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The article is a scientific overview of the preserved correspondence of Stefan Morawski and Roman Witold Ingarden from 1961 to 1969. The 1960s were a period of important events and changes in both the lives of Ingarden and Morawski. In both cases, the background was the political situation in Poland, of which - in a certain sense - both philosophers became victims. Although their attitude and political commitment differed - Ingarden remained indifferent to politics, unlike Morawski, who belonged to the party - it turned out that both of them suffered harassment from state officials. In addition to discussing scientific issues, the letters of both philosophers contain a lot of information on current and important issues for them directly, and indirectly for the Polish scientific community of that time. Therefore, the article discusses publishing issues, organizational and scientific matters related to conference trips, and scientific issues related to the reviews of master's, doctoral and postdoctoral dissertations. The historical background and private fate of both philosophers were also taken into account, which is not insignificant for their scientific work and mutual relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Psychiatria Polska is the property of Editorial Committee of Polish Psychiatric Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The aim of this paper is an exploration of broadly defined „change“ in life and biography of people who struggle with malignant cancer. I focus on "positive" (according to informants) changes in life inspired by illness. These are: reconstruction of habits, new food and diet patterns, physical activity and changes in attitude toward body and reconstruction of character and personality. By careful observation of body and managements of emotions, informants have learned how to cope with disease, but also how to struggle in more efficient way with daily obstacles and regular life challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: One of the most important questions in personality psychology and psychopathology is whether working models of attachment change during lifetime. It is assumed that early childhood experiences influence the formation of secure or insecure internal working models of attachment The belief that attachment representations formed in childhood are relatively stable is no longer so obvious: new reports have appeared, according to which important life experiences may lead to a change in attachment style from insecure to secure or the other way around. The main aim of the present project was to investigate whether and in what manner positive and negative life experiences lead to changes in internal working models of attachment., Methods: The specific style of attachment to mother, father, partner, and friend was measured with the ECR-RS, while global attachment was assessed based on the SAAM and ECR-RS G. The number and intensity of positive and negative life experiences was assessed by means of the LES-M. We analyzed the results for a sample of 156 adults., Results: The study revealed significant relations between the level of positive life experiences and global and specific styles of attachment to a friend and partner. However, no significant relationships were observed between the intensity of negative life events and attachment style. Between-group comparisons showed that in the group in which a change of attachment style from insecure to secure had taken place the experience of positive events was significantly stronger than in the group in which there had been no such change. The compared groups did not differ in the level of negative life experiences., Conclusions: The study supports the hypothesis about a change of global attachment style and selected specific aspects of insecure attachment to a secure style as a result of experiencing positive life events.

In three articles, I discuss the 50 years of my work in psychiatry, in the formula of so called participant observation. The first one is about schizophrenia. I present important events of the pathogenesis and diagnostics in a recent half-century and my attempts to contribute to the research. Significant for clinical description was distinguishing the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. The evidence for subcortical dopaminergic hyperactivity associated with positive (psychotic) symptoms, and prefrontal dopaminergic hypoactivity, responsible for mental deficits and cognitive impairment, has been obtained. Inhibition of the dopaminergic system (blocking of dopaminergic receptors D2) isthe main therapeutic mechanism of antipsychotic drugs. Neurobiological and genetic data also pointed to the role of the glutamatergic system in schizophrenia, which prompted trials of pharmacotherapy. For more than 30 years, the neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia, assuming the interaction of genetic and environmental factors, leading to the first psychotic episode, has been the most important pathogenetic concept. In the 1990s, under my direction, neurobiological studies on schizophrenia were performed in the context of positive and negative symptoms and differences vs. mood disorders. Verification of the niacin test, apossible diagnostic aid in schizophrenia, was also made. In the recent two decades, molecular-genetic studies in schizophrenia, also using cognitive endophenotypes and eye movements, have been performed. The association of the polymorphism of various genes with schizophrenia or its endophenotype has been demonstrated, frequently, the first time in the world. In recent years, I directed a team implementing the Polish versions of new scales for the assessment of negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Objectives: The purpose of the following study was to verify the psychometric properties of the Polish version of the Inventory of Complicated Grief., Methods: 278 people who experienced loss of a close relative or a friend participated in the research on adaptation of the tool. The following research methods were applied: ICG (Inventory of Complicated Grief), BDI (Beck Depression Inventory), STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory), IES-R (Impact of Events Scale-Revised), AHS (Adult Hope Scale), LOT-R (Life Orientation Test-Revised), GSES (General Self-Efficacy Scale), MSTAT-2 (Multiple Stimulus Types Ambiguity Tolerance)., Results: The statistical analyses conducted as part of the research prove the Polish version of the ICG to be a reliable and valid tool (Cronbach's alpha = 0.941). Amoderate positive correlation was noted between the overall ICG score and depression (r = 0.50; p < 0.001), post-traumatic stress disorder (r = 0.67; p < 0.001) and trait anxiety (r = 0.59; p < 0.001). The general ICG results also display negative correlation between variables related to positive expectations of the future: optimism (r = -0.37; p < 0.001), hope for success (r =-0.19; p =0.001), general self-efficacy (r = - 0.27; p < 0.001), and ambiguity tolerance (r = - 0.27; p < 0.001). The conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) revealed that the one-factor model of the Polish version of the Inventory of Complicated Grief can be considered wellfitted to the data (correlation of measurement errors was allowed)., Conclusions: Preliminary studies on the adaptation of the Polish version of the ICG prove, therefore, that it is a valid and reliable tool. However, further research is needed to help better understand the structure of complicated grief symptoms.

Objectives: The aim of the study was the Polish adaptation of the Life Events Checklist (LEC-5), which is used to assess individual's traumatic events exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) criteria from DSM-5., Methods: The study was conducted on 172 students of the University of Finance and Management in Warsaw, i.e., 68 women and 104 men, at the age between 17 and 49 (M = 22.74; SD = 6.80). Reliability of LEC-5 was measured by the absolute stability method. Two repeated measurements with two week interval were conducted on the sample of 40 students of the University of Finance and Management. Validity of LEC-5 was checked by the correlational analysis between the LEC-5 scales and the PTSD Diagnostic Scale for DSM-5 (PDS-5) and the Impact of Events Scale (IES) on the whole 172 sample of students., Results: The magnitude of interclass correlation coefficients for all LEC-5 scales and high values of Cohen's kappa coefficients proved a high reliability of this tool. Significant correlations between all LEC-5 scales and PDS-5 and IES scales were also obtained, which proved satisfactory validity of LEC-5., Conclusions: Obtained empirical results proved satisfying psychometric properties of LEC-5.

Objectives: The present studies point to high, i.e., approx. 70%, presence of at least one traumatic event over the life of people addicted to alcohol., Methods: The study involved 240 people - 120 people were addicted to alcohol (clinical group), including 60 women and 60 men, and 120 people were not addicted to alcohol (control group), including 60 women and 60 men. All people from the study group were asked to complete: The TAA-SR traumatic events assessment questionnaire, the structured interview checking the presence of experienced trauma and the severity of post-traumatic symptoms (PTSD) according to DSM-IV, and the personal survey., Results: People addicted to alcohol experienced more traumas than non-addicted ones. The number of traumas of addicted women was significantly lower compared to addicted men. People addicted to alcohol reported the first experience of trauma much faster than non-addicted ones. The vast majority of people from the clinical group (addicted individuals) declared that the addiction symptoms occurred after experiencing the first trauma., Conclusions: The present studies point to high, i.e., approx. 70%, presence of at least one traumatic event over the life of people addicted to alcohol.

Objectives: Over the past decade research has been published in several Western European countries on the prevalence of PTSD among World War II survivors, mostly civilians. Prevalence rates ranged from 1.9% to 10.8 %. The aim of the study was to measure the frequency of PTSD occurrence among Polish WWII survivors., Methods: Data from 96 persons: 59 women and 37 men, aged 70-96 were analyzed. All participants were born before 1945. They completed Polish adaptations of: Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS), Impact of Events Scale (IES), Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) and WWII trauma related questionnaire., Results: Prevalence rate of potential PTSD was 32,3% Mean values of both number and severity of symptoms of PTSD were significantly higher for respondents with at least one war related trauma comparing to the participants who did note relate any such trauma., Conclusions: Comparing to other studies on WWII related PTSD the prevalence rate of possible PTSD was very high. Looking for possible explanation of such results seems to be an important challenge.

This paper presents the general characteristics of the phenomenon of autobiographical memory (AM), the current knowledge of the subject and describes hitherto identified distortions of AM in mental disorders.AM is the part of memory concerning the personal past of an individual. It includes episodic and semantic memories associated with an identity. It affects an activity and structuring of goals, it is set in human experience and emotions and it helps in creating plans. The evolutionary sig-nificance of AM is probably to facilitate short-term goal-oriented behaviors by comparing them with the previous ones. People with AM disorders often have difficulties in social functioning.The disorders of emotional life and affect, which are present in most psychiatric disorders, deform AM. It was confirmed, inter alia, in post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, autism, schizophrenia, and alcohol dependence syndrome. Overgeneral memories (the inability to recall memories that are fully filled with details) being typical of depression, and flashbacks (the involuntary recall of memories which are highly filled with visual-sensory content) being characteristic of PTSD are considered one of the most studied deficiency of AM. The study of AM potentially carries many cognitive and clinical implications. It may facilitate the prediction of the onset of a depressive episode in patients at risk; it can also help to develop psychotherapeutic techniques which are helpful in its treatment, which has in part already taken place. Few studies relate to neurofunctional changes in AM and they need a follow-up.

Aim: The research is an attempt to confirm the role of emotional reactivity and childhood adversity in the development of anxiety and depression as well as to determine the scope of interaction between these two factors., Material and Methods: 430 participants were included in the study. The intensity of emotional reactivity was determined using the FCZ-KT Questionnaire developed by Zawadzki and Strelau. The occurrence of childhood adversity was measured using the Hardt Childhood Questionnaire. The occurrence of anxiety and depression was measured using the structured interview WHO-CIDI 3.0. The relationship between variables was analysed using the logistic regression model., Results: A moderating role of the level of childhood adversity on the relationship of emotional reactivity and the occurrence of anxiety and depression was observed. In the group with high levels of adversity, no such relationship was observed for either of the two disorders. For low and medium levels of the moderator, different relationships for anxiety and depression were found., Conclusions: The obtained results are only partially explained within the temperamental risk factor model. A different pattern of relationships between the intensity of the temperamental trait and the occurrence of anxiety and depression depending on the amount of reported adversity may result from the cumulative effect of the negative consequences of this type of experience.

Background: This study aimed at exploring the phenomenon of motor vehicle accidents (MVA). The following research questions were addressed: what are the immediate reactions to accidents among MVA perpetrators, do MVA perpetrators develop posttraumatic stress symptoms, and what are the differences between high and low symptomatic signs in terms of socio-demographics and accident features?, Material and Methods: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) questionnaire by Watson et al. in the Polish adaptation was applied to assess PTSD and its subclinical symptoms. The information on the MVA nature, declared MVA causes, drivers' reactions after MVA, as well as on the age, education and history of driving in the study group was collected. The results of psychological examination obtained from 209 MVA perpetrators were analyzed. The examination took place at least 1 month after the accident., Results: In 1/3 of the study group no physiological reactions were observed directly after the accident, while 46% of respondents experienced trembling and shaking and about 30% of subjects were crying or having tears in their eyes. Compassion for the injured and victims, guilt, helplessness and fear were the most common among immediate psychological reactions related to the accident. On the day of psychological examination 11.2% of drivers met diagnostic criteria for PTSD according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth edition (DSM-IV). Drivers showing low and high PTSD symptoms did not differ in terms of age, education, and subjective perception of accident cause. Women were significantly overrepresented it the group meeting the diagnostic criteria for PTSD., Conclusions: The results of the study indicate the need to carry on systematic screening for mental health problems in drivers involved in serious MVA as a part of strategy for improving road safety., (This work is available in Open Access model and licensed under a CC BY-NC 3.0 PL license.)

Aim of the Study: The aim of the study conducted on 110 women (55 research group, 55 control group) was to answer the question: If and what kind of parentification (role reversal in the family) do women with Adult Children of Alcoholics (ACoA) syndrome experience in comparison to women who did not experience parent's alcoholism in childhood?, Method: The following methods were applied in the study: a questionnaire prepared for screening children of alcoholics Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST) by John Jones and Joanne Pilat, and a questionnaire to examine parentification Filial Responsibility Scale for Adult (FRS--A) created by Gregory Jurkovic and Alison Thirkield., Results: The results have shown that in comparison to women who did not experience parental alcoholism in childhood, women with ACoA syndrome have more often experienced parentification and a sense of injustice in the past. Currently, these women also experience this feeling more frequently., Conclusions: The analysis of the results of this study could serve as valuable clues for the therapeutic work with women who are Adult Children of Alcoholics.

Various aspects of guilt are frequent problems of patients suffering from PTSD, though they have been included into the diagnostic criteria for PTSD just in the present version DSM-5. Some studies indicate limitation of effectiveness of exposure therapy in PTSD patients with predominant emotions of anger or guilt. The aim of this paper is to present cognitive conceptualization of guilt in PTSD proposed by Kubany, and a treatment protocol resulting from this conceptualization. The clinical application of the protocol is illustrated with preliminary results of systematic observation of 8 patients with moderate to severe PTSD who were treated with cognitive therapy for guilt followed by a standard prolonged exposure protocol. The cognitive therapy of guilt can be a valuable supplement for treatment of PTSD. This protocol can also be an inspiration for therapists working with patients with dysfunctional guilt as a problem in other than PTSD disorders--like depression or adjustment disorders. In discussion the place of guilt in treatment according to different (PE-Foa et al.; CPT-Resick et al.; CT-Ehlers and Clark) trauma focused therapy approaches is addressed, and the need for further studies is underlined.

The notion of resilience, which attempts to explain the phenomenon of positive adaptation (coping) of people exposed to adversities or traumatic events, is becoming a significant area of research in Poland. It is a complex and multidimensional notion, on the borderline between genetics, neurophysiology, anthropology of culture, sociology, medicine, political science, developmental psychology and psychiatry. The phenomenon of resilience is interactive (as it combines the experience of trauma with adaptation to it), it is difficult to measure and it raises serious methodological concerns. They tend to be so significant that some researchers consider resilience to be a construct of dubious scientific value. Such a view seems to be overly critical, however it indicates the magnitude of methodological difficulties. This article discusses some of them: problems with definitions and terminology, measurement difficulties associated with the interactive nature of resilience, the need to search for complex interactions between biological, psychological, social and environmental factors (rather than overly simplistic focus on individual factors which support good adaptation). The methodological issues have been divided into the following research areas: the nature of traumatic experiences, response to trauma, factors which impact the reporting of the reaction to trauma, developmental problems.

Aims: The aim of the survey was to establish whether PTSD is present among Polish soldiers returning from a one-year deployment to Iraq and an analysis of its individual symptoms., Methods: Sixty soldiers were examined, including 30 who returned from the Iraqi mission and 30 who remained in Poland. Five analysing devices were used: (IPSA), (STAI), (BDI), a PTSD questionnaire and a socio-demographical form., Results: A significant number of soldiers experienced a traumatic event during the mission in Iraq. Although the Iraq deployment did not change the level of depression and anxiety among the two groups of soldiers, disproportions were found in the range of anger level intensity, which was significantly higher among soldiers who returned from Iraq., Conclusion: Stabilisation mission and the experience of a traumatic event influenced the biological and psychological functioning patterns among soldiers who returned from Iraq. The manifestations of this were emotional and physiological reactions that the soldiers experienced (nightmares, excessive sweating, increased heartbeat rate, stressful reactions in situations similar to the traumatic occurrence and intensified responses to them). However, contrary to the assumptions, it was not concluded that soldiers who returned from Iraq are suffering from PTSD.

This review focuses on latest research regarding the role of life events in bipolar disorder. Description of important patients experiences and mechanisms, according to which they operate, is the key issue in diagnostics, therapy, prevention and planning of further studies. Definitions of life events differ depending on theoretical conceptions. At the same time they can be divided on the basis of time relation between the occurrence of event and disorder. Events that can play important role in bipolar disorders are the following: early childhood traumas, early loss of important family member and current stressful events. Taking the latter into account, positive experiences connected with performances can affect manic symptoms, and negative events--depressive ones. The other group of important life events in this context consists of life events that are dependent on the patients' psychopathology. Hypotheses of kindling, "manic denial" or stress-diathesis model can explain mechanisms of these relations. The role of life events is probably modified by personality, temperament and coping mechanisms. Congruency of life events with personality styles is being underlined. There is a substantial lack of research in this field. Their integration with knowledge of genetic vulnerability and connection with neurobiological base with life events' reactions (e.g. catechol-o-methyl transferase, BDNFVal66Met genotype) is needed. Further research require consideration of methodological issues, like research plans and models (that will make integration of knowledge from different studies fields possible) or specific diagnostic methods.

A lot of data in literature shows the importance of early stressful life events for the later existence and possible difficulties including suicide behaviours in adult life. The aim of the study was to identify the intensity of traumatic events in childhood and adolescence and distinguish the most significant categories of those events. Remarkable is the fact that the patients who experienced in the childhood situations of emotional abuse focused on the negative attitude of the environment (79%) and physical violence (78%) represented the largest proportion of subjects. Specific difficulties during childhood and adolescence among patients after suicide attempts were proven. Patients after suicide attempts in a large extent early experienced situations connected with emotional distance, negative feedback from the environment, manifestations of rejection and humiliation and misunderstanding. Males more than females declared experiencing situations classified as physical violence, low economic status of the family, interpersonal loss and general trauma. Comparatively often both groups pointed at perilous parents' acts. Females more often pointed at events concerning sexual domain. Very strong emotions assisted stressful life events, particularly significant among females and characterized by anxiety and helplessness. Patients after suicide attempts most often described their fathers as over controlling, demanding and intrusive with the deficiency of care and protectiveness. This pattern was equally distinct in the group of females and males.

Aim: Psychosocial and social theories of mood disorders indicate that factors connected with women's gender roles could create a higher risk of depression. The fact that social role is an important factor associated with depressive disorders suggests that not only a biological but also a psychological gender influences the vulnerability to depression., Method: Gender schema theory was applied to investigate a role of femininity in depressive disorders. It was predicted that patients who identify themselves with the traditional feminine gender role will be more depressed than androgynous and undifferentiated patients or individuals with high level of masculinity. Sixty one patients suffering from affective disorder participated in this research. The Polish adaptation of Bem Sex - Role Inventory and Beck Depression Inventory were used to investigate the association between psychological gender and symptoms of depression., Results: The results indicated that there is a significant connection between the type of psychological gender and the level of depression. The highest level of depression was shown by undifferentiated patients, femininity was also found to be associated with a great number of depressive symptoms. These findings also suggest that androgynous individuals and patients with a high level of masculinity tend to be less depressed., Conclusions: Psychological gender is an important factor which interacts to create a higher depression risk in men and women.

Recent stressful life events (ASLE) are considered to be one of the factors precipitating suicidal behavior. They precede a suicide attempt in most cases and according to research occur more often during the month or week before the suicide attempt. Interpersonal events are most common. The article presents an analysis of ASLE timing and incidence of events from specific categories during the month preceding suicide attempt by drug overdose. 124 patients admitted to the hospital because of suicidal intoxication were included in the study. Data regarding ASLE were collected with the use of a structured interview. Majority of patients attempting suicide by drug overdose experience a stressful event during the month prior to the suicide attempt. Nearly 4 out of 10 study subjects experience a stressful event on the day of the attempt or on the preceding day. Most common events that occur during the month prior to the attempt and immediately before the attempt are interpersonal events and most of them are related to relationships with spouses or partners.

Aim: The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of PTSD and level of symptoms more broadly considered as post-traumatic e.g. depression among Polish child survivors of World War II., Method: Data were collected from 218 individuals aged 63-78., Measures: a list of questions regarding exposure to a range of war related traumas; PDS (Foa, 1995); IES (Horowitz et al., 1976) to measure PTSD symptoms and BDI (Beck et al., 1961) for depression symptoms., Results: Exposure to potentially traumatic events related to the WWII varied from 1.83% to 47.25%. The prevalence of PTSD symptoms at a diagnostic level according to PDS was 29.4%. The mean values B, C and D-category symptoms were respectively: 2.08 (SD=1.74), 2.34 (SD=1.98) and 2.40 (SD=1.69). Greater age, parental loss and exposure to at least one traumatic war-related event (this variable was close to the level of statistical significance, however) were all predictors of a diagnostic level of PTSD symptoms., Conclusions: 60 years after WW II about one-third of respondents manifest a clinical level of PTSD symptoms. Taking into consideration the results of the research on the child survivors of the modern wars, psychosocial and cultural factors should also be examined as causes of this phenomenon.

Aim: The author examined psychiatrically a group of 106 patients with difficult asthma and 100 patients with aspirin-induced asthma. The special interest of the study were differences in the intensity of catastrophic interpretation of body sensations and it's specific links with severity of symptoms of panic disorder and depression in women and men from both groups., Method: 106 consecutive adults with confirmed, physician-diagnosed difficult asthma and 100 patients with aspirin-induced asthma underwent a psychiatric interview and assessment using M.I.N.I 5.0, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Panic And Agoraphobia Scale (PAS) and Body Sensations Interpretation Questionnaire (BSIQ). Psychiatric assessment was performed by an experienced liaison psychiatrist according to ICD-10 and DSM-IV diagnosis. In the difficult asthma group there were 78 women (74%) and 28 men (26%). The average age was 51.3 (SD = 14.5) for women and 47.5 (SD = 12.7) for men. In aspirin induced asthma group, there were 66 women (66%) and 34 men (34%). The average age was 52.7 (SD = 12.3) for women and 48.8 (SD = 13.0) for men., Results: General intensity of catastrophic interpretation ofbody sensations was much higher in the difficult asthma group. In both groups of asthmatic patients women were the majority, with more frequent severe panic and depressive symptoms than men. Nevertheless there was a very similar and strong tendency to increased intensity of catastrophic interpretation due to severity of both panic and depressive symptoms in subgroups of women and men with difficult and aspirin-induced asthma., Conclusions: It is possible that differences in the intensity of catastrophic interpretation of body sensations used by women and men with difficult asthma affect the development, course and severity of their panic and depressive symptoms. This may play a special role in development of difficult asthma phenomenon.

Aim: The author examined psychiatrically a group of 106 patients with difficult asthma and 100 patients with aspirin-induced asthma., Method: 106 consecutive adults with confirmed, physician-diagnosed difficult asthma and 100 patients with aspirin-induced asthma underwent a psychiatric interview and assessment using M.I.N.I 5.0, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Panic And Agoraphobia Scale (PAS). Psychiatric assessment was performed by an experienced liaison psychiatrist according to ICD-10 and DSM-IV diagnosis. In the difficult asthma group there were 78 women (74%) and 28 men (26%). The average age was 51.3 (SD = 14.5) for women and 47.5 (SD = 12.7) for men. In aspirin induced asthma group there were 66 women (66%) and 34 men (34%). The average age was 52.7 (SD = 12.3) for women and 48.8 (SD = 13.0) for men., Results: In difficult asthma both panic and depressive symptoms were statistically much more severe than in aspirin-induced asthma. Comorbidity between panic and depressive symptoms was almost equal in women and men with difficult asthma, but in aspirin-induced asthma, comorbidity was more common among women than men. Panic-depression comorbidity is regarded as a predictor of especially severe course and outcome of psychiatric disorder., Conclusions: It is possible that especially severe panic and depressive symptoms both with panic-depression comorbidity in women and men with difficult asthma have an impact on aethiology of this near-fatal and treatment resistant subtype of asthma.

Numerous studies have shown that the occurrence of negative life events, especially in childhood and adolescence, increases the risk of developing mental and somatic disorders in future. The purpose of presented paper was to assess to what extent the severity of events determines health disorders and risk behaviours among adolescents. The study was conducted on a randomly selected sample of ten secondary school students in Warsaw in the three-year period. A questionnaire for data gathering was elaborated in Health Promotion and Postgraduate Education of the National Institute of Public Health - National Institute of Hygiene. The scale of negative life events consisted of 32 items covering: 1) changes in live and health of closed persons, 2) contact with the acts of a crime or incorrect, 3) problems concerning biological maturation, 4) interpersonal relations in the nearest surrounding, 5) financial and living conditions and 6) problems of learning. The average severity of events evaluated by the students was used to determine the weights of individual item. Weighted scale as well as summarised scale were applied to analysis. In addition, the questionnaire included questions on health, well-being, and risk behaviours and attitudes, as criterial indicators. Our study did not provide evidence that only the severity of negative life events determines the health disorders and taking risk behaviours. The both scales showed similar moderate correlation with most criterial indicators and explained 10% - 20% of variance of subjectively experienced health indicators (self-assessment of health status, physical, psychical and social well-being), 10% - 25% of risk behaviours and attitudes and only 1% - 7% of health disorders measured by objective indicators (sickness absence, staying at home or in hospital due to health disorders, contact with physician, taking medication). It seems that not the severity of negative life events but their cumulating determines health and behavioural negative effects.

Aim: Studies have reported a high rate of depression (DD) and panic disorder (PD) among asthma patients, though the impact of these disorders on asthma severity remains unclear. This study evaluated the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in 100 patients with aspirin-induced asthma and association between psychiatric status and levels of asthma severity., Methods: 100 consecutive adults with confirmed, physician-diagnosed aspirin-induced asthma underwent psychiatric interviews and assessment using M.I.N.I 5.0, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Panic And Agoraphobia Scale (PAS). Psychiatric assessment was performed by an experienced liaison psychiatrist according to ICD-10 and DSM-IV diagnosis. Asthma severity was assessed according to NHLBI/NAEPP 2007. There were 66 women (66%) and 34 men (34%). The average age was 52.7 (SD = 12.3) for women and 49.8 (SD = 13.0) for men., Results: 41% patients met the diagnostic criteria for panic disorder, and 30% of them met depression criteria. Analyses revealed that there is correlation between asthma severity and presence and intensity of psychiatric disorders., Conclusions: Results suggest that psychiatric disorders are prevalent among patients with aspirin-induced asthma and are associated with worse asthma severity. Physicians should consider the impact of these conditions when planning optimal treatment.

Aim: The author examined psychiatrically a group of 100 ambulatory patients with asthma. The special interest of the study was the careful analysis of the time, context and content of different psychological traumas that the patients had throughout their lives., Methods: 100 consecutive adults with confirmed, physician-diagnosed aspirin-induced asthma underwent psychiatric interview and assessment using M.I.N.I 5.0, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Panic And Agoraphobia Scale (PAS). Psychiatric assessment was performed by an experienced liaison psychiatrist according to ICD-10 and DSM-IV diagnosis. There were 66 women (66%) and 34 men (34%). The average age was 52.7 (SD = 12.3) for women and 48.8 (SD = 13.0) for men., Results: In the group of 100 patients with asthma, women were a majority (66%) with higher level of anxiety and depressive symptoms than men. It may be due to specific trauma of suffering and/or death of an emotionally close person, which occurred in adulthood. This kind of trauma may have an impact on the aetiology of both panic disorder and depression. Women are more exposed to this sort of trauma due to their social role., Conclusions: It is possible, that psychological trauma affects the development, course and severity of anxiety and depressive symptoms in asthmatic patients.

Unlabelled: In everyday life there are many obstacles that prevent the creation of many important needs. They require a skillful adaptation and may be the cause of stress. Stress of considerable intensity can receive the joy of life and even lead to a temporary mental disorder., The Aim of the Study: To present the main causes and frequency of disturbance determined according to the ICD-10 as a reaction to severe stress and adaptive disorders among patients in psychiatric and psychological counseling and to establish whether the causes of the disorder are dependent on factors such as age, sex or level of education., Material and Methods: Analysis was done on a separate group of 754 persons from among patients seeking psychiatric counseling--Psychological Outpatient Mental Health in the 10th Military Clinical Hospital in Bydgoszcz, in 2005. This group were qualified person, who according to the criteria of ICD-10 were found to respond to severe stress and abnormal adaptation. In addition, during the interview determines whether they are long-term somatic illness. They have not been included in the study group. Also excluded persons who were found difficulties in operation prior to the stressful situation and those that have already been treated with psychiatric or psychological benefit from therapy. The collected data were statistically analyzed., Results: The analysis identifies three main causes of adjustment disorder. The first group of reasons is related to difficulties in the workplace, which represents 59% of all patients with the disorder described. In this group identifies three major stressful situations: bullying, job loss, unemployment. Another reason relates to family problems. They are the reason for the emergence of abnormalities in 23% of patients analyzed group. Among these difficulties was divided into four main types of situation causing disorder presented. There are family conflicts, death of spouse, parent death, divorce. The last group of factors are stressful events or incidents which contributed to the disorder in 16% of patients in the group described. In this category were observed four major groups analyzed the causes of the disorder. This is due to the difficulty of adapting to the compulsory military service, traffic accidents, participation in missions abroad, the situation of rape. Making a detailed analysis by category of difficulty is shown that in this group of subjects, age, educational level and gender are significant factors in influencing the formation of these disorders., Conclusion: The main causes of this disorder are closely related to everyday human activity and especially on employment. Harassment and bad relationships in the workplace, job loss, unemployment are the factors most often causing disorder in question. The analysis made also clear that the situations of family conflict is also a frequent cause of severe reactions to stress and adjustment disorder. Not without significance is the impact of factors such as level of education, age and sex. Analysis by specific categories of causes of reactions to stress and adjustment disorder indicates that these factors significantly correlate with the formation of these disorders in the group of people.

Objectives: The goal of this work was to compare ways of coping with stress used by women after preterm delivery and term delivery, as well as to determine possible connection between hopelessness and ways of coping with stress in these two groups., Materials and Methods: 33 patients after preterm delivery and 54 after term delivery participated in the study The Beck Hopelessness Scale questionnaire (by Beck) to investigate hopelessness. the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations questionnaire (by Endler and Parker), and a personal questionnaire were used in the study., Results: The two groups of women differed in their styles of the task-oriented coping. This style was significantly less frequent in the repertory of remedial behaviors in women after preterm delivery. Hopelessness reached similar levels in both groups, and was estimated as mild, and significantly correlated with coping styles with stress in both groups under study., Conclusions: A positive correlation between hopelessness and the emotions-oriented coping is very characteristic for both groups of women. This indicates that the tendency to use the emotions-oriented coping grows with an increasing feeling of hopelessness.

Background: The author examined psychiatrically a group of 75 patients suffering from severe panic disorder. The special interest of the study was the careful analysis of the time, context and content of different psychological traumas that the patients had throughout their lives., Methods: The author examined 75 patients suffering from panic disorder during ambulatory treatment. There were 53 women (71%) and 22 men (29%). The average age was M=44.68 years (SD=12.68), and average duration of illness was M=5.19 years (SD=6.22). Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview, Polish version 5.0.0, Panic and Agoraphobia Scale, Beck's Depression Inventory and Life Inventory were used., Results: In the group of 75 patients with severe panic disorder, women were majority (71%). It may be due to specific trauma of suffering and/or death of an emotionally close person, which occurred in adulthood. This trauma may have impact on the aetiology of panic disorder. Women are more exposed to this sort of trauma due to their social role., Conclusion: It is possible, that psychological trauma affects the development, course and severity of panic disorder.

Aim: The author presents a new methodological approach to directed cued recall which point out the organization of emotional memories in autobiographical memory., Results: This approach gave opportunity to show connections between type of cues and attributes of recall memories in a group of 40 healthy persons., Conclusions: The research proved that there exists a tendency to recall mostly positive memories in reaction to positive cues, negative memories in reaction to negative cues, while the ambivalent cues caused recollection of mostly positive feelings although with a significant number of negative remembrances. What is more, experiments indicated that respondents' reminiscences were recalled in the shortest time when the cue was positive, in the longest time when the cue was ambivalent. Moreover, the largest number of remembrances was generated in response to positive cues.

Objectives: The aim of the following study was to assess personality profiles of pregnant and postpartum women with symptoms of perinatal depression and to estimate the differences in their real and ideal self image in the sphere of psychological needs., Material and Methods: 50 pregnant (between 32-40 weeks of gestation) and 26 postpartum women (2-5 days after the delivery) were recruited for the study. Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used as a screening test for symptoms of pre- and postnatal depression. Personality profiles were evaluated by means of the Adjective Check List (ACL) with 15 need scales., Results: Postpartum women in comparison to pregnant patients described their self image at a statistically significant higher level as far as the needs for domination, nurturance, affiliation, heterosexuality and exhibition were concerned. No significant differences were observed in these groups of patients in the domain of ideal self image., Conclusions: 1/ pregnant and postpartum women, suffering from perinatal depressive disturbances, differ in terms of the self-assessment of some of their real psychological needs, but do not differ in terms of the ideal self image; 2/ observed differences between pregnant and postpartum women are basically consistent with the change of the role which is associated with the pregnancy and postpartum period; 3/ a positive change of the real self image, which is connected with the maternal role in the postpartum period, takes place in women irrespectively of their depression; 4/ observed multiple and significant differences between the ideal and real self image in pregnant as well as postpartum women with perinatal depressive disturbances indicate their lack of self-acceptance which requires individualized psychological intervention.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess if the marital status, especially cohabitation, of pregnant and postpartum women, has any influence on the incidence of perinatal depression symptoms., Material and Methods: 117 pregnant women (at 32-40 weeks of gestation) and 105 postpartum patients (2-5 days after the delivery) were included in the study. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used as a screening test for symptoms of pre- and postnatal depression. The risk of appearance of depressive symptoms was assessed in three groups of pregnant and postpartum patients - married, unpartnered and cohabitating., Results: By means of the EPDS test, symptoms of perinatal depression were found in 17% of pregnant and 10% of postpartum women. In comparison to married women, the risk of appearance of depressive symptoms in unpartnered pregnant patients was almost 10-times higher (OR=9.34; 95% CI 1.42, 201.77), and several hundred times higher in cohabitating pregnant women (OR=975.86; 95% CI 116.73, 19502.00); the risk of depressive symptoms in postpartum unpartnered women was more than 2 times higher (OR=2.4; 95% CI 0.59, 9.72) and more than 20 times higher in cohabitating postpartum mothers (OR=23.2; 95% CI 5.89, 91.51)., Conclusions: 1. the marital status of pregnant and postpartum women has a substantial influence on the risk of the development of perinatal depressive symptoms; this risk is highly increased in a group of cohabitating women compared to patients remaining in a formal partnership as well as women who live unpartnered, 2. clinical evaluation of women in the perinatal period should include the assessment of their psychosocial status, which can constitute a predicting factor of perinatal depression, 3. pregnant women living in informal partnership should be put under strict psychological surveillance.

Objectives: The aim of the following study was to establish whether there is any connection between an elevation of anxiety experienced by women during pregnancy or postpartum and their styles of coping with stressful situations, as well as to assess if those factors influence higher risk of incidence of perinatal depressive symptoms., Material and Methods: A total of 229 patients admitted to the Department of Foeto-Maternal Medicine, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin in 2006-2007, were recruited for the study. By means of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), a study group of 76 pregnant and postpartum women with high risk of perinatal depression was assigned, as well as a control group of 153 patients without such risk. The level of anxiety and ways of coping in stressful situations were measured by means of the CISS (Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations) and STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) questionnaires., Results: It has been shown that specific styles of coping in stressful situations and Anxiety-state or Anxiety-trait have substantial influence on higher risk of perinatal depressive symptoms in women., Conclusions: 1) The risk of perinatal depressive symptoms is associated with ways of coping with stressful situations or Anxiety-state and Anxiety-trait, 2) the risk of perinatal depression among pregnant women increases with an elevation of emotion-concentrated styles of coping in stressful situations, 3) the risk of perinatal depression among postpartum women increases with an elevation of emotion-concentrated ways of coping in stressful situations and engagement in substitute activities, 4) analysis of undertaken research indicate for suitableness of early diagnosis of specific styles of coping in stressful situations in order to implement proper therapy directed at the reduction of the risk of perinatal depression.

Aim: The authors define the term "satisfaction from life" as being able to achieve satisfying objectives, realize one's own needs and desires. Such a vision depends upon personal experience, knowledge, role models and value system. The objective of this study is to establish the styles of coping with stress, as well as kinds and intensity of aggressive behaviours that depend on the degree of life satisfaction. The degree of life satisfaction was assessed by the look at the socio-economic status., Methods: 80 people were enrolled in the study. The authors used a personal data form, Coping Inventory for Stress Situations (CISS) by N. Endler and J. Parker and Psychological Inventory of Aggression Syndrome by Z. B. Gaś (IPSA-II)., Results and Conclusions: The level of life satisfaction (measured using the family situation and socio-economic status) of the participants is associated with the style of coping with stress and with tendency to aggressive behaviours. The higher the level of life satisfaction was, the lower the intensity of aggressive behaviours and more effective styles of coping with stress were observed.

Introduction: Breast cancer is the most frequent malignant tumor diagnosed among women in Poland and in the world. Among the consequences of the disease are disorders in the woman's physical, mental, and social sphere of functioning., Material and Methods: We enrolled 102 women aged 29-56 years from three Amazons Clubs (mastectomy support groups) in Bydgoszcz, Koszalin, and Białogard. A questionnaire was prepared addressing demographics and the emotional state of women., Results: Most of the women participating in our study completed university education, had a white-collar job, and resided in a city. The disease completely changed the life of 24 women (23%) and some aspects of life of 59 women (58%). The disease inflicted changes in the life of 62 (61%) women, with 32 women (31%) continuously worrying about their future. Sadness and fear were frequent reactions to the diagnosis in 42 women (45%) but only 7 women (7%) felt depressed or indifferent to the diagnosis. 42 women (46%) presented a very optimistic attitude to the disease and 36 women (39%) were determined to combat the disease. The disease had no influence on the life of 19 women (19%). The most frequent state after treatment was impatience, feeling of kindness, and irritability (32%)., Conclusions: The disease had a negative influence on the emotional state of women after mastectomy. An optimistic attitude was observed in almost half of the women. Married women and women living in complete families were quicker in accepting changes which occurred in their life.

Road accident belongs to one of the categories of traumatic events, and can cause posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The most common psychological consequences of road traffic accidents are the emotional disorders, cognitive deficits (disorders concentration of attention and memory function), impaired social relationships, troubles with performing work duties and physical symp-toms of stress. The article discusses the program of psychological support given to the participants of road accidents, conducted in Wroclaw, its theoretical assumptions and the mode of its implementation. Basic theoretical assumptions of the program are inter alia based on the theories of H. Selye and R. Lazarus. The authors of this article also refer to the so-called therapeutic process of education designed by Everly and Rosenfeld, who recommend that the process of developing self-responsibility be used for therapeutic purposes. This requires clarifying the exact nature of the problem, and then looking for possible remedies. The program is open to all road accident participants (victims, perpetrators, witnesses) and their families. Classes are designed to combine theory (lectures) and practice (exercises). Anxiety and cognitive processes, as well as relaxation training, interpersonal training (eg, assertiveness) and kinesiology are the major areas of activities. Psychological support provided for road accident participants is of intervention--and preventive nature; intervention, as it relates to the consequences ofa specific stressogenic event, namely a road accident; preventive, as it serves the overriding purpose--the improvement of road safety. This article presents the main findings of the program, the results of the survey evaluation, and proposals to develop psychological operations aimed at the road accidents participants.

Objectives: The aim of the study was to evaluate the incidence of affective disorders in women 3 to 5 days after childbirth and the influence of sociodemographic, psychiatric and obstetric factors on the prevalence of maternity blues., Material and Methods: The study was conducted at the 1st Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of Warsaw, between January and July 2007. 350 women between 3rd and 5th day of puerperium were asked to fill in a questionnaire, designed especially for the purpose of the study, containing 10 items from the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. 344 questionnaires were filled in properly., Results: 132 mothers (38.4%) had an EPDS score > or =10. It has been revealed that low educational level, lack of family support, pregnancy complications and patient's history of depression had strong influence on postpartum mood. Parity, cesarean delivery, place of residence, occupation, marital status, socioeconomic level, preterm delivery and breast feeding showed no relationship with maternity blues. There were no differences in newborns' condition according to Apgar scale., Conclusions: Every third mother is at risk of developing maternity blues. The implementation of screening for early postpartum affective disorders seems to be crucial in singling out women at risk of postpartum depression.

Stress, defined as coping with environmental challenges, involves the activation of the neuronal and neurohormonal systems. Central monoaminergic (noradrenergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic) neural networks, limbic structures, the sympathoadrenal system, the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, and the immune system are considered the most important stress pathways. Their activation determines stress reactivity and pathological consequences on exposure to situations of distress. Both trauma and long-term stress can cause alterations in the activities of neuroanatomical structures and neural networks within the central nervous system. These neurohormonal changes are associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a disturbance thought to be one of the most serious psychiatric illnesses. PTSD may develop in individuals after exposure to a traumatic event (war, violence, accident) and is manifested by various symptoms, such as re-experiencing, flashbacks, intrusive thoughts, impaired memory of the event, sleep disorders, nightmares, panic attacks, and depression. In this review the neurohormonal changes associated with experiencing stress are presented to highlight the molecular and hormonal basis of PTSD.

The sequelae of traffic accidents affect not only the victims, but may also affect members of their families, who have not been involved in the accident but, nevertheless, in association with the demise of their close relative, they suffer from adaptive (reactive) disturbances which, in their opinion, provide grounds for litigation for their permanent loss of health resulting from the accident. Such opinionating problems are encountered with increasing frequency by insurance companies, when families of the victims killed in traffic accidents demand recuperation for the loss of health, developed due to the traumatizing experiences. The paper presents two cases of such litigation, filed by family members of deceased victims of traffic accidents.

It is evident from literature that is no clear picture of the psychosocial factors that play a role in the way patients with tongue neoplasms cope with their defects and their treatment. The most significant component of the impact of postoperative disfigurement and dysfunction appears within a social context where the drastic alteration in anatomic contour interrupts the visual impression ordinarily provided by the face in social interation. Physological, psychological, and social adaptation to postsurgical defects can indeed be facilitated with proper intervention. The deepest and initial suffering is often silent and unarticulated. The tendency toward silence appeared to have been reinforced by emotionally traumatic expierences in early life. . In the existential dimension of suffering, one is searching for one's own of giving the suffering meaning and the fight for hope and life. The struggling act of suffering demads a compassonate other to confirm suffering.

Neurotrophins have been implicated in the regulation of development, neuronal survival, and adult synaptic plasticity. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays an important role in development, synapse remodelling and responses to stress and injury. Its abnormal expression has been implicated in many neuropsychiatric disorders. Adverse life events occurring early in development may alter the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus and other brain areas and render the organism more vulnerable to psychiatric disorders.

Aim: The purpose of the study was to compare the level of the coping styles among patients suffering from schizophrenia to schizophrenic patients who use drug and alcohol and alcohol and drug dependent patients. The second question referred to the possibilities of changes in the patients with a dual diagnosis style of handling difficult situations after they have participated in the social skills training., Method: 30 schizophrenic patients in the group I, 30 schizophrenic patients who use drug and alcohol--group II, and group III--alcohol and drug dependent subjects. Each of the subjects was evaluated twice: at the beginning of the Social Skills Training and 32 weeks after. The Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations by Endler and Parker, in the Polish adaptation by Szczepaniak, Strelau and Wrześniewski was used to measure coping styles. A sociodemographic questionnaire by Sawicka, Positive and Negative Schizophrenia Symptoms (PANSS) by Kay, Fiszbein and Opler, as well as the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test by Seltz ML were applied., Results and Conclusions: Persons with a dual diagnosis relatively often use task-orientated and emotional style of coping with stressful situations, similarly to dependent persons. Results of the study do not definitely indicate that participation in the cycle of social skills training influences the changes in preferable stress coping styles. However, it is an indisputable fact the percentage of persons with a dual diagnosis who use alcohol and psychoactive substances decreased to 36.7% after they have completed the cycle of trainings.

Aim: The aim of the paper is to study the differences between the mentally ill and a control group correlated with stressful live events and its connection with a sense of coherence., Methods: The group of 108 people, 49 psychiatric patients and 64 people without any mental disorders, were examined with the Hospital Anxiety-Depression Scale, Early Trauma Inventory, Social Readjustment Scale and the Sense of Coherence Scale., Results: Patients with mental disorders had a significantly higher occurrence of stressful psychosocial factors during the last year, and also they were exposed to traumatic events in childhood more frequently than the control group. The sense of coherence, as a measurement of resources in coping with stress, was significantly lower in the case of the psychiatric patients. Statistically significant dependence of anxiety and depression symptoms which were reported by patients with mental disorders with abuses which were experienced in childhood highly correlated with a sense of coherence in the group of psychiatric patients., Conclusions: Psychiatric patients experienced stressful life events in childhood more frequently, which had to do with a sense of coherence as measure of 'resistance' resources to cope with stressful events.

The main goal of this research was to find answers to the following questions: 1. What were the sources of the personal distress that the deportees to the Soviet Union experienced during the 5 years living in exile? 2. What psychological consequences of deportation did Sybiracs report? 3. Was a gender variable associated with intensity of post-traumatic symptoms? A total of 100 people born in 1928-34, who had been deported into the Soviet Union during the World War II were assessed with a semi-structured interview, PTSD Inventory and GDS (by Yesavage). The study pointed out that 65% participants felt symptoms following the exposure to traumatic stressors. They were: anxiety, increased arousal, low self-esteem, depression and others. The Siberian experience limited a possibility to get a higher level of education and more attractive job. It also modified the manner in which the marital and parental roles were fulfilled. The rate of anxiety and depressive symptoms was significantly higher in women in comparison with men.

Aim: The occurrence and course of PTSD in the countryside environment as the result of flood in 1997 has been described. The research was experimented around four villages by Nysa Kłodzka river-basin; the area was affected by disaster unexpectedly and extremely hard., Method: 97 people have been tested as the straightforward witnesses of flood. They had never been treated by a psychiatrist before 1997 and they haven't experienced any other stressful event that might have been an independent reason of the occurrence PTSD. The extent of trauma, risk of shock and the length of time that those examined were in danger was identical. None of the studied had received psychological or psychiatric support after the disaster. The research was carried out by one investigator (psychiatrist) 60-63 months after the flood at the victims' houses (the psychiatrist's visit was preceded by the phone appointment). The research instrument--Composite International Diagnostic Interview CIDI: section A (referred to demographic dates) and section N (referred to PTSD)., Results: PTSD diagnosis was made in 30.9% of the examined group. The distempered people are mostly educated at the lowest level (49.9% with the ground education) or unemployed (39.2%). Older people were more susceptible to PTSD. PTSD diagnosis was made more often for men (39.5%) than for women (25.4), what is directly related to the lower education and a worse material status of the examined men. Full symptomatic PTSD, remaining up to 60-63 months after the flood, was confirmed in 15.5% of the studied group., Conclusion: The frequency and profile of PTSD occurrence (lower educated, older and the poor people) in the examined group is consistent with the other studies done. The fact that PTSD diagnosis was more frequent amongst men (39.5% vs. 25.4% in women) has been mentioned and explained above. No person in the group has confirmed the short (lasting only up to one month) term of persistence of the symptoms what is tantamount to no acute stress disorder right after the flood. It might be probably caused by the permanence of flood destruction and the prolonged exposure to the stress factor.

Aim: Assessment of early traumatic life events influence on psychological symptoms of depressive syndromes., Method: 88 patients with diagnosis of depression were included. The inventory of psychopathological symptoms--AMDP and depression rating scales--MADRS, GDS were applied., Results: Early traumatic life events were associated with general intensity of depression, but also with specific categories of symptoms (thinking disturbances, phobias, obsessions)., Conclusions: Traumatic life events in early childhood may in effect lead to changes in the clinical picture of depression in adulthood. The strength of the particular events may vary.

Aim: The aim of this paper was to answer two questions. First--has a particular traumatic event (the Gdańsk Shipyard concert-hall fire) caused any psychopathological changes in the victims? Secondly--if yes, how do the dynamics of these changes manifest themselves?, Method: The authors used two psychological methods. Adjective Check List, which measures the structure of psychological needs, and in some way, the picture of oneself (before and after the fire) and HADS-M, which measures the intensity of negative emotions (anxiety, depressiveness and aggression). The first investigation in 1995 included two groups: 46 victims of the fire and a control group (47 youngsters, who did not participate in this particular concert). The investigation of the victims group was then repeated twice, in 1996 (35 persons) and in 1999 (39 persons)., Results: The series of investigations lead to the conclusion that the traumatic event (Gdańsk Shipyard hall fire) caused statistically significant, psychopathological changes in the victims (the first investigation). The changes concerned the worsening of the picture of oneself and an increase in the intensity of negative emotions (anxiety, depressiveness, aggression). All these changes still exist, despite the time which passed since the traumatic event (the repeated investigations).

Aim: Does the traumatic experience influence the choice of a particular coping style? If yes, which style is preferred by those who experienced trauma? Answering these two essential questions is the aim of this paper. The authors have accepted the assumption (Holman, Silver, 1998), that the individuals who experienced trauma prefer past temporal orientation and they present a higher level of distress., Method: The authors investigated two groups. The experimental group consisted of 46 victims of the Gdańsk Shipyard concert hall fire. The control group comprised the 41 individuals who never experienced any trauma. Two psychological methods were used. CISS--Endler and Parker, which measures coping styles. STAI--Spielberger and al., was the second method used for measuring the level of anxiety as an essential distress indicator., Results and Conclusions: The results show, that individuals who experienced trauma, presented a significantly higher level of anxiety and that the victims of trauma prefer the emotional coping style. The difference is statistically significant. There is also an indirect conclusion (based on these results), which confirms the above mentioned assumption.