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Demodex are cosmopolitan mites occurring in many species of mammals. Two morphologically distinct Demodex species parasitize on humans: Demodexfolliculorum (Simon, 1842) and Demodex brevis (Akbulatova, 1963). Until recently, these species have been regarded as commensals; now they are considered as parasitic organisms. In people, Demodex spp. can be found mainly in the sebaceous glands of the skin (mainly in the area of the forehead, cheeks, nose, behind ears and neck), in hearing aids, and on the scalp, covered with hair. Infection with demodex happens through direct contact with infected bed linen, towels, creams and other cosmetics. Despite the high prevalence of Demodex spp. in the human population, symptoms of demodecosis are not common, and can be found mainly in people with weakened immune systems due to aging or a number of diseases.

Some natural and unusual transfers of exotic ticks on hosts have been noticed in Poland. Reptiles together with migratory birds and migrating mammals, are the groups of vertebrates that transfer unknown tick species to the territory of Poland. The majority of exotic reptiles brought to Poland for breading and commercial purpose are infested by ticks. Therefore the systematic list of ticks as well as their geographical distribution in the world, tick-host specificity, characteristic and morphological description of genera/species are presented. The described species are as follow: Amblyomma exornatum, Amblyomma flavomaculatum, Amblyomma latum, Amblyomma nuttalli, Amblyomma quadricavum, Amblyomma sphenodonti, Amblyomma transversale, Amblyomma varanense, Hyalomma aegyptium. It is important to monitor occurrence of unknown tick species on hosts in Poland. Ticks parasitizing on reptiles are known as vectors of tick-borne diseases, which indicate a serious epidemic problem, created by the import of exotic reptiles to the territory of Poland.

Prior to 1993, Bartonella bacilliformis was the only member of the Bartonella genus. Now, the genus Bartonella currently contains over 30 species of Gram-negative bacteria that parasitize mammalian erythrocytes and endothelial cells. Bartonella spp. have been isolated from a variety of mammal species, most often from rodents, ruminants and carnivores, and these animals are implicated as reservoirs for the genus Bartonella. The persistent bacteriemia is more readily documented in the primary reservoir species and may occur less frequently or to a much lower lever in accidental hosts. In the natural host, clinical manifestations of the infection may be minimal or unrecognizable. Several insects have been implicated in Bartonella transmission, including flies and ticks. The reservoir host and vector varying depending on the Bartonella species involved, although, neither the reservoir, nor the vector has been identified definitively for many recently described Bartonella species. Humans are natural reservoir hosts for two species: Bartonella bacilliformis and Bartonella quintana, but many animal-associated Bartonella can also cause disease in humans. Members of the genus Bartonella are involved in a variety of human diseases, such as Carrion's disease, cat scratch disease, trench fever, bacillary angiomatosis, endocarditis, pericarditis and neuroretinitis. Most cases of bartonellosis are now diagnosed by tests based on PCR or through serological tests using specific antigens.

During the years 2004-2006 the parasitological autopsies of three species of fish: roach Rutilus rutilus (L.), bream Abramis brama (L.) and perch Perca fluviatilis L. from three lakes situated in warmińsko-mazurskie voivodeship were done. The aim of this study was comparable analysis of Metazoan parasite communities which occur in roach, bream and perch in three lakes of river Łyna watershed. These lakes differ by physical (size, depth, eutrophication degree) and biological factors (composition of free-living organisms). The studies showed some relationships between size of fishes and the frequency of some parasite species as well as some relationships in seasonal dynamic of occurrence and maturation of ecto- and endoparasites, which were connected with temperature--main factor regulating processes of fish colonization by parasites and future development of parasites. In quantitative and qualitative analysis of fish parasite community structure the following indexes were used: species richness (S), species diversity of Shannon-Weaver (H'), species diversity of Brillouin (HB) and index of domination Berger-Parker (D). Studies showed that the main indexes of communities structure which indicating on occurring differences between lakes were indexes of diversity component communities and infracommunities and also index of dominance. Communities of monogeneans (roaches and breams) can be use as indicators of water environment. Apart from communities of gills parasites also alfamesotrophic lake Łańskie and eutrophic Mielno lake were differenced by eyes parasites and allogenic community of bream parasites and by intestinal parasites of roach.

Tetrazolium salts are widely used as indicators of metabolic activity for both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Live cells reduce the tetrazole ring in MTT or XTT salts and then a colored formazane formed can be assessed spectrophotometrically. Despite widespread use of MTT/XTT reduction tests biochemical mechanisms of the reaction are still unknown, and each test application case requires standardization of experimental conditions. In the present study we tested in vitro the utility of both MTT and XTT salts to determine the influence of selected extracellular agents for T. gondii tachyzoites and their host cells (i.e. mouse L929 fibroblasts). The results showed that MTT is reduced more intensively than XTT by host and parasite cells. The attenuation of T. gondii tachyzoites resulted in a decrease of reduction level of both tetrazolium salts, particularly of XTT. Using MTT we found also that T. gondii is not susceptible to extremely toxic substance, sodium azide. Our results confirmed a high usefulness of MTT reduction tests in numerous studies on eukaryotic cells.

An investigation aimed to check the influence of Taenia taeniaeformis larvae on morphometrical parameters of muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) was carried. A total of 30 animals were hunted down in upper Vistula river basin in south Poland, then measured, weighed and dissected. Statistical comparison were done using U Mann-Whitney test. T. taeniaeformis larvae--cysticercus fasciolaris was found in the liver of 24 muskrats (80%). Significant differences between infected and non infected animals are reported, as regards their body mass, total length, abdomen circumference (p < 0.01) and also in body length (total minus tail length), head length, or chest and neck circumference (p < 0.05). The effect of infection on both muskrat condition and the presence of adult cestodes in definitive hosts are discussed.

Introduction of the host is the main reason behind introduction of the parasite, e. g., nematodes. The introduction of the Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) in Europe in the 1980s resulted in expansion of the swimbladder nematode Anguillicola crassus which soon invaded not only populations of the European eel (A. anguilla), but also other local fish. The raccoon (Procyon lotor) is native to North America. It is the specific host of Strongyloides procyonis and Baylisascaris procyonis. More than 90 species of wild and domestical bird and mammal species, including humans, have been infected with B. procyonis larvae. The larvae enter various organs of paratenic hosts, particularly the central nervous system and eye, causing severe diseases and death. Asthworthius sidemi--a blood-succking, abomasal nematode, a specific parasite of the Asiatic sika deer (Cervus nippon) and sambar deer (C. unicolor)--was first introduced with its hosts into countries adjacent to Poland. A. sidemi is especially dangerous to the European bison (Bison bonasus) which is its new host. The bison populations, in both Białowieza Primaeval Forest and the Bieszczady Mts, sometimes show a 100% prevalence and mass infection intensity. Imported animals, sold in pet shops or available from private breeding firms, often carry non-native parasites. For example, the red-eared tortoise (Trachemys scripta elegans) and Afgan tortoise (Agrionemys horsfieldii) carry nematodes Angusticaecum holopterum, Tachygonetria lobata and T. robusta. Migratory birds in their wintering grounds are often infected with parasites which are usually not constant components of the native fauna, but sometimes nematodes could find a suitable conditions to complete their life cycle. E.g. Cyathosoma microspiculum, species specific to cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) and previously recorded only from Asia and the Asian-European boudary, was able complete the life cycle in Poland. The increasingly frequent travels to countries with different climatic conditions contribute to introduction of non-native nematodes: Dirofilaria immitis--in dogs, D. repens or Ancylostoma brasiliense--in humans.

Elaphostrongylus cervi is a parasite of the family Protostrongylidae, occurring in cervids in Eurasia. This nematode has hitherto been recorded in some woodland areas in Poland. The current distribution of E. cervi in Poland was studied in the frames of the presently reported thesis. The above-mentioned nematode was found in deer in eight additional voivodeships, and in all thirteen forest management units examined. The prevalence values ranged from 66.7% to 100%. The above facts justify the statement that that E. cervi is a common parasite species in Poland. The dynamics of the larval shedding (L I) by deer was monitored and it turned out that there were two peaks--the first in February and the second in December. The identity of the intermediate hosts--terrestrial snails--has been established, as well as the prevalence and the infection intensity of their natural infections. The intermediate hosts of E. cervi are Succinea putris, Bradybena fruticum, Perforatella bidens, and Zonitoides nitidus. It was determined that the prevalence of snails, S. putris, infected with E. cervi larvae maintained a constant level from June to August and it decreased in September and October. Snails, B. fruticum, showed the highest prevalence in July--and it decreased in subsequent months. In the case of P. bidens the prevalence of E. cervi infection was the lowest in August, and than it increased, to reach the highest value in October. The prevalence of spontaneous infections of different snail species ranged from 7.6% to 20.6%. For the first time the highest prevalence of spontaneous infection was found in P. bidens. Till now the most infected species of snail has always been S. putris. The highest intensity of infection--242 larvae--was found in B. fruticum, and little lower--202 in S. putris. In two other species the intensity ranged from 1 to 23 larvae. The most significant role in spreading of E. cervi in the Białowieza Forest is performed by S. putris and B. fruticum, because of their high abundance and P. bidens, because of their highest infection intensity. Also the penetration of the first stage larvae of E. cervi into the intermediate host and their development there throughout the third infective stage were studied. The first stage larvae of E. cervi enter the body of snail through the muscle of foot. The period of their development to the second stage is 7 to 9 days, and to the third stage is 21 to 28 days. E. cervi is a parasite that under intensive infections is very dangerous for domestic ruminants in which in evokes neurological symptoms or even death. Because huge numbers of E. cervi larvae are shed by dear into the environment, homeothermic vertebrates, birds and wild boars can accidentally infect themselves with infective larvae of this parasite. To explain the course of such infections, fish, chickens, and Vietnamese pigs were experimentally infected. In fish and chickens the infective larvae of E. cervi were not able to cross the intestinal barrier, arrested their development, and were digested. Infected pigs produced no clinical symptoms of the infection. In those animals larvae were retained in mesenteric lymphatic nodes and were not able to cross the mesenteric barrier. None of the experimentally infected animals became paratenic hosts and their meat poses no threat to human health.

In the of period 2003-2007, a total of 382 specimens of reptiles belonging to the following genera were investigated: Testudo, Iguana, Varanus, Gongylophis, Python, Spalerosophis, Psammophis. The material for the present study was a collection of reptiles owned by the "Animals" Ltd from Swietochłowice (Upper Silesia, Poland), specialising in import of exotic animals to Poland, as well as the reptile collections of private breeders. The reptiles that turned out to be the most heavily infected with ticks were the commonly bred terrarium reptiles: Varanus exanthematicus and Python regius and they were imported to Poland from Ghana, Africa. Exotic reptiles are also imported from Southern Europe, Asia and Central America. The presently reported study helped to confirm the fact of transfer of exotic ticks on reptiles to Poland. A total of 2104 tick specimens, representing all stages of development (males, females, nymphs, larvae), were collected. They represented species of the genera Amblyomma and Hyalomma. The following species were found: Amblyomma exornatum Koch, 1844, Amblyomma flavomaculatum (Lucas, 1846), Amblyomma latum Koch, 1844, Amblyomma nuttalli Dönitz, 1909, Amblyomma quadricavum Schulze, 1941, Amblyomma transversale (Lucas, 1844), Amblyomma varanense (Supino, 1897), Amblyomma spp. Koch, 1844, Hyalomma aegyptium (Linnaeus, 1758). All the species of ticks of genus Ambylomma revealed have been discovered in Poland for the first time. The overall prevalence of infection was 77.6%. The highest prevalence value (81.2%) was observed on pythons (Python regius) and (78.7%) on monitor lizards (Varanus exanthematicus). The highest number of ticks was collected from Python regius and Varanus exanthematicus. The mean infection intensity for V. exanthematicus was 7.6 ticks per host, while for P. regius the intensity reached 4.7 ticks. The most abundant tick transferred to Poland on a host was an African tick, Amblyomma latum. Fifty eight specimens of monitor lizards (V. salvator and V. exanthematicus) and 92 specimens pythons (P. regius) were examined, with detailed descriptions of where the parasite was feeding on the body of the host. Among the 434 specimens of ticks collected from the monitor lizards, the majority were attached on the host's legs (40.5%), on the trunk (29.3%), on the head (20.3%), with fewest on the tail (9.9%). Also, 430 specimens of ticks were collected from the bodies of pythons. They mostly parasitized along the whole length of the back (54.4%) and on the stomach side of the trunk (29.8%), less frequently in the area of the cloaca (5.6%), around the eyes (3.7%), in the nostril openings (0.9%) and on the remainder of the head (5.6%). On the hosts, ticks were found at different development stages, but adult development stages dominated. The most frequent were males (999 specimens), then adult females (552 specimens), nymphs (508 specimens) and larvae (45 specimens). During the research, 13 cases of anomalies of morphological structure were confirmed for ticks Amblyomma flavomaculatum, Amblyomma latum and Hyalomma aegyptium. Asymmetries and deformations of the general body shape were observed, as were anomalies concerning structures on the surface of the body and anomalies of the legs. For the first time in Poland, epidemiological tests were carried out in the direction of the infection of exotic ticks gathered from reptiles with micro-organisms which pose a threat for the health of people and animals. For this purpose, molecular techniques - polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing were used. The isolates from 345 ticks, were examined for the presence of DNA of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, which is the etiological factor in human granulocytic anaplasmosis, and Rickettsia spp. from the spotted fever group, causing human rickettsiosis. This study confirmed the presence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in two ticks of Amblyomma flavomaculatum (constituting 0.6% of all the ticks investigated) feeding on Varanus exanthematicus. None of the tick specimens, however, contained Rickettsia spp. DNA. The expanding phenomenon of the import of exotic reptiles in Poland and Central Europe is important for parasitological and epidemiological reasons and therefore requires monitoring and wide-ranging prophylactic activities to prevent the inflow of exotic parasites to Poland.

The state of knowledge on the possible antagonism between soil saprotrophic fungi and phytopathogenic nematodes of the genera Meloidogyne, Heterodera, and Globodera is reviewed basing on the literature and our own research. Mycelial colonisation of various developmental stages of these geohelminths is the most common factor thought to reduce their populations in nature. The following parasitic fungi can be found on the cysts, eggs, as well as the larvae of the nematodes: Paecilomyces lilacinus, Verticillium chlamydosporium, Cylindrocarpon destructans, Pochonia chlamydosporia, Fusarium spp., and Penicillium spp. The fungi invade the nematodes, such as Heterodera, Globodera, or Meloidogyne, "passively" penetrating through the natural orifices of the cysts, eggs, and larvae of the host. Equally frequent, however, is a biochemical action of the fungi prior to colonisation, which is linked with production of mycotoxirls or hydrolytic enzymes. Such an active way of fungal penetration of various stages of the phytopathogenic nematodes has been observed in Pochonia chlamydosporia, Penicillium verrucosum var. cyclopium, P. frequentans, Sclerotinia rolfsii, Rhizoctonia solani, and Fusarium spp. Triacylglycerols (TAG), phenols, as well as trichothecene, T-2, have been found in the metabolites extracted from mycelia of these species. Predation by fungi is also a factor that may reduce a population of phytopathogenic nematodes. This form of antagonism is characteristic for nematicidal fungi of the genera Arthrobotrys and Dactylella. These fungi form shrinking rings and hooks in their mycelia by which the fungus entangles and paralyses a migrating form of nematode. Despite the fact that the antagonism between fungi and nematodes is a commonly occurring phenomenon observed in the soil, the nematicidal and nematotoxic properties of fungi have not a wide application in biological plant protection. Up till now, only the bionematicides based on Arthrobotrys robusta (Royal 300 and Royal 350) as well as Paecilomyces lilacinus (Biocon and PL Plus) have found its commercial application.

Elaphostrongylus cervi is a parasite of skeletal muscles and central nervous system of wild and farm red deer in Europe and Asia. Numerous species of terrestrial snails can be its intermediate hosts. Considering the fact that invasive larvae of E. cervi are released by deer to the external environment in huge numbers, fishes and birds can be accidentally infect by them. In this study the development of larvae E. cervi in those nonspecific hosts was discussed. It was determined that invasive larvae of E. cervi in the digestive tract of fish do not penetrate the intestinal wall, do not develop any further, and are probably digested. Similarly, those larvae given to chicken are also incapable of breaking the gut barrier and are digested. In all infected animals, the phenomenon of parathenia has not been observed and the meat of the animals studied poses not threat to humans.

Models relating infection intensity with Anisakis simplex larvae to the fish length and weight were developed and applied to estimate the asymptotic size of herring. Generalized linear models (GLM) were used to analyse the prevalence and intensity of infection as dependent on time and area of sampling and the biological parameters of fish. For the characterization of herring populations in the southern Baltic, two complementary approaches were used: morphometric and meristic analyses to quantify the body shape of herring and the presence of parasites as fish migration tags.

Protozoa from the genus Eimeria belong to the least recognized parasites of the European bison. There are only a few data concerning the infection of the bison by these protozoa in Białowieza Forest. In the winter of 2007/2008 weighting 3 g fecal samples from the rectum of 16 shot bison were examined by flotation method. In 13 of them were found coccidian oocysts from genus Eimeria, which were determined to the species by morphometric study under the microscope. In all 13 positive samples, it is 81.2%, oocysts of Eimeria bovis were found. Intensiveness of this infection oscillated from 1 to 181 and the mean one was 38 oocysts. E. zuernii was found in 9 samples in the mean intensity 19 (1-154) oocysts. E. ellipsoidalis occurred in 3 bison with a very low intensity 1 to 3 oocysts. The most rarely occurred E. canadiensis, only in 2 examined bison in the number of 2 and 3 oocysts. All found coccidian species are the typical parasites of cattle. Białowieza Forest is a new place of occurrence of these parasites. European bison is a new host for E. zuernii.

The aim of the study was the way of penetration of the first stage larvae of Elaphostrongylus cervi to the intermediate host and their development to the invasive stage. The first stage larvae of E. cervi penetrate to the body of a snail by the epithelium of its foot, and localise in tissue of muscles. The period of their development to the second stage is 7 to 9 days, and to the third stage is 21 to 28 days.

The aim of this work was to present alariosis--a newly diagnosed parasitic disease caused by a trematode Alaria alata. A. alata requires two intermediate hosts: a snail and a frog. Carnivorous mammals are definitive hosts. Humans and a number vertebrates can be paratenic hosts. The pathological consequences of the presence of A. alata in the connective- and muscle tissues, relevant symptoms, and its diagnostic methods have been described. Importance of multiorgans changes inflicted by the parasite have been emphasized. Alariosis may also exist as an ophthalmic disease. As yet no pathognomonic symptoms of this disease have been described. Alariosis is an emerging parasitic disease, difficult in diagnosis and requiring exclusion of other diseases. No serological test for diagnosis of alariosis are available.

The main objective of the present study was to determined the occurrence of Encephalitozoon intestinalis, E. hellem, E. cuniculi, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Poland in animal faecal using the FISH (Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization) and multiplex FISH techniques. Additional objectives included: (1) identification of animal hosts of microsporidia that are infectious to humans amongst free-ranging, captive, livestock and domestic animals; (2) a molecular analysis of randomly selected parasite isolates and determination of their zoonotic potential; (3) evaluation of the role of animals in the dissemination of microsporidia spores in the environment, and an estimation of the potential risk of infection for other animals and humans. A total of 1340 faecal samples collected from 178 species of animals were examined using conventional staining (chromotrope-2R and calcofluor white M2R staining) and molecular techniques (FISH and multiplex FISH techniques). Microsporidian spores were detected in 33 faecal samples (2.5%) obtained from 17 animal species. Microsporidia were demonstrated more often in birds (6.1%) than in mammals (0.7%); the difference was statistically significant (p < 0.00001). In addition, the prevalence of microsporidian infections in waterfowl was significantly higher than the prevalence of microsporidian infections in other animals (p < 0.03). Animal reservoirs of human infectious microsporidia were disclosed in six of 38 sites where faecal samples were taken from animals. Three species of human virulent microsporidia were identified in animals. Spores of E. hellem were found in 25 faecal samples (1.9%) taken from 12 bird species (6 zoo bird species, 4 free-ranging bird species, 2 livestock bird species). Spores of E. intestinalis were identified in five faecal samples (0.4%) taken from two livestock bird species and two zoo mammal species. In turn, E. bieneusi spores were detected only in three faecal samples (0.2%) taken from three zoo mammal species. It was demonstrated that the new hosts of E. hellem are the following bird species: mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos), greyleg goose (Anser anser), mute swan (Cygnus olor), black-necked swan (Cygnus melancoryphus), black swan (Cygnus atratus), coscoroba swan (Coscoroba coscoroba), black-crowned crane (Balearica pavonina), nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica) and carrion crow (Corvus cornix). In addition, E. hellem was found for the first time in birds from the Anseriformes and Gruiformes orders. Whereas E. intestinalis was disclosed for the first time in the domestic goose (Anser anser f. domestica), red ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata rubra) and the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), while the black lemur (Eulemur macaco flavifrons), mongoose lemur (Eulemur mongoz) and the Visayan warty pig (Sus cebifrons negrinus) were first found to carry E. bieneusi. The mammal species that were found to carry E. bieneusi and E. intestinalis are included in The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The results of the present study are significant from an epidemiological point of view. The wild, livestock and zoo animals that were found to carry microsporidia live in different conditions, and thus their role as animal reservoirs for these dangerous pathogens varies. Waterfowl birds may be the main source of contamination of surface waters with E. hellem spores and the protection of surface waters is virtually impossible. Moreover, isolates of E. hellem from mute swans have SSU rRNA sequences identical to E. hellem genotype reported 10 years ago in HIV-positive patient in USA (GenBank Accession no. L19070). This result indicate that E. hellem from mute swans can be a potential source of infection for humans. The contamination of the human environment with microsporidian spores infectious to humans is also facilitated by farm and synanthropic birds, because E. hellem and E. intestinalis were found in farms pigeons, domestic goose and the carrion crow. These birds can also be the source of infectious for breeders and ornithologists. The occurrence of microsporidiosis in animals kept in zoological gardens may constitute a deadly hazard not only for the animals themselves, but also for zoo personnel and visitors. The identification of animal reservoirs of E. hellem, E. intestinalis and E. bieneusi in Poland points to the possibility of infection of humans. The results of the present study have shown that the FISH technique, although time-consuming, is very sensitive, not overly costly and--what is of prime importance--it enables identification of microsporidian species, and therefore should be used for diagnosing microsporidiosis in humans and animals.

Trematodes of the class Digenea are parasites with complex life cycles and often use small mammals as definitive hosts; however, they are usually not highly prevalent in this group of mammals. In our work the patterns of occurrence of digeneans parasitizing small mammals were analyzed. The surveys were conducted at four locations, i.e., irrigation fields (Osobowice), a water distribution area (Mokry Dwor), recreational grounds (Redzin forest), and Nature Reserve "Stawy Milickie". Overall 894 rodents were examined. During investigation we identified flukes representing the following species and groups: Brachylaima recurva, Brachylecithum glareoli, Echinostomatinae sp., and Plagiorchis elegans. The digeneans were reported from all studied locations and were present in Apodemus agrarius, A. flavicollis and Myodes glareolus. The statistical analysis showed significant qualitative and quantitative differences in infections with digeneans among examined animals. The highest prevalence of infection with flukes was reported in A. agrarius (28.8%) with the maximum value--78.2% in the Nature Reserve "Stawy Milickie"; only at this location the co-infection with three and two trematode species were found. The differences in occurrence of Brachylaima sp., Echinostomatinae sp., and Plagiorchis sp. found in ,,Stawy Milickie" were not statistically significant; the flukes occupied the small intestine of A. agrarius at the same frequency. For comparison, digenetic trematode infection in the yellow necked mouse Apodemus flavicollis was dramatically lower (overall prevalence 2.8%) than in the striped field mouse A. agrarius, and flukes were reported only in Mokry Dwor (5.1%) and Milicz (5.9%). The bank voles Myodes glareolus were infected with two trematode species, i.e., Plagiorchis elegans (1.3%), and Brachylecithum glareoli (19.2%), and these parasites were reported only in the water distribution area. Aside from two accidental reports of dicrocoeliid trematodes found in Osobowice, Brachylecithum glareoli was reported mainly in bank voles M. glareolus collected from Mokry Dwor, which could indicate both host and site specificity for this species. Our results showed that the food habits of hosts species and site-specific conditions could be taken into consideration as potential factors affecting the trematode fauna of rodents.

The soils ecosystem plays an important role in the epidemiology of geohelminth diseases of humans and animals. Soil contamination with ova of the parasitic geohelminths represents a global public health-hazard issue. Biological agents have been thought to control the infective forms of parasites present in the soil. Biocontrol of geohelminths represents an alternative to pesticides (i.e., nematicides), which are not efficient in killing infective nematode forms and, additionally, result in the environment pollution and long-term disturbances in the soil ecosystem homeostasis. The degree of the inhibiting effect of soil saprotrophic fungi on geohelminth embryonic development varies and depends on the species. A number of fungi cause various morphological disorders in the embryos of developing parasitic nematodes, but also have an ovicidal effect. Although the nature of the antagonism between fungi and other living organisms has not been fully explained, it is certain that mycotoxins and fungal enzymes constitute its important components. Considering the studies carried out so far, the antagonistic effect of mold fungi against the infective stages of geohelminths can be fully recommended as a real control factor, especially as these saprotrophs represent a natural factor within the soil environment, that is of particular biochemical activity.

Legionella are widespread in natural aquatic environments and are able to exist in water of different temperatures, pH level, and nutrient and oxygen content. Their occurrence in nature can be attributed to their relationships with other microorganisms. When Legionella co-exist with algae and other bacteria, especially in biofilms, the availability of nutrients increases. They also are able to infect protozoa and subsequently reproduce within these organisms. As a result of these relationships, Legionella are protected against adverse conditions, including standard water disinfection techniques. Consequently, they are also prevalent in anthropogenic water such as drinking water, whirlpools, and cooling tower reservoirs. Aerosol-generating systems aid in the transmission of Legionella from water to the air. Human inhalation of contaminated aerosols leads to Legionella infection and disease outbreaks. Legionellosis in humans has typically been characterized as either a potentially fatal pneumonic condition, known as Legionnaires' disease, or an acute, self-limiting, non-pneumonic condition known as Pontiac fever. In addition, Legionella spp. cause extrapulmonary infection, especially in immunosuppressed patients. Timely treatment of Legionnaires' disease is extremely important for the patient's recovery. Although erythromycin has historically been used to treat patients with Legionnaires' disease, newer macrolides and fluoroquinolones are gaining acceptance as the first choice for treatment. Although 52 species of Legionella are known, Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 is responsible for more than 80% of hospital- and community-acquired cases of Legionnaires' disease.

The aim of the article is to present trophic types (i.e non-systematic groups feeding on the same kind of food) of the nematodes. Seven trophic types (covering all known species) are described: (1) microbivores (nematodes feeding on unicellular microorganisms) with two examples: C. elegans and the nematodes of two families: Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae, (2) parasites of Vertebrates, (3) parasites of Invertebrates with example of the family Acugutturidae, (4) parasites of plants with two examples: Tylenchorhynchus dubius and Heterodera schachtii, (5) parasites of fungi, (6) predatory nematodes, (7) omnivores (nematodes feeding on different kinds of food). Basic information on the anatomy of the alimentary canal and feeding behaviour of the nematodes are also provided.

Nematodes, which are the most diverse group of helminths in many aspects, constitute a good model for analysis of specificity. Among this group, we found monoxenous and stenoxenous species with a limited range of hosts and also oligoxenous and polyxenous species with a wide range of hosts. Order Oxyurida is represented mainly by monoxenous and stenoxenous species. The species from orders Strongylida, Spirurida and Ascaridida are characterized by all types of specificity while oligoxenous and polyxenous species are typical for capillariid nematodes (Enoplida). But some data show that the level of specificity is more determined by biology and ecology of host-parasite relationship than by taxonomic status.

This paper presents the distribution of Monogenea among Polish fish and amphibians as well as their location on the host body. Out of 127 Monogenea species recorded in Poland, 126 were found in fish, and only one in amphibians. Dactylogyridae were found in 3, Diplozoidae in 2, whereas Ancyrocephalidae in 6, and Gyrodactylidae in 9 fish families. Most Monogenea are closely attached to their location (topospecificity). Some species of fish parasites are found on gills, where they may occupy various microhabitats, while others (especially Gyrodactylidae) were found on fins, skin, gills, and rarely in the oral or nasal cavity.

In 2003-2008 eight white-tailed eagles and two ospreys from middle and north-western Poland were examined for the presence of parasites. Nine birds were infected with 5 digenean species: Conodiplostomum perlatum, Paracoenogonimus ovatus, Strigeafalconis, Metorchis crassiusculus and Nematostrigea serpens. M. crassiusculus was found for the first time in an eagle from Poland.

The presently reported study on cestodofauna of wild Anatinae of north-western Poland showed the presence of at least a dozen or so cestodes, hitherto unrecorded in Polish fauna. One of them is Microsomacanthus oidemiae Spassky et Jurpalova, 1964 (Hymenolepididae). This parasite (two not fully developed individuals, including one without a scolex) was found in the common scoter, Melanitta nigra L., (Mergini) wintering on Lake Dabie near Szczecin.

During standard parasitological studies of the tufted duck Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus, 1758), obtained from fishermen from West Pomerania, three cestode specimens were found in the jejunum of hosts. They were determined as Retinometra pittalugai (Lopez-Neyra, 1932) on the basis of the cirrus's size, shape of stylet and rostellar hooks. This is the first record of this species in Poland, since this parasite was earlier recorded only in Anas platyrhynchos f. dom., Aythya marila, A. ferina and Bucephala clangula in Spain, in Kamchatka and in Novosibirsk.

Antarctic fishes are represented by sharks, skates (Chondrichthyes) and bony fishes (Teleostei). Teleosts play an important role in the completion of life cycles of many helminth species. They serve as either definitive or intermediate and paratenic hosts. Chondrichthyes are definitive hosts only. Seventy three helminth species occur as the adult stage in fishes: Digenea (45), Cestoda (14), Nematoda (6), Acanthocephala (8), Also, 11 larval stages of Cestoda (7) and Nematoda (4) are known, together with 7 species of Acanthocephala in the cystacanth stage. One digenean species, Otodistomum cestoides, matures in skates. Among cestodes maturing in fishes only one, Parabothriocephalus johnstoni, occurs in a bony fish, Macrourus whitsoni. Antarctic Chondrichthyes are not infected with nematodes and acanthocephalans. Cestode larvae from teleosts belong to Tetraphyllidea (parasites of skates), and Tetrabothriidae and Diphyllobothriidae (parasites of birds and mammals). Larval nematodes represent Anisakidae, parasites of fishes, birds and mammals. Acanthocephalan cystacanths mature in pinnipeds and birds. The majority of parasites maturing in Antarctic fishes are endemics. Only 4 digenean and one nematode species, Hysterothylacium aduncum, are cosmopolitan. All acanthocephalans, almost all digeneans, the majority of cestodes and some nematodes occur mainly or exclusively in benthic fishes. Specificity of the majority of helminths utilizing teleosts as intermediate and/or paratenic hosts is low. Among parasites using fishes as definitive hosts, all Cestoda, most Digenea and Nematoda, and almost all Acanthocephala have a range of hosts restricted to one order or even to 1-2 host species.

The study were carried out in the years 2006-2007 on 57 semi-free living hares. The faeces of these animals were examined by the flotation and McMaster methods. All hares were infected with coccidia. Following six Eimeria species were found: E. leporis, E. europaea, E. robertsoni, E. semisculpta, E. townsendi and E. hungarica. The invasion of the species E. leporis, E. europaea and E. robertsoni were characterized of the highest intensity. A low infection of two nematodes genera Trichostrongylus and Graphidium were found too. The study will be continued in the year 2008.

Echinococcus multilocularis, a tiny tapeworm (2-3 mm in length) occurs in the small intestine of red foxes and raccoon dogs in Poland. Small rodents, intermediate hosts of the tapeworm can ingest parasite eggs excreted in faeces by final host. Humans can become infected by accidental ingestion of the eggs. The resulting disease, alveolar echinococcosis, potentially lethal zoonosis, typically presents as an infiltrative tumor-like growth in the liver, which may invade neighbouring organs. The objective of the study was to determine intermediate host species for E. multilocularis in Poland. During the years 2004-2006, a total of 1425 animals, i.e. 1170 rodents (14 species), 238 insectivores (4 species) and 17 Mustelids (3 species) were trapped and autopsied for the presence of E. multilocularis protoscolices (larvae). Animals were captured in northern, north-eastern, central and southern Poland, areas where the high prevalence of the tapeworm was recorded in foxes. In 44 (3.1%) of examined animals were found cysts in the liver, however no typical lesions were affirmed. Infection was not confirmed using PCR technique with primers specific for E. multilocularis (EmCA90, EmTriple83).

Paratenic hosts, especially of nematodes, play a major role in spreading many parasite species. The phenomenon of "paratenic parasitism" is illustrated by examples of development of Syngamus trachea and Proteocephalus longicollis. Moravec introduced a concept of "natural paratenic host" for P. longicollis infecting common sculpion, Cottus gobio, in Europe. According to Kennedy, paratenic host richness of Anguillicola crassus is an adaptation to new environmental conditions. New studies, involving laboratorial experiments, have shown that the nematodes parasitizing fishes, with a single intermediate host in their life cycles, acquired numerous paratenic hosts. It also evident that a paratenic host can be present or absent in the life cycles of related (congeneric) parasite species (Bothriocephalus gregarious and B. barbatus; Halipegus occidentalis and H. ovocaudatus; Dracunculus insignis and D. medinensis). Sometimes infective larvae of parasites are reported in accidental hosts, which do not occur in the food chain of the definitive host. Paratenic host is more an ecological than a physiological phenomenon in the transmission of helminths. Under extreme environmental conditions the transmission of parasites is faciliated mainly by paratenic hosts (e.g., Toxascaris leonina or Toxocara sp. occurring in zoological gardens where sanitation is rigorously observed).

Parasitic nematodes very rarely exist in birds that are completely or predominantly herbivorous. The investigation of the helminth fauna of Passeriformes in the region of Lower Silesia revealed new hosts for some nematode species. We found in Acrocephalus scirpaceus--Acuaria subula and Microtetrameres inermis; in Fringilla coelebs and in Luscinia megarhynchos--Dispharynx nasuta; in Passer montanus--Capillaria angusta; in Phylloscopus trochiloides--Acuaria subula as well in Phylloscopus collybita--Microtetrameres sp. These nematodes have not been so far reported from these bird species.

In 2000 and 2006 a total of 20 divers including 15 Gavia stellata and 5 Gavia artica from Pomeranian Bay and Szczecin Lagoon were examined. G. stellata were found to be infected with 3 digenean species: Stephanoprora pseudoechinata (Olsson, 1876), Cryptocotyle concava (Creplin, 1825) and Diplostomum gavium (Guberlet, 1922). G. arctica were host to Echinochasmus spinulosus (Rudolphi, 1809). This is the first record of Stephanoprora pseudoechinata in G. stellata and Echinochasmus spinulosus in G. arctica in Poland. The prevalence of S. pseudoechinata infection (46.7%) was higher than that of other digeneans.

Background: Ixodes ricinus tick species is the most common tick in Poland and is the primary vector of many pathogens. The aim of this study was to determine the infestation of three species of game animals: roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) from forest area of north-western Poland., Material and Methods: Examined ticks have been collected from roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa)., Results: Single specimen of roe deer harboured from 1 to 9 ticks (mean value 3,6), red deer - from 1 to 8 ticks (mean value 4,4) and wild boar - from 1 to 3 ticks (mean value 2,3). Prevalence of ticks at roe deer was 44,2%, red deer - 40 % and wild boar - 6%. Statistical analysis revealed that difference in tick prevalence between roe deer and red deer is not significant in contrast to difference between roe deer and wild boar and between red deer and wild boar, so, most likely, prevalence of tickborne pathogens is larger in examined ruminants than in wild boar. Examined species (especially ruminants) play important role in maintaining of tickborne pathogens in a local habitat, not only as a potential reservoir, but also as hosts of I. ricinus ticks.

The study involved a total of 250 wild ducks representing 17 species of three ecologically different tribes: the Anatini (113 individuals), the Aythyini (71), and the Mergini (66). The ducks, obtained mainly from fishermen and hunters, were examined for the presence of parasites, using the generally accepted methods. Analyses of nematode assemblage structure were conducted with methods described in the literature. In addition, significance of differences in intensity of infestation was determined in relation to the hosts' age and sex as grouping variables. Significance of differences in infestation prevalence was tested with the Pearson Chi2 test or its modifications (V-square test, Chi2 test with Yates' correction, and the exact Fisher's test), while the Mann-Whitney U test was applied to infestation intensity and relative density. Similarity coefficients were ordered using the cluster analysis module of the STATISTICA 6.0 computer software; Ward's algorithm was used for grouping, Euclidean distance being applied as the similarity measure. The ducks examined were found to host a highly diverse nematode assemblage, consisting of a total of 22 species representing the following 7 families: Amidostomatidae, Anisakidae, Ascarididae, Tetrameridae, Acuariidae, Dioctophymatidae, and Capillariidae, the core of the assemblage being formed by the following 7 species: Amidostomoides acutum, A. monodon, A. petrovi, Tetrameres fissispina, Echinuria uncinata, Eucoleus contortus, and Capillaria anatis. The assemblage of parasitic nematodes in the ducks examined was found to be characterized by a high organ specificity, as the parasites selected mainly the gizzard and proventriculus as their microhabitats (10 and 8 typical species, respectively) and firmly avoided the duodenum and cloaca. Individual parasite species were observed to show a clear preference with respect to location in the host's alimentary tract, which means that, for a distinct majority of the parasitic species, typical sites could be identified. No significant effects of host's age and sex on nematode infestation parameters could be revealed, although - in certain species - those variables proved of a key importance for their specificity. The nematodes showing a distinct preference towards young birds include E. uncinata and Ingliseria cirrohamata, a still higher specificity being displayed by T fissispina and A. petrovi (selectively parasitising young females) and C. anatis (selective with respect to young males). The species which were more frequently recorded in the ducks aged two years and more, particularly in the adult males, include A. monodon and A. acutum. A clear relationship between the ecology of a host and the structure of its parasitic nematode assemblage was observed. Each of the tribes was distinct in the specific nematofauna of its members, each nematofauna possessing its own well-expressed core. The nematofauna of swimming ducks (Anatini) consisted of 11 species, the core being formed by A. acutum, E. uncinata, T fissispina, and E. contortus. The diving ducks (Aythyini) were found to host 8 nematode species, the core being formed by A. petrovi, T. fissispina, and C. anatis. The nematofauna of the predacious Mergini was found to consist of as many as 17 species, although one of them (A. monodon) was a distinct dominant. The nematode fauna of those birds showed also a relatively high proportion of T. fissispina, the most polyxenic nematode, recorded in 10 host species of all the tribes studied. Although the problem of habitat partitioning between various components of a nematode assemblage could not be unambiguously resolved, it was evident that cases of co-occurrence involved mainly co-invasions at different sections of the alimentary tract of the same host, the strongest relations being found for those species that formed the core of a nematode assemblage. Co-invasions affecting a host's organ concerned almost exclusively representatives of the families Amidostomatidae and Acuariidae in the gizzard and those of the Tetrameridae and Acuariidae in the proventriculus. The similarities between nematofaunas of the ducks studied are only weakly related to the systematic position of the respective ducks; much stronger relationships with ecological characteristics (mainly food type and feeding habits) were revealed. It seems that this is why the nematofauna of Common Goldeneye is much more similar to that of the Aythyini than to that of the Mergini to which the species is taxonomically assigned.

The research included 54 individuals of the goosander Mergus merganser L., 1758 (Anseriformes, Mergini), wintering on Lake Dabie within the administrative limits of Szczecin. Seven species of cestoda from two families were found in those ducks. Two species from the family Diphyllobothriidae were recorded: Ligula intestinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) and Schistocephalus solidus (Müller, 1776), and five species from family Hymenolepididae: Dicranotaenia mergi Yamaguti, 1940, Fimbriaria mergi Grytner-Ziecina et Cielecka, 1995, Microsomacanthus vistulae (Czaplinski, 1960), Retinometra macracanthos (von Linstow, 1877) oraz Tschertkovilepis tenuirostris (Rudolphi, 1819). Founding species Dicranotaenia mergi is the first observation of this type in Poland.

Although the mallard, Anas platyrhynchos, is the most common wild duck in Poland, as well as in the entire Palearctic, it is extremely rarely studied by comprehensive parasitological surveys. The aim of this study was to present a synthesis on the species composition of enteric helminths of the mallard in north-western Poland. The study was carried out in 1999-2006 and involved parasitic worms isolated from the alimentary tracts of 187 mallards (Anseriformes: Anatidae). Following isolation, the parasites were preserved in 70% ethylene and stained (flatworms) or viewed in transient light (nematodes and acanthocephalans). Taxonomic identity of the worms was determined using taxonomic keys and numerous original papers. The studies have revealed that the parasitic community of this host in the north-west part of Poland is relatively complex, composed of 51 species of helminths of four systematic groups: 16 digenean species, 23 tapeworms, 9 nematodes, and 3 acanthocephalans. The material also revealed five new to Polish fauna parasitic species: one trematode (Echinostoma miyagawai) and four tapeworms (Microsomacanthus baeri, M. pachycephala, Monotestilepis tadornae, and Sobolevicanthus aculeostileticus). On the other hand, for another 11 species (Prosthogonimus ovatus, Psilotrema simillimum, Australapatemon minor, Leucochloridiomorpha lutea, Psilostomum brevicolle, Echinocotyle rosseteri, Fimbriarioides sp., Retinometra giranensis, Anisakinae gen. sp., Pseudocapillaria mergi i Polymorphus magnus) the mallard was found to be a new host.

Fragmentation of the environment by natural barriers (lakes, mountain ranges) and human activities (towns, major roads, agriculture) can lead to isolated subpopulations of hosts. The study was carried out in Mazury Lake District in North-East of Poland, the region rich in forests, lakes, rivers and canals, which are able to create passable such barriers. Population of bank voles (Myodes glareolus) and yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis)--dominant woodland rodents--showed local differences in helminth communities in fragmented forest habitat. The sites were chosen on the basis of the similarity of their habitat structure and type, and isolation from one another. The impact of nematode (Heligmosomoididae) infections on co-occurrence and dynamic of Cryptosporidium parvum infection was studied in both rodent species Myodes glareolus (n=781) and Apodemusflavicollis (n=302) from three different habitats. Presented results clearly revealed that natural nematode invasion could facilitate the presence of chronic infections of Cryptosporidium parvum in wild rodent populations. Also, the intrinsic (host sex and year) as well as extrinsic (season and year of study) factors have obvious effect on dynamics of infections with both groups of parasites. However, there are also some evidences that steroids hormones associated with stress and reproduction may mediate trade-offs between physiology and immune function and can affect co-occurrence of both groups of parasites.

This article presents the current state of our knowledge on babesiosis (piroplasmosis), one of the dangerous, invasive disease of humans and animals, transmitted by ticks. It is included among emerging diseases because its spread and significance have increased in recent years. This sickness is caused by intraerythrocytic parasites belonging to the Babesia species and it is a well-known zoonosis occurring in animals; as a human disease it was unknown almost till the first half of the last century. The intensified migration of human population and human interference in a forest biotope caused that number of recognized cases has grown considerably in recent years. Piroplasmosis in dogs is widely spread all over the world and it is caused by several Babesia species. The principal etiological factor of babesiosis in dogs is B. canis, which turned out to be a collective species represented by three subspecies for which the vectors are three different species of ticks. Their geographical extent indicates the endemic areas for this often fatal disease. A technique, the most often applied in the detection of Babesia is a full blood smear stained with Giemsa or Wright method. However, the estimation of the specimen depends to a large extent on the experience of the diagnostician. The immunological and serological methods are characterized with a high specificity and sensitivity but there are patients in which the false negative results have been obtained. Therefore, the traditional methods have been complemented or even ousted by the molecular methods, in which polymerase chain reaction (PCR) brings the biggest profits. However, the standardization of this technique still remains under elaboration. The usefulness of the PCR protocol has been tested with different molecular destinations from which sequences of genes encoding rRNA for small ribosomal subunit are taken into consideration. Within ribosome, the evolutionally conservative areas can be distinguished, i.e. having the nucleotide sequences similar to the majority or all Babesia species and to others closely related to them. Such construction of gene enables designing of starters complementary to conservative sites to PCR, detecting a large group of related organisms. Another molecular marker allowing on the accurate identification of Babesia is gene encoding the beta-tubuline protein. There are two introns within this gene, from which the first one shows a big variability with regard to the length as well as to the nucleotide sequence, therefore, the PCR products show a diverse length depending on the Babesia species. But these differences are too small for some species and, confirming methods that extend time of diagnostics are essential. The other genes which sequences can be used as molecular aim to the detection of DNA and Babesia species diversification are genes encoding the Heat Shock Proteins HSP 70. However, the gene hsp 70 shows a big conservatism of the nucleotide sequence even between the non related organisms; therefore, this method, based on the amplification of whole genome or its fragments, applies mainly in analysis of molecular phylogenetic.

Review paper deals with the historical analysis of intellectual activity of some famous parasitologists working in tropics on malaria in the XIX/XX century: A. Laveran (1845-1922), R. Ross (1857-1932), P. Manson (1844-1922), B. Grassi (1854-1925), and other Nobelprize researchers: P. H. Müller (1899-1965) and J. W. von Jauregg (1857-1940). Those chief investigations are interpreted from the point of view of the so-called anthropology of knowledge based on L. Fleck's (1896-1961) philosophy and sociology of science. Parasitological investigations, especially in the field of malaria, were undertaken in the developed economically countries in answer to the social demands. It was connected with development of colonies and the needs of stabilization of epidemiological situation in tropics. To mid of the eigthies of 19th century the lack of positive effects resulted from the theoretical barriers and conservative thinking style of the European academic society. It caused that great parasitological discoveries of the etiological agents of parasitic diseases (like plasmodia, life cycle in malaria) took place behind university circles. They were done by the physicians - general practitioners--in the colony areas. Doctors A. Laveran, P. Manson and R. Ross were not restricted by traditional standards and the obliging normative concepts in the academic naturalism. Those medical men worked out a new impulse for parasitology and supported an idea based on the rule that each disease should be assigned with the materialistic biological factor (pathogen). In the years 1800-1900 the old and a new concepts were competed in the natural sciences and medicine. Near year 1900 a new way in the context of modern interpretations was brought into general use. It was proved experimentally that etiological theory of parasitic disease was more practically usuful. It resulted in the formation of the effective prophylactic theory as well as the development of research in the field of chemotherapy. For that reason this thinking style was accepted by the state authorities and armies interested in possessing colonies. The governments organized and financed scientific institutes of tropical medicine and the hygienic parasitological journals. Also the researchers (A. Laveran, R. Ross, P. Manson) were rewarded for their epoch-making investigations in tropical disease problems. At the same time the progress in parasitology was prompted and the old theories in old thinking style were eliminated as false because of their practical uselessness. Their followers lost status of authorities. This analysis proved that external factors of science, i.e. social needs in historic periods play real role in the promoting of changes of scientific standards in the perception of new standards. Social needs form the broad social-cultural context of scientific activity and they influence seriously the way of thinking and investigations practice.

Background: Red deer (Cervus elaphus) is one of the most important host of the adult tick (Ixodes ricinus) which is the basic vector of the Lyme disease causative agent--Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in Europe. The aim of the present study was to establish the role of red deer in the transmission of B. burgdorferi s.1. Material and methods. Tissues from 74 red deers were evaluated and the presence of B. burgdorferi s.1 DNA was identified using nested PCR technique based on fla gene. The identification of species belonging to B. burgdorferi s.1 complex was performed after restriction digestion of nested PCR product with Ddel enzyme and sequencing of nested PCR product. The study included also 55 isolates of I. ricinus females removed from red deer and 466 ticks (73 adult and 393 nymphs) collected from the vegetation in the area where the red deer lives., Results: There were no DNA of B. burgdorferi s.1 complex in the red deer tissues and in ticks removed from deer, however in one tick removed from deer the DNA of other Borrelia species--B. miyamotoi was identified. In ticks collected from vegetation 3 species belonging to B. burgdorferi s.1. complex were identified: B. garinii (3.2% ticks studied), B. afzelii (6.9%) and B. valaisiana (3.6%), however DNA of B. miyamotoi was absent. These results confirm inability of survival of B. burgdorferi s.1. species in tick I. ricinus feeding on red deer blood. However there is a possibility of survival of B. miyamotoi in presence of deer blood at least in ticks feeding on red deer. The main role of red deer in keeping the constant infection level of B. burgdorferi s.1. in the whole population of I. ricinus ticks does not concern B. miyamotoi.

Introduction: Since the idea of multifunctional mode of action of anthelmintics is considered and in experimental trichinellosis in vivo albendazole seems to act as an allosteric activator of cytosolic GST from mice muscles, in this study a termosensitivity after in vitro incubation with albendazole of purified commercial cytosolic glutathione transferase (GST) from the rat liver was investigated., Methods: Two extremal temperatures: -80 degrees C and +30 degrees C were used to destroy the dimer in quaternary structure of this enzyme., Results: In control preparations both extremal temperatures destroy this structure, so the Michaelis-Menten kinetic curves of substrate saturation show the typical hyperbolic shape. After a long (15 h) freezing at -80 degrees C or heating (up to 14 h at +30 degrees C) the kinetics of substrate saturation of GST after incubation with albendazole show the sigmoidal or "double sigmoidal" shape, pointing out the quaternary GST structure as a complex of "frozen subunits". Drug inhibits about 6-times the total activity of GST after incubation at +30 degrees C. We conclude that albendazole in vitro influences the structure of cytosolic GST from the rat liver and inhibits its activity, but, in opposite to in vivo study in mouse muscles infected with Trichinella spiralis larvae, does not act as an activator of this enzyme.

A total 89 fish and lamprey species has been recorded from Polish freshwater habitats. Twenty-seven of them (30.3%) have not been surveyed for parasitic helminthes. Some of the latter fishes are either rare or not easily accessible. Other live only in specific habitats in scattered localities. An important obstacle for studying parasite faunas of some fishes may be their status on an endangered species. Among the non-surveyed fishes, are those which have been relatively recently introduced to Poland or migrated there on their own. The present paper attempts to review all hitherto not studied helminthologically fish species, their habitats, localities and current protection status.

Two species of hookworms from genus Uncinaria have been found so far in Poland. Uncinaria stenocephala infects mainly dog, wolf and red fox, whereas Uncinaria criniformis is a parasite of mustelids (but it was also reported from red fox). 19 male and 29 female hookworms from red foxes have been compared with 10 male and 12 female worms from dogs. Hookworms from dogs were generally smaller than these from foxes, but no other morphological differences could be found. These hookworms were qualified to species Uncinaria stenocephala on the ground of morphology of male. Genomic DNA samples have been isolated from these hookworms and segments of rDNA including part of small subunit of ribosomal RNA gene; internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1); 5.8 S ribosomal RNA; internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) and part of large subunit of ribosomal RNA have been amplified and sequenced. Sequences from Uncinaria obtained both from foxes and dogs have shown very high similarity to the sequence of Uncinaria stenocephala, so all examined hookworms have been classified as belonging to this species.

Legionellae are Gram-negative obligate intracellular parasites of unicellular animal organisms, some of which are sometimes able to cause an acute and sever pneumonia in humans. Legionellae, are capable of surviving for long periods in water when between hosts. Their adaptation to these quite diverse environments seems to be accomplished by morphological and biochemical pathway changes. It has been well established that humans coexisted with these bacteria for a long period of time, and it is only recently that our industrial technology provided these organisms with the means of causing infection. This review describes the invasion process and the life cycle of Legionellae in both protozoan and mammalian cells. Our understanding of the infection cycle of Legionellae is primarily based on observations by transmission and scanning EM and by contrast phase and fluorescence microscopy. The identification of virulence determinants by molecular techniques is also discussed. The bacteria enter the host cell mainly by coiling phagocytosis and reside within unique phagosomes which, during the first hours of infection, are isolated from the endosomal pathway. Within the protected vacuole the mature infectious forms of Legionellae convert to replicative forms that no longer express virulence traits. Evidence is provided on how the biogenesis of the replication niche is determined. The virulence factors that arrest phagosome maturation during intracellular replication are also described. The status of our current knowledge on the means by which Legionellae successfully infect the host cells to cause disease is discussed.

In the paper are presented entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) as a vector of bacteria killing insects. Many abiotic and biotic factors influence the survival and the virulence of mentioned organisms. These biological agents of control are used in practice over twenty years. Knowledge about the relationships between EPN-insect-bacteria allow to increase efficacy of treatment used in order to limiting populations of pests. The paper presents a short review of literature data of titled subjects.

Purpose: The present study focused on the effect of two fungal species Metarhizium flavoviride and Metarhizium anisopliae on the embryonic development and viability of Ascaris suum larvae., Results: Microscope examination revealed that the presence of the mycelium inhibited the egg development, compared to control. The fungus-exposed eggs featured zygote vacuolisation, irregular blastomere cleavage, and morphological disturbances in the stages of blastula, gastrula, and larva. The embryopathies were significantly more frequent in the eggs incubated with M. flavoviride. Also the mortality of the developed larvae was significantly higher after 60-day culture with M. flavoviride.

Introduction: The aim of the study was to examine the effect of mould fungi isolated from soil and of two of their metabolites, aflatoxin G1 and ochratoxin A, on the embryonic development of eggs and mortality of larvae of Ascaris suum. An attempt was made to demonstrate synergism between fungi species in the action on embryogenesis of Ascaris suum., Material and Methods: Fungi were isolated from soil and cultured on the standard Czapek-Dox agar medium at 26 degrees C for 60 days. Fertilized eggs of Ascaris suum were incubated in PBS solution with the mycelium of each species or without fungi in the control culture. To demonstrate synergism between fungi species, eggs were cultured with three combinations of two species. Additional cultures were done with aflatoxin G1 and ochratoxin A at concentrations of 0.5, 1, and 2 ppm., Results: Microscopy showed a slower rate of development of eggs from experimental cultures as compared to the control culture. Fungi, as well as mycotoxins, caused vacuolization of the zygote, uneven division of blastomeres, and morphological abnormalities of the embryo. The highest mortality (36%) of invasive larvae of Ascaris suum was caused by Paecylomyces fumosoroseus. The present study revealed that the antagonistic effect of a fungi on the development of Ascaris suum eggs is increased or decreased in the presence of another fungi species. Exposure to aflatoxin G1 and ochratoxin A at concentrations as low as 0.5 ppm leads to a greater percentage of deformed embryos and 100% mortality of larvae.

Plague is an acute bacterial infection caused by Gram negative organism Yersinia pestis. This bacteria is subdivided into three classical biotypes: Orientalis, Medievalis and Antiqua. Plague is transmitted via flea vectors from rodents to humans and by respiratory droplets from animals to humans or humans to humans. This agent is on the top of the CDC list of "Critical Biological Agents"--category A. It appears to be a good candidate agent for a bioterrorist attack. Type III secretion (TTS) is a mechanism by which Y. pestis communicates with eukaryotic cells by injecting bacterial proteins across cellular membranes into the cytosol of these cells. These bacterial proteins take control of the host cells by hijacking their intracellular machinery. A laboratory diagnostics of plague is based on: staining techniques, culture on media, immunochromatography, hemagglutination, immunofluorescence, ELISA, phage tests and genetical techniques including: PCR, multiplex and nested PCR, real time PCR, VNTR, PFGE, ISBF and Microarray.

Ticks are dangerous blood-sucking ectoparasites of medical and veterinary importance. They serve as reservoirs and vectors pathogens and cause direct skin damage by feeding. Tick saliva contains pharmacologically active molecules directed against host's immune system and effector pathways. Ticks feeding induce hosts' inflammatory and immunological reactions of host comprise both innate and acquired immunity.

The article focuses on selected aspects of Toxoplasma gondii penetration into host cells followed by the biogenesis of specialized host cell compartment, parasitophorus vacuole, in which the parasite resides.