclusion. In the introduction author gives a brief discussion on the possibilities and negative aspects of a settlement in a criminal proceeding. The first chapter deals with a brief history of origin 'plea bargaining' in judicial practice and legislation of United States. The second chapter deals with the issue of choice of form of procedure and types of settlement. The third chapter presents arguments which justify the plea bargaining. The fourth chapter is devoted to criticism of the plea bargaining. The fifth chapter deals with the evaluation of the settlement and the prospects for reform of the institute. In a brief conclusion the author raises concerns about the danger of an uncritical acceptance of the plea bargaining and its restoration in other legal systems. Author emphases that the acceptance of this institute is possible only with caution and adjustment to given legal system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper discusses the change of the influence of certain branches and branch changes on the economic growth, particularly the labor productivity observed in the last few decades. As a result the processing industry is replaced by the service sector, which gradually becomes dominating since 1970s. For this purpose it is proved with the results of a long-lasting work of the Groningen Growth and Development Centre (The Netherlands) concerning countries from European Union and USA in the second half of 20th century - mainly in 1980s and 1990s and until the middle of the first decade of 21st century. The achieved results give reasons for a change of the existing stylized facts formulated by N. Kaldor (1967), S. Kuznets (1971) and A. Maddison (1980). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper under scrutiny demonstrates numerical simulation results of thermal modes of the nanosatellite developed at the National Technical University of Ukraine "Kyiv Polytechnic Institute". It is designed to conduct scientific and applied research into the Earth remote sensing in the low Earth orbit with a solar pointing. In addition, we compare the obtained results with numerical simulation results of the "FalconSat-2" small satellite developed by the United States Air Force Academy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern financial crisis originated in the U.S. and spread to the entire world and so set great challenges for monetary policy around the world. Central banks around the world have responded decisively imposed unique challenges and timely actions to ensure market liquidity, reduce systemic risks and restore stability in the financial markets. The European Central Bank establishes and implements European monetary policy. In response to the crisis, the ECB not only significantly reduce the official interest rate, but also introduced a package of non-standard measures within the "enhanced credit support" and "Program of the securities market". Overall, the ECB's response to the global financial crisis can be seen through four different stages of the crisis: the period of financial tensions, intensifying financial crisis, the temporary improvement of conditions in the financial markets and the crisis of government debt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current financial crisis has also actualised the work and ideas of the American economist Hymen P. Minsky. In his time almost unknown in America for many years after his death, he has been often mentioned in the academic world and the general public. Now many refer to him because in his work he had practically envisioned the occurrence of large financial and economic crisis that we were struck by. Minsky was a Keynesian and he was ignored because of his ideas that essentially differed from the dominant schools of economic thought. His analysis focuses on the mode of financing the economy and the formation of asset price bubbles, which inevitably leads to bubble explosion, losses and recession. Minsky emphasizes the role of bank credit, which is the "rocket fuel" for prices growth and creation of excessive optimistic expectations and euphoria in some asset markets. The euphoria is logically followed by the bubble explosion, ("Minsky moment"), a drastic drop in asset prices, a sudden reduction in credit ("Minsky meltdown") and collapse. In this context, Minsky talks about the inherent instability of capitalism and presents "a financial instability hypothesis." However, Minsky believes in capitalism, but not in the wild and unbridled capitalism of new liberals, rather in democratic, regulated, based on New Deal, with institutional financial arrangements governing the financial sector and preventing the bubble creation and the crisis. Minsky argues for more equitable distribution of incomes in the U.S. and greater social role of the state. Minsky expanded the boundaries of discipline because he focused on the structural, social and political issues. Modern financial economic crisis, like many previous crises, took place exactly according to the formula which Minsky had precisely formulated. Even the bubbles that occurred in Bosnia and Herzegovina (stock market and real estate market) followed by credit expansion had its course precisely following the Minsky formula. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals with an approach to the description of the age and temporal dynamics of cancer, based on the model describing the dynamics of the age of cancer as a second order phase transition. This approach is widely used for studying physical systems. This model of cancer development as second order phase transitions is in a good agreement with medical statistics. The cancer incidence dynamics is described only with two free parameters, easily verified according to statistics and well interpreted. The applicability of the second order phase transition model for description of a non-physical system defines the universal nature of the processes occurring during phase transitions.

This paper studies the origin and the genetic and morphological diversity of the pumpkinseed sunfish, a North American invader that is actively expanding its range in the Northern Black Sea Coast. Based on an analysis of variability of the nucleotide sequence of the mtDNA cyt b locus, it was found that all populations of the Northern Black Sea Coast (basins of Dnieper, Dniester, and Danube rivers) are represented by one haplotype. Intraspecific variability is absent. Phylogeographic analysis revealed that the most related haplotype is in a population of pumpkinseed sunfish from New Germany Lake in the Potomac Riverbasin (Maryland, United States), which makes it possible to consider it a parent of the investigated populations. Morphological variation oin countable traits was highly homogeneous. Significant differentiation of a sample from the population of the Dnieper Reservoir from the populations of the Danube and Dniester was found for plastic traits of both the body and cranium. Analysis of the trajectories of development showed that the Dnieper is inhabited by a "pelagic" morpho-ecological form of pumpkinseed sunfish, while the Dniester and Danube is inhabited by a "littoral" form. It is suggested that the success of the settlement of this North American species in the Northern Black Sea Coast does not depend on the origin or the level of its genetic diversity but is instead likely to be ensured by the realization of its available discrete morpho-ecological variability.

The paper dedicated to comparative gap of epidemiology data in Ukraine, Europe and North America, review of evidence-based researches of value of particular risk factors of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.

Missions of unmanned spacecraft Foton-M2 (2005) and Foton-M3 (2007) of 16 and 12 days in duration, respectively, provided an opportunity to conduct the Russian/US experiments with snails (Helix lucorum and Helix aspera), newts (Pleurodeles waltli), geckos (Pachydactilus turneri) and microorganisms (Streptomyces lividans 66, E. coli and others). Besides, Foton-M3 carried a Russian experiment with Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus). Objectives of the space experiments were to study the micro-g effects on the living systems' behavior, structure and functioning, post-traumatic regeneration of bone and organs, stable inheritance of plasmid pIJ 702, and melanin pigment synthesis by streptomycets. The survey paper presents the major findings of a large team of investigators.

Special geoinformation technologies (GIS), a new method for the pictorial data presentation as space-time ratios, have emerged in the past decade. The paper considers the theory of geoinformation analysis and the possibilities of applying GIS for tuberculosis monitoring. GIS may be effectively used in phthisiology only provided that the routine procedures for tuberculosis detection are practiced widely. GIS analysis may assist in detecting tuberculosis when contacts cannot be monitored in the usual fashion. Its results may be used to correct tuberculosis-controlling measures towards their point application. Extended studies can answer to what extent, the efficiency of tuberculosis-controlling measure will increase when they are used in the most possible tuberculosis transmission areas determined by the GIS techniques.

The paper contains consideration of the problem of compliance to treatment of arterial hypertension and ischemic heart disease. Various aspects of compliance to treatment related to patients, physicians, special features of diseases and character of drug and nondrug recommendations.

The paper considers in retrospective the criteria of radiation hazard during space flight, and approaches to safeguarding the radiation safety to crew members adopted in a sequence of Russian and US standards defining the space radiation limits. Based on comparison of the magnitudes of radiation risk in space flight, total radiation risk over lifetime, the risk of fatal cancer, and risk relation to age, the most meaningful and age-independent criterion has been chosen to set limits and admissible total doses over cosmonaut's career. Justification is given to the range of these doses that still ensures socially acceptable levels of health and performance by the end of space career. Impliable dose limits for critical tissues (blood-forming organs, skin, lenticular epithelium) in consequence of a single acute or continuous exposure for a month, a year or career are discussed.

The paper analyzes the standard legal and methodological assurance of the quality and safety of animal food raw materials and foodstuffs (meat, meat products, fish, shellfish, crayfish and their processing products) by the parasitic purity rates according the requirements under the Russian Federation's laws "On Sanitary and Epidemiological Well-Being of the Population", "On Protection of Consumer's Rights", "On Certification of Products and Services", those of SanPiN, such as 2.3.2.560-96 "Sanitary Requirements for the Quality and Safety of Food Raw Materials and Foodstuffs" and 3.2.569-96 "Prevention of Parasitic Diseases in the Russian Federation".

Many years' experience with complex supervision of the environmental radiation situation, the specific features of the population's physiological and health status after radiation accidents (the Chernobyl, Kyshtym and other accidents). The paper emphasized the necessity of having a knowledge of the specific features of the influence of a radiation factor (and its components) on establishing the radiation dose for the population due to the environmental peculiarities of the radiation background in different regions and abnormal zones of the Earth. The paper provides evidence for the need to apply an environmental and physiological approach to working out the standards of radiation doses for the inhabitants of post-accident polluted areas. To this end, a concept of the regional standard of exposure is proposed for different regions of the Earth with regard to the specific natural radiation background, technogenic and medical "additives" on making diagnostic and therapeutical efforts by using X-rays and radiation therapy. A new concept is offered to develop the life-support systems in the areas exposed to radiation contamination, whose main goal is to minimize radiation exposures with regard of data on each area-specific data on the regional standard of the pre-accident radiation background, technogenic background, medical additives and prediction of future radiation doses. Exposure of the population to radiation is minimized by reasonably operating its components and making special life regimens in the contaminated areas.

The paper provides evidence for the need of creating new social mechanisms of nation's health promotion as a factor that influences the stability and well-being of society. To accomplish these tasks, health should be regarded as a polysystem concept that includes 1) a developing human being as a source of nation's intellectual resources; 2) economy as a tool for social welfare; 3) ecology as a predictor of the influences of working conditions; and 4) social policy as a a mechanism of controlling the priorities of prevention and treatment. New principles of new management organizational forms for health protection have been developed to implement the stated theoretical points.

The paper discusses the approaches and scientific and organizational principles used in the development of some International research projects in the study of consequences of the Chernobyl accident, which are under way by Russia's Ministry of Science and Engineering Policy. Special attention is given to sociomedical aspects and the possibilities of defining an individual medical policy while working with the liquidators and the members of their families.

The paper represents the data on clinical use of implantable cardioverters-defibrillators. These apparatuses ensure effective arrest and prevention of episodes of ventricular tachyarrhythmias. The potentialities of the method are largely determined by recognition sensitivity and specificity of various tachyarrhythmias. The obvious advantage of the method is an increase in patients' survival reaching 60% within 5 years of cardioverter-defibrillator postimplantation.

This paper gives an analytical review of epidemiological data about the morbidity and mortality rate of the flying personnel. It shows that the flying personnel differs from the general population in their better health condition which manifests as lower morbidity and mortality rates in every large group of disease. This better health status of the flying personnel may be a result of their adequate selection. The selection makes it difficult to identify relationships between disease and flight effects. Information about these relationships is contradictory and/or insufficient. Proper assessment of flight effects on the health condition of the flying personnel needs further controlled epidemiological investigations.

"Dynamics of size, composition, natural movement and other demographic indices of...population development in the USSR and USA [are] considered in the paper." (SUMMARY IN ENG AND UKR), (excerpt)

The paper deals with the data on relative five-year survival in most frequently occurring cancers reported by The All-Union Center for the Evaluation of Effectiveness of Cancer Treatment for the USSR (1974-1980). The data were compared with those of a similar SEER (USA) program for 1973-1979.

The results of discussion on the current state of pathology in medical science and practical hospital work are presented in this paper which is the author's report on the 2nd symposium of the societies of pathologists in socialist countries. Special attention is drawn to the significance of necropsies in comparing clinical and post-mortem diagnoses, the related numerical materials are provided. The decrease of necropsies of patients dying in hospitals in most countries of the world is noted, and the methods of getting rid of this are indicated both for scientific goals and health service. The increasing necessity of contacts between pathologists and clinicians is pointed out and the ways of realization of this important tool for further development of medicine are traced. The comparative data on the methods of training in pathology in many European countries and USA are presented. The paper is concluded by a review on the state of pathology in the GDR, measures taken by the GDR Ministry of Health and by the Society of GDR pathologists. The confidence is expressed in success of these measures in the process of realization by the GDR government of the X Party Congress and the 5th Plenum of the SUPG Decisions on the development of science and its effectiveness.

The paper presents brief information on the Apollo-Soyuz test mission, its program biomedical investigations to be carried out in flight and specific medical aspects. It discusses the main tasks of the joint US-USSR experiments and Soviet experiments. It gives and analyzes preliminary results of medical monitoring and postflight examinations of the crew members.

The paper is concerned with some trends in the present-day development of radiopharmaceutics the world over, with the situation in the research and output of radiopharmaceuticals, and with necessary measures for radical improvement of the state of affairs in this field in the USSR.

In accordance with the Soviet-American collaboration program on influenza and ARD, cooperative field studies were undertaken in 1975 in the USSR in order to test the field and laboratory methods for studies on influenza virus ecology. In the Rostov region of the USSR, virological and serological examinations of 321 birds of 25 species were carried out. Virological tests were performed with 678 biological specimens and in various serological tests 308 blood serum specimesn from wild birds were examined. Examinations of specimens of washings and organs of birds revealed no hemagglutinating agents. The paper presents the results of studies of avian blood serum specimens in the HI test, neuraminidase activity inhibition test and the immunodiffusion test.

This paper describes approaches to longitudinal studies of the changes in the health status of the US astronauts. The methods include acquisition and analysis of biomedical data accumulated in one and repeated space missions, detection of potential occupational diseases inflight and evaluation of mortality cases associated with them. It is suggested to use pilots and flight controllers as controls. It is indicated that annual physical examinations can be an important source of relevant scientific information.

The paper analyzes the foreign literature on the achievements and tendencies in the unification of measurements of physicochemical characteristics of biologic materials at laboratories for clinical diagnosis. Reviews the principles of creating a reference basis and an hierarchic system of measuring, reference, and working methods and devices, that should provide a transfer of the measured values from the reference values to working means of measurements. Discusses the contribution of the reference materials to the system of measurements of the biosample composition. Presents data on the standard reference material of the USA National Bureau of Standards for clinico-diagnostic laboratory studies.

This paper describes a new method of forecasting the expected number of pneumonia and influenza (P and I) deaths on the basis of time-series analysis of historical mortality data. The new method is different in three aspects from the regression method developed by Serfling and used by the Centres for Disease Control (CDC) since 1963 in that it uses the ratio of P and I deaths to deaths from all causes in lieu of the total number of P and I deaths in forecasting the expected numbers. Also, instead of deleting epidemic periods in the forecast, these weeks are replaced by expected numbers. Finally, forecasting is done with a time-series model instead of the regression model.

The paper discusses the use of the methods of the theory of automatic control and identification for predicting and analyzing the cardiovascular function of crewmembers in long-duration space missions. On the basis of the inflight heart rate data models characterizing the cardiovascular function can be built. The models have the form of linear differential equations of the second order and are used to calculate values of the heart rate. With respect to the parameters of the equations, the characteristics of the quality and specificity of the cardiovascular regulation inflight are determined. The paper describes the practical application of the above methods to predict and analyze the cardiovascular function of the crewmembers of the Soviet Salyut-1 and Salyut-4 and US Skylab-3 space stations.